Preclinical evaluation of a pulmonary delivered paclitaxel-loaded lipid nanocarrier antitumor effect

Innovative lipid nanoparticles: A cutting-edge approach for potential renal cell carcinoma therapeutics

The kidney plays a crucial role in regulating homeostasis within the human body. Renal cell carcinoma (RCC) is the most common form of kidney cancer, accounting for nearly 90 % of all renal malignancies. Despite the availability of various therapeutic strategies, RCC remains a challenging disease due to its resistance to conventional treatments. Nanotechnology has emerged as a promising field, offering new opportunities in cancer therapeutics. It presents several advantages over traditional methods, enabling diverse biomedical applications, including drug delivery, prevention, diagnosis, and treatment. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs), approximately 100 nm in size, are derived from a range of lipids and other biochemical compounds. these particulates are designed to overcome biological barriers, allowing them to selectively accumulate at diseased target sites for effective therapeutic action. Many pharmaceutically important compounds face challenges such as poor solubility in aqueous solutions, chemical and physiological instability, or toxicity. LNP technology stands out as a promising drug delivery system for bioactive organic compounds. This article reviews the applications of LNPs in RCC treatment and explores their potential clinical translation, identifying the most viable LNPs for medical use. With ongoing advancement in LNP-based anticancer strategies, there is a growing potential to improve the management and treatment of renal cancer.

What is the Reason That the Pharmacological Future of Chemotherapeutics in the Treatment of Lung Cancer Could Be Most Closely Related to Nanostructures? Platinum Drugs in Therapy of Non-Small and Small Cell Lung Cancer and Their Unexpected, Possible Interactions. The Review

Over the course of several decades, anticancer treatment with chemotherapy drugs for lung cancer has not changed significantly. Unfortunately, this treatment prolongs the patient's life only by a few months, causing many side effects in the human body. It has also been proven that drugs such as Cisplatin, Carboplatin, Oxaliplatin and others can react with other substances containing an aromatic ring in which the nitrogen atom has a free electron group in its structure. Thus, such structures may have a competitive effect on the nucleobases of DNA. Therefore, scientists are looking not only for new drugs, but also for new alternative ways of delivering the drug to the cancer site. Nanotechnology seems to be a great hope in this matter. Creating a new nanomedicine would reduce the dose of the drug to an absolute minimum, and thus limit the toxic effect of the drug; it would allow for the exclusion of interactions with competitive compounds with a structure similar to nucleobases; it would also permit using the so-called targeted treatment and bypassing healthy cells; it would allow for the introduction of other treatment options, such as radiotherapy directly to the cancer site; and it would provide diagnostic possibilities. This article is a review that aims to systematize the knowledge regarding the anticancer treatment of lung cancer, but not only. It shows the clear possibility of interactions of chemotherapeutics with compounds competitive to the nitrogenous bases of DNA. It also shows the possibilities of using nanostructures as potential Platinum drug carriers, and proves that nanomedicine can easily become a new medicinal product in personalized medicine.

Formulation of Folate Receptor-Targeted Silibinin-Loaded Inhalable Chitosan Nanoparticles by the QbD Approach for Lung Cancer Targeted Delivery

Aim: Targeted delivery of chemotherapeutics by functionalized nanoparticles exhibits a wonderful prospect for cancer treatment. The main objective of this research was to develop folate receptor-targeted silibinin (SB)-loaded inhalable polymeric nanoparticles (FA-CS-SB-NPs) for the treatment of lung cancer. Method: The qbD approach was implemented to prepare SB-loaded nanoparticles. Folic acid was conjugated by electrostatic conjugation in an optimized batch. The therapeutic potentials of formulations were determined using a lung cancer cell-bearing rat model. Result: Optimized formulation exhibited a spherical surface with a mean particle size of 275 ± 1.20 nm, a PDI of 0.234 ± 0.07, a ζ-potential of 32.50 ± 0.21, an entrapment efficiency of 75.52 ± 0.87%, and a CDR of 63.25 ± 1.21% at 48 h. Aerodynamic behaviors such as the mass median aerodynamic diameter (MMAD) and geometric size distribution (GSD) were found to be 2.75 ± 1.02 and 3.15 ± 0.88 μm, respectively. After 24 h of incubation with FA-CS-SB-NPs, the IC50 value was found to be 24.5 g/mL. FA-SB-CS-NPs maintained a significantly higher deposition of SB in lung tissues. Conclusions: Thus, the noninvasive nature and target specificity of FA-CS-SB-NPs pave the way for pulmonary delivery for treating lung cancer.

A comprehensive review on lipid nanocarrier systems for cancer treatment: fabrication, future prospects and clinical trials

Over the last few decades, cancer has been considered a clinical challenge, being among the leading causes of mortality all over the world. Although many treatment approaches have been developed for cancer, chemotherapy is still the most utilized in the clinical setting. However, the available chemotherapeutics-based treatments have several caveats including their lack of specificity, adverse effects as well as cancer relapse and metastasis which mainly explains the low survival rate of patients. Lipid nanoparticles (LNPs) have been utilized as promising nanocarrier systems for chemotherapeutics to overcome the challenges of the currently applied therapeutic strategies for cancer treatment. Loading chemotherapeutic agent(s) into LNPs improves drug delivery at different aspects including specific targeting of tumours, and enhancing the bioavailability of drugs at the tumour site through selective release of their payload, thus reducing their undesired side effects on healthy cells. This review article delineates an overview of the clinical challenges in many cancer treatments as well as depicts the role of LNPs in achieving optimal therapeutic outcomes. Moreover, the review contains a comprehensive description of the many LNPs categories used as nanocarriers in cancer treatment to date, as well as the potential of LNPs for future applications in other areas of medicine and research.

Nano-Formulations for Pulmonary Delivery: Past, Present, and Future Perspectives

With the development of nanotechnology and confronting the problems of traditional pharmaceutical formulations in treating lung diseases, inhalable nano-formulations have attracted interest. Inhalable nano-formulations for treating lung diseases allow for precise pulmonary drug delivery, overcoming physiological barriers, improving aerosol lung deposition rates, and increasing drug bioavailability. They are expected to solve the difficulties faced in treating lung diseases. However, limited success has been recorded in the industrialization translation of inhalable nano-formulations. Only one relevant product has been approved by the FDA to date, suggesting that there are still many issues to be resolved in the clinical application of inhalable nano-formulations. These systems are characterized by a dependence on inhalation devices, while the adaptability of device formulation is still inconclusive, which is the most important issue impeding translational research. In this review, we categorized various inhalable nano-formulations, summarized the advantages of inhalable nano-formulations over conventional inhalation formulations, and listed the inhalable nano-formulations undergoing clinical studies. We focused on the influence of inhalation devices on nano-formulations and analyzed their adaptability. After extensive analysis of the drug delivery mechanisms, technical processes, and limitations of different inhalation devices, we concluded that vibrating mesh nebulizers might be most suitable for delivering inhalable nano-formulations, and related examples were introduced to validate our view. Finally, we presented the challenges and outlook for future development. We anticipate providing an informative reference for the field.

Pulmonary delivery of nano-particles for lung cancer diagnosis and therapy: Recent advances and future prospects

Although our understanding of lung cancer has significantly improved in the past decade, it is still a disease with a high incidence and mortality rate. The key reason is that the efficacy of the therapeutic drugs is limited, mainly due to insufficient doses of drugs delivered to the lungs. To achieve precise lung cancer diagnosis and treatment, nano-particles (NPs) pulmonary delivery techniques have attracted much attention and facilitate the exploration of the potential of those in inhalable NPs targeting tumor lesions. Since the therapeutic research focusing on pulmonary delivery NPs has rapidly developed and evolved substantially, this review will mainly discuss the current developments of pulmonary delivery NPs for precision lung cancer diagnosis and therapy. This article is categorized under: Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Nanomedicine for Respiratory Disease Therapeutic Approaches and Drug Discovery > Emerging Technologies Diagnostic Tools > In Vivo Nanodiagnostics and Imaging.

Inhaled Medicines for Targeting Non-Small Cell Lung Cancer

Throughout the years, considerable progress has been made in methods for delivering drugs directly to the lungs, which offers enhanced precision in targeting specific lung regions. Currently, for treatment of lung cancer, the prevalent routes for drug administration are oral and parenteral. These methods, while effective, often come with side effects including hair loss, nausea, vomiting, susceptibility to infections, and bleeding. Direct drug delivery to the lungs presents a range of advantages. Notably, it can significantly reduce or even eliminate these side effects and provide more accurate targeting of malignancies. This approach is especially beneficial for treating conditions like lung cancer and various respiratory diseases. However, the journey towards perfecting inhaled drug delivery systems has not been without its challenges, primarily due to the complex structure and functions of the respiratory tract. This comprehensive review will investigate delivery strategies that target lung cancer, specifically focusing on non-small-cell lung cancer (NSCLC)-a predominant variant of lung cancer. Within the scope of this review, active and passive targeting techniques are covered which highlight the roles of advanced tools like nanoparticles and lipid carriers. Furthermore, this review will shed light on the potential synergies of combining inhalation therapy with other treatment approaches, such as chemotherapy and immunotherapy. The goal is to determine how these combinations might amplify therapeutic results, optimizing patient outcomes and overall well-being.

Recent advances in nanoparticle applications in respiratory disorders: a review

Various nanoparticles are used in the discovery of new nanomedicine to overcome the shortages of conventional drugs. Therefore, this article presents a comprehensive and up-to-date review of the effects of nanoparticle-based drugs in the treatment of respiratory disorders, including both basic and clinical studies. Databases, including PubMed, Web of Knowledge, and Scopus, were searched until the end of August 2022 regarding the effect of nanoparticles on respiratory diseases. As a new tool, nanomedicine offered promising applications for the treatment of pulmonary diseases. The basic composition and intrinsic characteristics of nanomaterials showed their effectiveness in treating pulmonary diseases. The efficiency of different nanomedicines has been demonstrated in experimental animal models of asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), pulmonary fibrosis (PF), lung cancer, lung infection, and other lung disorders, confirming their function in the improvement of respiratory disorders. Various types of nanomaterials, such as carbon nanotubes, dendrimers, polymeric nanomaterials, liposomes, quantum dots, and metal and metal oxide nanoparticles, have demonstrated therapeutic effects on respiratory disorders, which may lead to new possible remedies for various respiratory illnesses that could increase drug efficacy and decrease side effects.

Antitumor Effect of Bleomycin Nanoaerosol in Murine Carcinoma Model

Bleomycin, which is widely used as an antitumor agent, possesses serious adverse effects such as pulmonary toxicity. Local nanoaerosol deposition for lung cancer treatment is a promising alternative to drug delivery to lung lesions. The aim of this work is to test the hypothesis that bleomycin nanoaerosol can be effectively used to treat multiple lung metastases. To obtain bleomycin nanoaerosol, an aerosol generator based on electrospray of a solution of a nonvolatile substance with gas-phase neutralization of charged aerosol particles was used. Lung metastases in murine Lewis lung carcinoma and B16 melanoma animal models were counted. The effect of inhaled bleomycin nanoparticles on the number and volume of metastases, as well as pulmonary side effects, was investigated. Using a mouse exposure chamber, the dose-dependent effect of inhaled bleomycin on tumor volume was evaluated in comparison with intraperitoneal administration. Bleomycin nanoaerosol reduced the volume of metastases and produced a higher antitumor effect at much lower doses. It has been established that long-term exposure to nanoaerosol with a low dose of bleomycin is capable of suppressing cancer cell growth. The treatment was well tolerated. In the lungs, minor changes were found in the form of focal-diffuse infiltration of the lung parenchyma.

Solid Lipid Nanoparticles: Multitasking Nano-Carriers for Cancer Treatment

Despite all the advances seen in recent years, the severe adverse effects and low specificity of conventional chemotherapy are still challenging problems regarding cancer treatment. Nanotechnology has helped to address these questions, making important contributions in the oncological field. The use of nanoparticles has allowed the improvement of the therapeutic index of several conventional drugs and facilitates the tumoral accumulation and intracellular delivery of complex biomolecules, such as genetic material. Among the wide range of nanotechnology-based drug delivery systems (nanoDDS), solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) have emerged as promising systems for delivering different types of cargo. Their solid lipid core, at room and body temperature, provides SLNs with higher stability than other formulations. Moreover, SLNs offer other important features, namely the possibility to perform active targeting, sustained and controlled release, and multifunctional therapy. Furthermore, with the possibility to use biocompatible and physiologic materials and easy scale-up and low-cost production methods, SLNs meet the principal requirements of an ideal nanoDDS. The present work aims to summarize the main aspects related to SLNs, including composition, production methods, and administration routes, as well as to show the most recent studies about the use of SLNs for cancer treatment.

A spotlight on alkaloid nanoformulations for the treatment of lung cancer

Numerous naturally available phytochemicals have potential anti-cancer activities due to their vast structural diversity. Alkaloids have been extensively used in cancer treatment, especially lung cancers, among the plant-based compounds. However, their utilization is limited by their poor solubility, low bioavailability, and inadequacies such as lack of specificity to cancer cells and indiscriminate distribution in the tissues. Incorporating the alkaloids into nanoformulations can overcome the said limitations paving the way for effective delivery of the alkaloids to the site of action in sufficient concentrations, which is crucial in tumor targeting. Our review attempts to assess whether alkaloid nanoformulation can be an effective tool in lung cancer therapy. The mechanism of action of each alkaloid having potential is explored in great detail in the review. In general, Alkaloids suppress oncogenesis by modulating several signaling pathways involved in multiplication, cell cycle, and metastasis, making them significant component of many clinical anti-cancerous agents. The review also explores the future prospects of alkaloid nanoformulation in lung cancer. So, in conclusion, alkaloid based nanoformulation will emerge as a potential gamechanger in treating lung cancer in the near future.

Liposomes are Poorly Absorbed via Lung Lymph After Inhaled Administration in Sheep

Enhancing the delivery of therapeutic agents to the lung lymph, including drugs, transfection agents, vaccine antigens and vectors, has the potential to significantly improve the treatment and prevention of a range of lung-related illnesses. One way in which lymphatic delivery can be optimized is via the use of nanomaterial-based carriers, such as liposomes. After inhaled delivery however, there is conflicting information in the literature regarding whether nanomaterials can sufficiently access the lung lymphatics to have a therapeutic benefit, in large part due to a lack of reliable quantitative pharmacokinetic data. The aim of this work was to quantitatively evaluate the pulmonary lymphatic pharmacokinetics of a model nanomaterial-based drug delivery system (HSPC liposomes) in caudal mediastinal lymph duct cannulated sheep after nebulized administration to the lungs. Liposomes were labelled with ³H-phosphatidylcholine to facilitate evaluation of pharmacokinetics and biodistribution in biological samples. While nanomaterials administered to the lungs may access the lymphatics via direct absorption from the airways or after initial uptake by alveolar macrophages, only 0.3 and 0.001% of the ³H-lipid dose was recovered in lung lymph fluid and lymph cell pellets (containing immune cells) respectively over 5 days. This suggests limited lymphatic access of liposomes, despite apparent pulmonary bioavailability of the ³H-lipid being approximately 17%, likely a result of absorption of liberated ³H-lipid after breakdown of the liposome in the presence of lung surfactant. Similarly, biodistribution of ³H in the mediastinal lymph node was insignificant after 5 days. These data suggest that liposomes, that are normally absorbed via the lymphatics after interstitial administration, do not access the lung lymphatics after inhaled administration. Alternate approaches to maximize the lung lymphatic delivery of drugs and other therapeutics need to be identified.

Lymphatic targeting for therapeutic application using nanoparticulate systems

The lymphatic system has grasped attention of researchers to a greater extent. The conventional methods of lymphatic delivery are now being modified to include nanotechnology to enhance the targeting of the drug at the specific pathological site. Scientists have worked successfully on different drug loaded nanocarriers that are modulated for the lymphatic system targeting for the treatment of various fatal diseases. Huge strides have been made in methods of delivery of these drugs either individually or in combination along with nanoparticles, therapeutic genes, and vaccines. However, the products introduced for commercial use are almost near nil. Altogether, there are challenges that need to be resolved and studies that are meant to be done for further improvements. The current review focuses on the understanding and pathophysiology of the lymphatic system and changes that occur during disease, drug characteristics, and physicochemical parameters that influence the lymphatic uptake of drugs and different nanocarriers. We further highlight different potential results obtained over the years with nanocarriers and other delivery methods to effectively target the lymphatic system for their therapeutic application. The challenges and drawbacks governing the lack of products available clinically have also been discussed.

Simultaneous pulmonary administration of celecoxib and naringin using a nebulization-friendly nanoemulsion: A device-targeted delivery for treatment of lung cancer

BACKGROUND

Lung cancer is a principal cause of death worldwide, and its treatment is very challenging. Nebulization offers a promising means of targeting drugs to their site of action in the lung.

RESEARCH DESIGN AND METHODS

In the present study, nebulizable oil in water nanoemulsion formulations were co-loaded with naringin/celecoxib, and tested for pulmonary administration by different nebulizer types.

RESULTS

: The translucent appearance of nanoemulsion formulations was revealed, with particle size (75-106 nm), zeta potential (-3.42 to -4.86 mV), and controlled in-vitro release profiles for both drugs. The nanoemulsions showed favourable stability profiles, and superior cytotoxicity on A549 lung cancer cells. Aerosolization studies on the selected nanoemulsion formulation revealed its high stability during nebulization, with the generation of an aerosol of small volume median diameter, and mass median aerodynamic diameter lower than 5 µm. Moreover, it demonstrated considerable safety and bioaccumulation in lung tissues, in addition to accumulation in the brain, liver and bones which are the main organs to which lung cancer metastasizes.

CONCLUSIONS

Nanoemulsion proved to be a promising nebulizable system, which paves the way for treatment of pulmonary diseases other than lung cancer.

Aerosolizable Lipid-Nanovesicles Encapsulating Voriconazole Effectively Permeate Pulmonary Barriers and Target Lung Cells

The entire world has recently been witnessing an unprecedented upsurge in microbial lung infections. The major challenge encountered in treating the same is to ensure the optimum drug availability at the infected site. Aerosolization of antimicrobials, in this regard, has shown immense potential owing to their localized and targeted effect. Efforts, therefore, have been undertaken to systematically develop lung-phosphatidylcholine-based lipid nanovesicles of voriconazole for potential management of the superinfections like aspergillosis. LNVs, prepared by thin-film hydration method, exhibited a globule size of 145.4 ± 19.5 nm, polydispersity index of 0.154 ± 0.104 and entrapment efficiency of 71.4 ± 2.2% with improved in vitro antifungal activity. Aerodynamic studies revealed a microdroplet size of ≤5 μm, thereby unraveling its promise to target the physical barrier of lungs effectively. The surface-active potential of LNVs, demonstrated through Langmuir-Blodgett troughs, indicated their ability to overcome the biochemical pulmonary surfactant monolayer barrier, while the safety and uptake studies on airway-epithelial cells signified their immense potential to permeate the cellular barrier of lungs. The pharmacokinetic studies showed marked improvement in the retention profile of voriconazole in lungs following LNVs nebulization compared to pristine voriconazole. Overall, LNVs proved to be safe and effective delivery systems, delineating their distinct potential to efficiently target the respiratory fungal infections.

Harnessing biomaterials for lymphatic system modulation

The lymphatic system plays an integral part in regulating immune cell trafficking and the transport of macromolecules. However, its influence on disease progression and drug uptake is understood less than that of the vascular system. To bridge this knowledge gap, biomaterials can be used to investigate the lymphatic system and to provide novel understanding into complex disease processes, including cancer metastasis and inflammation. Insight gained from these mechanistic studies can be further used to design innovative biomaterials to modulate the immune system, improve drug delivery, and promote tissue regeneration. This review article focuses on recent advances in (i) biomaterials used for lymphatic vessel formation, (ii) models for studying lymphatic-immune cells interactions, (iii) pharmaceuticals and their interactions with the lymphatic system, (iv) and strategies for drug delivery via the lymphatic system. Finally, several challenges regarding adopting biomaterials for immunomodulation and future perspectives are discussed. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: The lymphatic system plays an integral part in regulating immune cell trafficking and the transport of macromolecules. However, its influence on disease progression and drug uptake is understood less than that of the vascular system. This review article focuses on recent progresses in biomaterials to investigate the lymphatic system and to provide novel understanding into complex disease states. Insight gained from these mechanistic studies can be further used to design innovative biomaterials to modulate the immune system, improve drug delivery, and promote tissue regeneration. Finally, a number of challenges in adopting biomaterials for immunomodulation and future perspectives are discussed.

Quality by design (QbD) in the formulation and optimization of liquid crystalline nanoparticles (LCNPs): A risk based industrial approach

The intersection of lipid-based nanoparticles and lyotropic liquid crystals has provided a novel type of nanocarrier system known as 'lipid-based lyotropic liquid crystals' or 'liquid crystalline nanoparticles' (LCNPs). The unique advantages and immense popularity of LCNPs can be exploited in a better way if the formulation of LCNPs is done using the approach of quality by design (QbD). QbD is a systematic method that can be utilized in formulation development. When QbD is applied to LCNPs formulation, it will proffer many unique advantages, such as better product and process understanding, the flexibility of process within the design space, implementation of more effective and efficient control strategies, easy transfer from bench to bedside, and more robust product. In this work, the application of QbD in the formulation of LCNPs has been explored. The elements of QbD, viz. quality target product profile, critical quality attributes, critical material attributes, critical process parameters, quality risk management, design of experiments, and control strategy for the development of LCNPs have been explained in-depth with case studies. The present work will help the reader to understand the nitty-gritties in the application of QbD in the formulation of LCNPs, and provide a base for QbD-driven formulation of LCNPs with a regulatory perspective.

Application of nanotechnology in drug delivery systems for respiratory diseases (Review)

Respiratory disease is a common disease with a high incidence worldwide, which is a serious threat to human health, and is considered a societal and economic burden. The application of nanotechnology in drug delivery systems has created new treatments for respiratory diseases. Within this context, the present review systematically introduced the physicochemical properties of nanoparticles (NPs); reviewed the current research status of different nanocarriers in the treatment of respiratory diseases, including liposomes, solid lipid nanocarriers, polymeric nanocarriers, dendrimers, inorganic nanocarriers and protein nanocarriers; and discussed the main advantages and limitations of therapeutic nanomedicine in this field. The application of nanotechnology overcomes drug inherent deficiencies to a certain extent, and provides unlimited potential for the development of drugs to treat respiratory diseases. However, most of the related research work is in the preclinical experimental stage and safety assessment is still a challenging task. Future studies are needed to focus on the performance modification, molecular mechanism and potential toxicity of therapeutic nanomedicine.

Formulation and clinical perspectives of inhalation-based nanocarrier delivery: a new archetype in lung cancer treatment

Despite tremendous research in targeted delivery and specific molecular inhibitors (gene delivery), cytotoxic drug delivery through inhalation has been seen as a core part in the treatment of the lung cancer. Inhalation delivery provides a high dose of the drug directly to the lungs without affecting other body organs, increasing the therapeutic ratio. This article reviews the research performed over the last several decades regarding inhalation delivery of various cancer therapeutics for the treatment of lung cancer. Nevertheless, pulmonary administration of nanocarrier-based cancer therapeutics for lung cancer therapy is still in its infancy and faces greater than expected challenges. This article focuses on the current inhalable nanocarrier-based drugs for lung cancer treatment.

Recent advances in drug delivery applications of cubosomes, hexosomes, and solid lipid nanoparticles

The use of lipid nanocarriers for drug delivery applications is an active research area, and a great interest has particularly been shown in the past two decades. Among different lipid nanocarriers, ISAsomes (Internally self-assembled somes or particles), including cubosomes and hexosomes, and solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNs) have unique structural features, making them attractive as nanocarriers for drug delivery. In this contribution, we focus exclusively on recent advances in formation and characterization of ISAsomes, mainly cubosomes and hexosomes, and their use as versatile nanocarriers for different drug delivery applications. Additionally, the advantages of SLNs and their application in oral and pulmonary drug delivery are discussed with focus on the biological fates of these lipid nanocarriers in vivo. Despite the demonstrated advantages in in vitro and in vivo evaluations including preclinical studies, further investigations on improved understanding of the interactions of these nanoparticles with biological fluids and tissues of the target sites is necessary for efficient designing of drug nanocarriers and exploring potential clinical applications.

Present Situation and Future Progress of Inhaled Lung Cancer Therapy: Necessity of Inhaled Formulations with Drug Delivery Functions

Inhaled lung cancer therapy is promising because of direct and noninvasive drug delivery to the lungs with low potential for severe systemic toxicity. Thus chemotherapeutic drugs have been administered clinically by nebulization of solution or suspension formulations, which demonstrated their limited pulmonary absorption and relatively mild systemic toxicity. In all these clinical trials, however, there was no obviously superior anticancer efficacy in lung cancer patients even at the maximum doses of drugs limited by pulmonary toxicity. Therefore methods that deliver both higher anticancer efficacy and lower pulmonary toxicity are strongly desired. In addition to the worldwide availability of pressured metered dose inhalers (pMDIs) and dry powder inhalers (DPIs) to treat local respiratory diseases, recent innovations in medicines and technologies are encouraging next steps toward effective inhaled lung cancer therapy with new therapeutic or drug delivery concepts. These include the discovery of target cells/molecules and drug candidates for novel cancer therapy, the development of high-performance inhalation devices for effective pulmonary drug delivery, and the establishment of manufacturing technologies for functional nanoparticles/microparticles. This review highlights the present situation and future progress of inhaled drugs for lung cancer therapy, including an overview of available inhalation devices, pharmacokinetics, and outcomes in clinical trials so far and some novel formulation strategies based on drug delivery systems to achieve enhanced anticancer efficacy and attenuated pulmonary toxicity.

Aerosol Delivery of Paclitaxel-Containing Self-Assembled Nanocochleates for Treating Pulmonary Metastasis: An Approach Supporting Pulmonary Mechanics

Paclitaxel (PTX) is a potent anticancer agent, which is clinically administered by infusion for treating pulmonary metastasis of different cancers. Systemic injection of PTX is promising in treating pulmonary metastasis of various cancers but simultaneously leads to many severe complications in the body. In this study, we have demonstrated a noninvasive approach for delivering PTX to deep pulmonary tissues via an inhalable phospholipid-based nanocochleate platform and showed its potential in treating pulmonary metastasis of melanoma cancer. Nanocochleates have been previously explored for oral delivery of anticancer drugs; their application for aerosol-based administration has not been accomplished in the literature thus far. Our results showed that the PTX-carrying aerosol nanocochleates (PTX-CPTs) possessed excellent pulmonary surfactant action characterized by high surface activity and encouraging in vitro terminal airway patency when compared to the marketed Taxol formulation, which is known to contain a high amount of Cremophore EL. We observed under in vitro twin-impinger analysis that the PTX-CPT had a high tendency to get deposited in stage II (alveolar region of lungs), indicating the capability of CPT to reach the deep alveolar region. Further, while exposed to the human lung adenocarcinoma cell line (A549), the PTX-CPT showed excellent cytotoxicity mediated by enhanced cellular uptake via energy-dependent endocytosis. Aerosol-based administration of PTX-CPT in a pulmonary metastatic murine melanoma model (B16F10) resulted in significant (p < 0.05) tumor growth inhibition when compared to an intravenous dose of Taxol. Inhibition of tumor growth in aerosol-based PTX-CPT-treated animals was evident by the significant (p < 0.05) reduction in numbers of tumor nodules and percent metastasis area covered by melanoma cells in the lung when compared to other treatment groups. Overall, our finding suggests that PTX can be safely administered in the form of an aerosol using a newly developed CPT system, which serves a dual purpose as both a drug delivery carrier and a pulmonary surfactant in treating pulmonary metastasis.

Progress in the Application of Nano- and Micro-based Drug Delivery Systems in Pulmonary Drug Delivery

Nanotechnology is associated with the development of particles in the nano-size range that can be used in a wide range of applications in the medical field. It has gained more importance in the pharmaceutical research field particularly in drug delivery, as it results in enhanced therapeutic drug performance, improved drug solubility, targeted drug delivery to the specific sites, minimized side effects, and prolonged drug retention time in the targeted site. To date, the application of nanotechnology continues to offer several benefits in the treatment of various chronic diseases and results in remarkable improvements in treatment outcomes. The use of nano-based delivery systems such as liposomes, micelles, and nanoparticles in pulmonary drug delivery have shown to be a promising strategy in achieving drug deposition and maintained controlled drug release in the lungs. They have been widely used to minimize the risks of drug toxicity in vivo. In this review, recent advances in the application of nano- and micro-based delivery systems in pulmonary drug delivery for the treatment of various pulmonary diseases, such as lung cancer, asthma, and chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, are highlighted. Limitations in the application of these drug delivery systems and some key strategies in improving their formulation properties to overcome challenges encountered in drug delivery are also discussed.

Nano targeted Therapies Made of Lipids and Polymers have Promising Strategy for the Treatment of Lung Cancer

The introduction of nanoparticles made of polymers, protein, and lipids as drug delivery systems has led to significant progress in modern medicine. Since the application of nanoparticles in medicine involves the use of biodegradable, nanosized materials to deliver a certain amount of chemotherapeutic agents into a tumor site, this leads to the accumulation of these nanoencapsulated agents in the right region. This strategy minimizes the stress and toxicity generated by chemotherapeutic agents on healthy cells. Therefore, encapsulating chemotherapeutic agents have less cytotoxicity than non-encapsulation ones. The purpose of this review is to address how nanoparticles made of polymers and lipids can successfully be delivered into lung cancer tumors. Lung cancer types and their anatomies are first introduced to provide an overview of the general lung cancer structure. Then, the rationale and strategy applied for the use of nanoparticle biotechnology in cancer therapies are discussed, focusing on pulmonary drug delivery systems made from liposomes, lipid nanoparticles, and polymeric nanoparticles. Many nanoparticles fabricated in the shape of liposomes, lipid nanoparticles, and polymeric nanoparticles are summarized in our review, with a focus on the encapsulated chemotherapeutic molecules, ligand-receptor attachments, and their targets. Afterwards, we highlight the nanoparticles that have demonstrated promising results and have been delivered into clinical trials. Recent clinical trials that were done for successful nanoparticles are summarized in our review.

Pulmonary route of administration is instrumental in developing therapeutic interventions against respiratory diseases

Pulmonary route of drug delivery has drawn significant attention due to the limitations associated with conventional routes and available treatment options. Drugs administered through pulmonary route has been an important research area that focuses on to developing effective therapeutic interventions for asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease, tuberculosis, lung cancer etc. The intravenous route has been a natural route of delivery of proteins and peptides but associated with several issues including high cost, needle-phobia, pain, sterility issues etc. These issues might be addressed by the pulmonary administration of macromolecules to achieving an effective delivery and efficacious therapeutic impact. Efforts have been made to develop novel drug delivery systems (NDDS) such as nanoparticles, microparticles, liposomes and their engineered versions, polymerosomes, micelles etc to achieving targeted and sustained delivery of drug(s) through pulmonary route. Further, novel approaches such as polymer-drug conjugates, mucoadhesive particles and mucus penetrating particles have attracted significant attention due to their unique features for an effective delivery of drugs. Also, use of semi flourinated alkanes is in use for improvising the pulmonary delivery of lipophilic drugs. Present review focuses on to unravel the mechanism of pulmonary absorption of drugs for major pulmonary diseases. It summarizes the development of interventional approaches using various particulate and vesicular drug delivery systems. In essence, the orchestrated attempt presents an inflammatory narrative on the advancements in the field of pulmonary drug delivery.

Targeted drug therapy in nonsmall cell lung cancer: clinical significance and possible solutions-part II (role of nanocarriers)

INTRODUCTION

Nonsmall cell lung cancer (NSCLC) accounts for 80-85% of the cases of lung cancer. The conventional therapeutic effective dosage forms used to treat NSCLC are associated with rigid administration schedules, adverse effects, and may be associated with acquired resistance to therapy. Nanocarriers may provide a suitable alternative to regular formulations to overcome inherent drawbacks and provide better treatment modalities for the patient.

AREAS COVERED

The article explores the application of drug loaded nanocarriers for lung cancer treatment. Drug-loaded nanocarriers can be modified to achieve controlled delivery at the desired tumor infested site. The type of nanocarriers employed are diverse based on polymers, liposomes, metals and a combination of two or more different base materials (hybrids). These may be designed for systemic delivery or local delivery to the lung compartment (via inhalation).

EXPERT OPINION

Nanocarriers can improve pharmacokinetics of the drug payload by improving its delivery to the desired location and can reduce associated systemic toxicities. Through nanocarriers, a wide variety of therapeutics can be administered and targeted to the cancerous site. Some examples of the utilities of nanocarriers are codelivery of drugs, gene delivery, and delivery of other biologics. Overall, the nanocarriers have promising potential in improving therapeutic efficacy of drugs used in NSCLC.

New nanocarried phenobarbital formulation: Maintains better control of pentylenetetrazole-Induced seizures

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For the first time, phenobarbital was intercalated in the layered double hydroxide.

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This study evaluated the slow release efficacy of intercalated phenobarbital.

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The time of the anticonvulsant effect was verified by electroencephalographic records.

This study aims to evaluate the efficacy of slow release phenobarbital in the control of convulsions triggered by pentylenetetrazole (PTZ), verifying the time of permanence in the anticonvulsant effect through behavior and electroencephalographic records. A total of 162 male Wistar rats weighing between 100 and 120 g were divided into two groups, one for behavior analysis (n = 90) and biochemistry, and another for the acquisition of electrocorticographic record (n = 72). Hepatic enzymes were measured by obtaining a blood sample from the animals studied by means of a biochemical analysis. The procedures for electrode implant and electrocorticographic recordings were performed. The intercalation of phenobarbital in layered double hydroxide (LDH) nanocarrier allowed us to evaluate a new slow release pharmaceutical formulation based on methodologies that have proven longer residence time and lower side effects. This study demonstrates that phenobarbital can be a new perspective pharmaceutical formulation.

Formulating SLN and NLC as Innovative Drug Delivery Systems for Non-Invasive Routes of Drug Administration

Colloidal carriers diverge depending on their composition, ability to incorporate drugs and applicability, but the common feature is the small average particle size. Among the carriers with the potential nanostructured drug delivery application there are SLN and NLC. These nanostructured systems consist of complex lipids and highly purified mixtures of glycerides having varying particle size. Also, these systems have shown physical stability, protection capacity of unstable drugs, release control ability, excellent tolerability, possibility of vectorization, and no reported production problems related to large-scale. Several production procedures can be applied to achieve high association efficiency between the bioactive and the carrier, depending on the physicochemical properties of both, as well as on the production procedure applied. The whole set of unique advantages such as enhanced drug loading capacity, prevention of drug expulsion, leads to more flexibility for modulation of drug release and makes Lipid-based nanocarriers (LNCs) versatile delivery system for various routes of administration. The route of administration has a significant impact on the therapeutic outcome of a drug. Thus, the non-invasive routes, which were of minor importance as parts of drug delivery in the past, have assumed added importance drugs, proteins, peptides and biopharmaceuticals drug delivery and these include nasal, buccal, vaginal and transdermal routes. The objective of this paper is to present the state of the art concerning the application of the lipid nanocarriers designated for non-invasive routes of administration. In this manner, this review presents an innovative technological platform to develop nanostructured delivery systems with great versatility of application in non-invasive routes of administration and targeting drug release.

COSAN-stabilised omega-3 oil-in-water nanoemulsions to prolong lung residence time for poorly water soluble drugs

Herein, we report on the capacity of the amphiphilic inorganic anion cobalt bis(dicarbollide) to stabilise oil-in-water nanoemulsions (NEs). The resulting NEs show long term stability in water and high drug-loading capacity, and can prolong the residence time of hydrophobic drugs in the lungs as determined by in vivo positron emission tomography imaging.

A Facile and Novel Approach to Manufacture Paclitaxel-Loaded Proliposome Tablet Formulations of Micro or Nano Vesicles for Nebulization

Purpose

The aim of this study was to develop novel paclitaxel-loaded proliposome tablet formulations for pulmonary drug delivery.

Method

Proliposome powder formulations (i.e. F1 – F27) were prepared employing Lactose monohydrate (LMH), Microcrystalline cellulose (MCC) or Starch as a carbohydrate carriers and Soya phosphatidylcholine (SPC), Hydrogenated soya phosphatidylcholine (HSPC) or Dimyristoly phosphatidylcholine (DMPC) as a phospholipid. Proliposome powder formulations were prepared in 1:5, 1:15 or 1:25 w/w lipid phase to carrier ratio (lipid phase; comprising of phospholipid and cholesterol in 1:1 M ratio) and Paclitaxel (PTX) was used as model anticancer drug.

Results

Based on flowability studies, out of 27 formulations; F3, F6, and F9 formulations were selected as they exhibited an excellent angle of repose (AOR) (17.24 ± 0.43, 16.41 ± 0.52 and 15.16 ± 0.72°), comparatively lower size of vesicles (i.e. 5.35 ± 0.76, 6.27 ± 0.59 and 5.43 ± 0.68 μm) and good compressibility index (14.81 ± 0.36, 15.01 ± 0.35 and 14.56 ± 0.14) via Carr’s index. The selected formulations were reduced into Nano (N) vesicles via probe sonication, followed by spray drying (SD) to get a dry powder of these formulations as F3SDN, F6SDN and F9SDN, and gave high yield (>53%) and exhibited poor to very poor compressibility index values via Carr’s Index. Post tablet manufacturing, F3 tablets formulation showed uniform weight uniformity (129.40 ± 3.85 mg), good crushing strength (14.08 ± 1.95 N), precise tablet thickness (2.33 ± 0.51 mm) and a short disintegration time of 14.35 ± 0.56 min, passing all quality control tests in accordance with British Pharmacopeia (BP). Upon nebulization of F3 tablets formulation, Ultrasonic nebulizer showed better nebulization time (8.75 ± 0.86 min) and high output rate (421.06 ± 7.19 mg/min) when compared to Vibrating mesh nebulizer. PTX-loaded F3 tablet formulations were identified as toxic (60% cell viability) to cancer MRC-5 SV2 cell lines while safe to normal MRC-5 cell lines.

Conclusion

Overall, in this study LMH was identified as a superior carbohydrate carrier for proliposome tablet manufacturing in a 1:25 w/w lipid to carrier ratio for in-vitro nebulization via Ultrasonic nebulizer.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (10.1007/s11095-020-02840-w) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.

Recent Trends of the Bio-Inspired Nanoparticles in Cancer Theranostics

In recent years, various nanomaterials have emerged as an exciting tool in cancer theranostic applications due to their multifunctional property and intrinsic molecular property aiding effective diagnosis, imaging, and successful therapy. However, chemically synthesized nanoparticles have several issues related to the cost, toxicity and effectiveness. In this context, bio-inspired nanoparticles (NPs) held edges over conventionally synthesized nanoparticles due to their low cost, easy synthesis and low toxicity. In this present review article, a detailed overview of the cancer theranostics applications of various bio-inspired has been provided. This includes the recent examples of liposomes, lipid nanoparticles, protein nanoparticles, inorganic nanoparticles, and viral nanoparticles. Finally, challenges and the future scopes of these NPs in cancer therapy and diagnostics applications are highlighted.

Engineering Tumor-Targeting Nanoparticles as Vehicles for Precision Nanomedicine

As a nascent and emerging field that holds great potential for precision oncology, nanotechnology has been envisioned to improve drug delivery and imaging capabilities through precise and efficient tumor targeting, safely sparing healthy normal tissue. In the clinic, nanoparticle formulations such as the first-generation Abraxane® in breast cancer, Doxil® for sarcoma, and Onivyde® for metastatic pancreatic cancer, have shown advancement in drug delivery while improving safety profiles. However, effective accumulation of nanoparticles at the tumor site is sub-optimal due to biological barriers that must be overcome. Nanoparticle delivery and retention can be altered through systematic design considerations in order to enhance passive accumulation or active targeting to the tumor site. In tumor niches where passive targeting is possible, modifications in the size and charge of nanoparticles play a role in their tissue accumulation. For niches in which active targeting is required, precision oncology research has identified targetable biomarkers, with which nanoparticle design can be altered through bioconjugation using antibodies, peptides, or small molecule agonists and antagonists. This review is structured to provide a better understanding of nanoparticle engineering design principles with emphasis on overcoming tumor-specific biological barriers.

Transfection of pulmonary cells by stable pDNA-polycationic hybrid nanostructured particles

AIM

Cationically modified solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) were investigated as plasmid DNA (pDNA) carriers and transfection agents for the pulmonary route.

MATERIALS & METHODS

pDNA-loaded SLN were produced using glyceryl dibehenate or tristearate as matrix lipids and chitosan as surface charge modifier, and encapsulated by spray-drying in mannitol and trehalose microspheres.

RESULTS

Nanoparticles of 200 nm, and zeta potential around +15 mV were produced. Electrophorectic analysis confirmed plasmid stability and integrity. The pDNA-loaded SLN were able to transfect the Calu-3 and A549 pulmonary cell lines, while showing low cytotoxicity. Microencapsulation of SLN yielded dry powders suitable for inhalation that protected pDNA from degradation.

CONCLUSION

Microencapsulated SLN are a promising safe and effective carrier system for pulmonary gene delivery following pulmonary administration.

Current Trends in Cancer Nanotheranostics: Metallic, Polymeric, and Lipid-Based Systems

Theranostics has emerged in recent years to provide an efficient and safer alternative in cancer management. This review presents an updated description of nanotheranostic formulations under development for skin cancer (including melanoma), head and neck, thyroid, breast, gynecologic, prostate, and colon cancers, brain-related cancer, and hepatocellular carcinoma. With this focus, we appraised the clinical advantages and drawbacks of metallic, polymeric, and lipid-based nanosystems, such as low invasiveness, low toxicity to the surrounding healthy tissues, high precision, deeper tissue penetration, and dosage adjustment in a real-time setting. Particularly recognizing the increased complexity and multimodality in this area, multifunctional hybrid nanoparticles, comprising different nanomaterials and functionalized with targeting moieties and/or anticancer drugs, present the best characteristics for theranostics. Several examples, focusing on their design, composition, imaging and treatment modalities, and in vitro and in vivo characterization, are detailed herein. Briefly, all studies followed a common trend in the design of these theranostics modalities, such as the use of materials and/or drugs that share both inherent imaging (e.g., contrast agents) and therapeutic properties (e.g., heating or production reactive oxygen species). This rationale allows one to apparently overcome the heterogeneity, complexity, and harsh conditions of tumor microenvironments, leading to the development of successful targeted therapies.

Increasing complexity and interactions of oxidative stress in chronic respiratory diseases: An emerging need for novel drug delivery systems

Oxidative stress is intensely involved in enhancing the severity of various chronic respiratory diseases (CRDs) including asthma, chronic obstructive pulmonary disease (COPD), infections and lung cancer. Even though there are various existing anti-inflammatory therapies, which are not enough to control the inflammation caused due to various contributing factors such as anti-inflammatory genes and antioxidant enzymes. This leads to an urgent need of novel drug delivery systems to combat the oxidative stress. This review gives a brief insight into the biological factors involved in causing oxidative stress, one of the emerging hallmark feature in CRDs and particularly, highlighting recent trends in various novel drug delivery carriers including microparticles, microemulsions, microspheres, nanoparticles, liposomes, dendrimers, solid lipid nanocarriers etc which can help in combating the oxidative stress in CRDs and ultimately reducing the disease burden and improving the quality of life with CRDs patients. These carriers improve the pharmacokinetics and bioavailability to the target site. However, there is an urgent need for translational studies to validate the drug delivery carriers for clinical administration in the pulmonary clinic.

Future of nanomedicines for treating respiratory diseases

INTRODUCTION

Nanoparticles are under discussion in drug delivery for more than 20 years now, but examples for nanoparticulate formulations in the treatment of respiratory diseases are rare and mostly limited to the administration of sub-micron drug particles (ultrafine particles). However, nanoparticles may also carry specific benefits for respiratory treatment. Are nanoparticles the next-generation drug carrier system to facilitate systemic delivery, sustained release and cancer treatment in the lungs?

AREAS COVERED

This review will look into the promises and opportunities of the use of nanoparticles in the treatment of respiratory diseases. Important aspects to discuss are the fate of nanoparticles in the lung and mechanisms for reproducible delivery of nanoparticulate formulations to the lungs. Examples are given where nanoparticles may be advantageous over for traditional formulations and further aspects to explore are mentioned.

EXPERT OPINION

The benefit of nanoparticulate systems for respiratory delivery adds to the portfolio of possible formulation strategies, depends on the intended functionality and needs more exploration. Advantages of such systems are only seen in special cases.

The potential to treat lung cancer via inhalation of repurposed drugs

Lung cancer is a highly invasive and prevalent disease with ineffective first-line treatment and remains the leading cause of cancer death in men and women. Despite the improvements in diagnosis and therapy, the prognosis and outcome of lung cancer patients is still poor. This could be associated with the lack of effective first-line oncology drugs, formation of resistant tumors and non-optimal administration route. Therefore, the repurposing of existing drugs currently used for different indications and the introduction of a different method of drug administration could be investigated as an alternative to improve lung cancer therapy. This review describes the rationale and development of repositioning of drugs for lung cancer treatment with emphasis on inhalation. The review includes the current progress of repurposing non-cancer drugs, as well as current chemotherapeutics for lung malignancies via inhalation. Several potential non-cancer drugs such as statins, itraconazole and clarithromycin, that have demonstrated preclinical anti-cancer activity, are also presented. Furthermore, the potential challenges and limitations that might hamper the clinical translation of repurposed oncology drugs are described.

Current development in the formulations of non-injection administration of paclitaxel

Paclitaxel (PTX) belongs to a class of taxane anti-tumor drug used for the clinic treatment of breast cancer, ovarian cancer, non-small-cell lung cancer, and so on. PTX has poor water solubility and oral bioavailability. It is generally administered via intravenous (i.v.) infusion. Traditional PTX injectable preparations contain Cremophor-EL and ethanol to improve its solubility, which would result in adverse reactions like severe hypersensitivity, neutropenia, etc. Adverse reactions can be reduced only by complicated pretreatment with glucocorticoid and antihistamines drugs and followed by PTX slow infusion for three hours, which has brought significant inconvenience to the patients. Though, a new-generation PTX formulation, Abraxane, free of Cremophor-EL and ethanol, is still being administrated by frequent i.v. infusions and extremely expensive. Therefore, non-injection administration of PTX is urgently needed to avoid the side effects as well as reduce inconvenience to the patients. Recently, a variety of non-injection drug delivery systems (DDSs) of PTX have been developed. This review aims to discuss the progress of non-injectable administration systems of PTX, including oral administration systems, vaginal administration systems, implantable DDSs, transdermal DDSs and intranasal administration for the future study and clinical applications.

High payload nanostructured lipid carriers fabricated with alendronate/polyethyleneimine ion complexes

Oral bioavailability of the anti-osteoporotic drug alendronate (AL) is limited to ≤ 1% due to unfavorable physicochemical properties. To augment absorption across the gastrointestinal mucosa, an ion pair complex between AL and polyethyleneimine (PEI) was formed and incorporated into nanostructured lipid carriers (NLCs) using a modified solvent injection method. When compared to free AL, ion pairing with PEI increased drug encapsulation efficiency in NLCs from 10% to 87%. Drug release from NLCs measured in vitro using fasted state simulated intestinal fluid, pH 6.5 (FaSSIF-V2) was significantly delayed after PEI complexation. Stability of AL/PEI was pH-dependent resulting in 10-fold faster dissociation of AL in FaSSIF-V2 than measured at pH 7.4. Intestinal permeation properties estimated in vitro across Caco-2 cell monolayers revealed a 3-fold greater flux of AL encapsulated as hydrophobic ion complex in NLCs when compared to AL solution (P_app = 8.43 ± 0.14 × 10^-6 cm/s and vs. 2.76 ± 0.42 × 10^-6 cm/s). Cellular safety of AL/PEI-containing NLCs was demonstrated up to an equivalent AL concentration of 2.5 mM. These results suggest that encapsulation of AL/PEI in NLCs appears a viable drug delivery strategy for augmenting oral bioavailability of this clinically relevant bisphosphonate drug and, simultaneously, increase gastrointestinal safety.

Critical Parameters for Particle-Based Pulmonary Delivery of Chemotherapeutics

Targeted delivery of chemotherapeutics through the respiratory system is a potential approach to improve drug accumulation in the lung tumor, while decreasing their negative side effects. However, elimination by the pulmonary clearance mechanisms, including the mucociliary transport system, and ingestion by the alveolar macrophages, rapid absorption into the blood, enzymatic degradation, and low control over the deposition rate and location remain the main complications for achieving an effective pulmonary drug delivery. Therefore, particle-based delivery systems have emerged to minimize pulmonary clearance mechanisms, enhance drug therapeutic efficacy, and control the release behavior. A successful implementation of a particle-based delivery system requires understanding the influential parameters in terms of drug carrier, inhalation technology, and health status of the patient's respiratory system. This review aims at investigating the parameters that significantly drive the clinical outcomes of various particle-based pulmonary delivery systems. This should aid clinicians in appropriate selection of a delivery system according to their clinical setting. It will also guide researchers in addressing the remaining challenges that need to be overcome to enhance the efficiency of current pulmonary delivery systems for aerosols.

Microencapsulated Solid Lipid Nanoparticles as a Hybrid Platform for Pulmonary Antibiotic Delivery

Solid lipid nanoparticles (SLN) containing rifabutin (RFB), with pulmonary administration purposes, were developed through a technique that avoids the use of organic solvents or sonication. To facilitate their pulmonary delivery, the RFB-loaded SLN were included in microspheres of appropriate size using suitable excipients (mannitol and trehalose) through a spray-drying technique. Confocal analysis microscopy showed that microspheres are spherical and that SLN are efficiently microencapsulated and homogeneously distributed throughout the microsphere matrices. The aerodynamic diameters observed an optimal distribution for reaching the alveolar region. The dry powder's performance during aerosolization and the in vitro drug deposition were tested using a twin-impinger approach, which confirmed that the microspheres can reach the deep lung. Isothermal titration calorimetry revealed that SLN have higher affinity for mannitol than for trehalose. Upon microsphere dissolution in aqueous media, SLN were readily recovered, maintaining their physicochemical properties. When these dry powders reach the deep lung, microspheres are expected to readily dissolve, delivering the SLN which, in turn, will release RFB. The in vivo biodistribution of microencapsulated RFB-SLN demonstrated that the antibiotic achieved the tested organs 15 and 30 min post pulmonary administration. Their antimycobacterial activity was also evaluated in a murine model of infection with a Mycobacterium tuberculosis strain H37Rv resulting in an enhancement of activity against M. tuberculosis infection compared to nontreated animals. These results suggest that RFB-SLN microencapsulation is a promising approach for the treatment of tuberculosis.

VitD3-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles: stability, cytotoxicity and cytokine levels

Vitamin D3 (VitD3) has several beneficial effects on many metabolic pathways such as immunity system, bone development. The aim of the study, encapsulation of VitD3 with solid lipids, determine encapsulation efficiency and biocompatibility of nanoparticles. Therefore, VitD3-loaded solid lipid nanoparticles (SLNPs) were developed by optimising ratios of VitD3, stearic acid, beeswax and sodium dodecyl sulphate (SDS). Thermal stability, degradation profile, crystallinity rate, encapsulation efficiency and release profile of SLNPs were determined. Cytotoxicity of SLNPs on HaCaT, L929 and HUVEC cells were investigated. Negatively charged and VitD3-loaded nanoparticles with diameters between 30 and 60 nm were obtained. SLNPs containing up to 5.1 mg VitD3 per 10 mg powder samples were obtained. Cell proliferations were stimulated after exposure with VitD3-loaded SLNPs. Besides, inflammatory response after exposure to VitD3-loaded SLNPs was evaluated via determining IL10 and TNF-alpha levels on THP-1 cells. According to the results, no inflammatory response was observed.

Novel Aryl Hydrocarbon Receptor Agonist Suppresses Migration and Invasion of Breast Cancer Cells

BACKGROUND

Despite the remarkable progress to fight against breast cancer, metastasis remains the dominant cause of treatment failure and recurrence. Therefore, control of invasiveness potential of breast cancer cells is crucial. Accumulating evidences suggest Aryl hydrocarbon receptor (Ahr), a helix-loop-helix transcription factor, as a promising target to control migration and invasion in breast cancer cells. Thus, an Ahr-based exploration was performed to identify a new Ahr agonist with inhibitory potentials on cancer cell motility.

METHODS

For prediction of potential interactions between Ahr and candidate molecules, bioinformatics analysis was carried out. The interaction of the selected ligand with Ahr and its effects on migration and invasion were examined in vitro using the MDA-MB-231 and T47D cell lines. The silencing RNAs were transfected into cells by electroporation. Expressions of microRNAs (miRNAs) and coding genes were quantified by real-time PCR, and the protein levels were detected by western blot.

RESULTS

The in silico and in vitro results identified Flavipin as a novel Ahr agonist. It induces formation of Ahr/Ahr nuclear translocator (Arnt) heterodimer to promote the expression of cytochrome P450 family 1 subfamily A member 1 (Cyp1a1). Migration and invasion of MDA-MB-231 and T47D cells were inhibited with Flavipin treatment in an Ahr-dependent fashion. Interestingly, Flavipin suppressed the pro-metastatic factor SRY-related HMG-box4 (Sox4) by inducing miR-212/132 cluster. Moreover, Flavipin inhibited growth and adhesion of both cell lines by suppressing gene expressions of B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl2) and integrinα4 (ITGA4).

CONCLUSION

Taken together, the results introduce Flavipin as a novel Ahr agonist, and provide first evidences on its inhibitory effects on cancer cell motility, suggesting Flavipin as a candidate to control cell invasiveness in breast cancer patients.