Platelet membrane-coated nanoparticle-mediated targeting delivery of Rapamycin blocks atherosclerotic plaque development and stabilizes plaque in apolipoprotein E-deficient (ApoE-/-) mice

Unleashing the biomimetic targeting potential of platelet-derived nanocarriers on atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis, the primary mechanism underlying the development of many cardiovascular illnesses, continues to be one of the leading causes of mortality worldwide. Platelet (PLT), which are essential for maintaining body homeostasis, have been strongly linked to the onset of atherosclerosis at various stages due to their inherent tendency to bind to atherosclerotic lesions and show an affinity for plaques. Therefore, mimicking PLT's innate adhesive features may be necessary to effectively target plaques. PLT-derived nanocarriers have emerged as a promising biomimetic targeting strategy for treating atherosclerosis due to their numerous advantages. These advantages include excellent biocompatibility, minimal macrophage phagocytosis, prolonged circulation time, targeting capability for impaired vascular sites, and suitability as carriers for anti-atherosclerotic drugs. Herein, we discuss the role of PLT in atherogenesis and propose the design of nanocarriers based on PLT-membrane coating and PLT-derived vesicles. These nanocarriers can target multiple biological elements relevant to plaque development. The review also emphasizes the current challenges and future research directions for the effective utilization of PLT-derived nanocarriers in treating atherosclerosis.

Recent progress in biomimetic nanomedicines based on versatile targeting strategy for atherosclerosis therapy

Atherosclerosis (AS) is considered to be one of the major causes of cardiovascular disease. Its pathological microenvironment is characterised by increased production of reactive oxygen species, lipid oxides, and excessive inflammatory factors, which accumulate at the monolayer endothelial cells in the vascular wall to form AS plaques. Therefore, intervention in the pathological microenvironment would be beneficial in delaying AS. Researchers have designed biomimetic nanomedicines with excellent biocompatibility and the ability to avoid being cleared by the immune system through different therapeutic strategies to achieve better therapeutic effects for the characteristics of AS. Biomimetic nanomedicines can further enhance delivery efficiency and improve treatment efficacy due to their good biocompatibility and ability to evade clearance by the immune system. Biomimetic nanomedicines based on therapeutic strategies such as neutralising inflammatory factors, ROS scavengers, lipid clearance and integration of diagnosis and treatment are versatile approaches for effective treatment of AS. The review firstly summarises the targeting therapeutic strategy of biomimetic nanomedicine for AS in recent 5 years. Biomimetic nanomedicines using cell membranes, proteins, and extracellular vesicles as carriers have been developed for AS.

Advances in biomimetic nanomaterial delivery systems: harnessing nature's inspiration for targeted drug delivery

The properties of nanomaterials make them promising and advantageous for use in drug delivery systems, but challenges arise from the immune system's recognition of exogenous nanoparticles, leading to their clearance and reduced targeting efficiency. Drawing inspiration from nature, this paper explores biomimetic strategies to transform recognizable nanomaterials into a "camouflaged state." The focal point of this paper is the exploration of bionic nanoparticles, with a focus on cell membrane-coated nanoparticles. These biomimetic structures, particularly those mimicking red blood cells (RBCs), white blood cells (WBCs), platelets, and cancer cells, demonstrate enhanced drug delivery efficiency and prolonged circulation. This article underscores the versatility of these biomimetic structures across diverse diseases and explores the use of hybrid cell membrane-coated nanoparticles as a contemporary trend. This review also investigated exosomes and protein bionic nanoparticles, emphasizing their potential for specific targeting, immune evasion, and improved therapeutic outcomes. We expect that this continued development based on biomimetic nanomaterials will contribute to the efficiency and safety of disease treatment.

Nanoparticles as Drug Delivery Systems for the Targeted Treatment of Atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis continues to be a leading cause of morbidity and mortality globally. The precise evaluation of the extent of an atherosclerotic plaque is essential for forecasting its likelihood of causing health concerns and tracking treatment outcomes. When compared to conventional methods used, nanoparticles offer clear benefits and excellent development opportunities for the detection and characterisation of susceptible atherosclerotic plaques. In this review, we analyse the recent advancements of nanoparticles as theranostics in the management of atherosclerosis, with an emphasis on applications in drug delivery. Furthermore, the main issues that must be resolved in order to advance clinical utility and future developments of NP research are discussed. It is anticipated that medical NPs will develop into complex and advanced next-generation nanobotics that can carry out a variety of functions in the bloodstream.

Cell-derived biomimetic nanoparticles for the targeted therapy of ALI/ARDS

Acute lung injury (ALI) and acute respiratory distress syndrome (ARDS) are common clinical critical diseases with high morbidity and mortality. Especially since the COVID-19 outbreak, the mortality rates of critically ill patients with ARDS can be as high as 60%. Therefore, this problem has become a matter of concern to respiratory critical care. To date, the main clinical measures for ALI/ARDS are mechanical ventilation and drug therapy. Although ventilation treatment reduces mortality, it increases the risk of hyperxemia, and drug treatment lacks safe and effective delivery methods. Therefore, novel therapeutic strategies for ALI/ARDS are urgently needed. Developments in nanotechnology have allowed the construction of a safe, efficient, precise, and controllable drug delivery system. However, problems still encounter in the treatment of ALI/ARDS, such as the toxicity, poor targeting ability, and immunogenicity of nanomaterials. Cell-derived biomimetic nanodelivery drug systems have the advantages of low toxicity, long circulation, high targeting, and high bioavailability and show great therapeutic promises for ALI/ARDS owing to their acquired cellular biological features and some functions. This paper reviews ALI/ARDS treatments based on cell membrane biomimetic technology and extracellular vesicle biomimetic technology, aiming to achieve a significant breakthrough in ALI/ARDS treatments.

Biomembrane camouflaged nanoparticles: A paradigm shifts in targeted drug delivery system

Targeted drug delivery has emerged as a pivotal approach within precision medicine, aiming to optimize therapeutic efficacy while minimizing systemic side effects. Advanced biomimetic membrane-coated formulations have garnered significant interest from researchers as a promising strategy for targeted drug delivery, site-specific accumulation and heightened therapeutic outcomes. Biomimetic nanotechnology is able to retain the biological properties of the parent cell thus are able to exhibit superior targeting compared to conventional formulations. In this review, we have described different types of cell membrane camouflaged NPs. Mechanism of isolation and coating of the membranes along with the applications of each type of membrane and their mechanism to reach the desired site. Furthermore, a fusion of different membranes in order to prepare hybrid membrane biomimetic NPs which could possess better efficacy is discussed in detail in the review. Later, applications of the hybrid membrane-cloaked NPs along with current development were discussed in detail along with the challenges associated with it. Although membrane-cloaked NPs are currently in the preliminary stage of development, there is a huge potential to explore this biodegradable and biocompatible delivery system.

Biomimetic Platelet-Cloaked Nanoparticles for the Delivery of Anti-Inflammatory Curcumin in the Treatment of Atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis still represents a major driver of cardiovascular diseases worldwide. Together with accumulation of lipids in the plaque, inflammation is recognized as one of the key players in the formation and development of atherosclerotic plaque. Systemic anti-inflammatory treatments are successful in reducing the disease burden, but are correlated with severe side effects, underlining the need for targeted formulations. In this work, curcumin is chosen as the anti-inflammatory payload model and further loaded in lignin-based nanoparticles (NPs). The NPs are then coated with a tannic acid (TA)- Fe (III) complex and further cloaked with fragments derived from platelet cell membrane, yielding NPs with homogenous size. The two coatings increase the interaction between the NPs and cells, both endothelial and macrophages, in steady state or inflamed status. Furthermore, NPs are cytocompatible toward endothelial, smooth muscle and immune cells, while not inducing immune activation. The anti-inflammatory efficacy is demonstrated in endothelial cells by real-time quantitative polymerase chain reaction and ELISA assay where curcumin-loaded NPs decrease the expression of Nf-κb, TGF-β1, IL-6, and IL-1β in lipopolysaccharide-inflamed cells. Overall, due to the increase in the cell-NP interactions and the anti-inflammatory efficacy, these NPs represent potential candidates for the targeted anti-inflammatory treatment of atherosclerosis.

Application and advances of biomimetic membrane materials in central nervous system disorders

Central nervous system (CNS) diseases encompass spinal cord injuries, brain tumors, neurodegenerative diseases, and ischemic strokes. Recently, there has been a growing global recognition of CNS disorders as a leading cause of disability and death in humans and the second most common cause of death worldwide. The global burdens and treatment challenges posed by CNS disorders are particularly significant in the context of a rapidly expanding global population and aging demographics. The blood-brain barrier (BBB) presents a challenge for effective drug delivery in CNS disorders, as conventional drugs often have limited penetration into the brain. Advances in biomimetic membrane nanomaterials technology have shown promise in enhancing drug delivery for various CNS disorders, leveraging properties such as natural biological surfaces, high biocompatibility and biosafety. This review discusses recent developments in biomimetic membrane materials, summarizes the types and preparation methods of these materials, analyzes their applications in treating CNS injuries, and provides insights into the future prospects and limitations of biomimetic membrane materials.

Targeted Delivery of Mesenchymal Stem Cell-Derived Bioinspired Exosome-Mimetic Nanovesicles with Platelet Membrane Fusion for Atherosclerotic Treatment

Purpose

Accumulating evidence indicates that mesenchymal stem cells (MSCs)-derived exosomes hold significant potential for the treatment of atherosclerosis. However, large-scale production and organ-specific targeting of exosomes are still challenges for further clinical applications. This study aims to explore the targeted efficiency and therapeutic potential of biomimetic platelet membrane-coated exosome-mimetic nanovesicles (P-ENVs) in atherosclerosis.

Methods

To produce exosome-mimetic nanovesicles (ENVs), MSCs were successively extruded through polycarbonate porous membranes. P-ENVs were engineered by fusing MSC-derived ENVs with platelet membranes and characterized using transmission electron microscopy (TEM), nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA), and Western blot. The stability and safety of P-ENVs were also assessed. The targeted efficacy of P-ENVs was evaluated using an in vivo imaging system (IVIS) spectrum imaging system and immunofluorescence. Histological analyses, Oil Red O (ORO) staining, and Western blot were used to investigate the anti-atherosclerotic effectiveness of P-ENVs.

Results

Both ENVs and P-ENVs exhibited similar characteristics to exosomes. Subsequent miRNA sequencing of P-ENVs revealed their potential to mitigate atherosclerosis by influencing biological processes related to cholesterol metabolism. In an ApoE-/- mice model, the intravenous administration of P-ENVs exhibited enhanced targeting of atherosclerotic plaques, resulting in a significant reduction in lipid deposition and necrotic core area. Our in vitro experiments showed that P-ENVs promoted cholesterol efflux and reduced total cholesterol content in foam cells. Further analysis revealed that P-ENVs attenuated intracellular cholesterol accumulation by upregulating the expression of the critical cholesterol transporters ABCA1 and ABCG1.

Conclusion

This study highlighted the potential of P-ENVs as a novel nano-drug delivery platform for enhancing drug delivery efficiency while concurrently mitigating adverse reactions in atherosclerotic therapy.

ROS-Suppression Nanoplatform Combined Activation of STAT3/Bcl-2 Pathway for Preventing Myocardial Infarction in Mice

Myocardial infarction (MI) is the leading cause of death worldwide. The most effective way to treat myocardial infarction is to rescue ischemic cardiomyocytes. After an ischemic event, the overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS) is a key driver of myocardial injury. The produced ROS affects mitochondrial function and induces apoptosis in cardiomyocytes. This was accomplished by constructing platelet-membrane-encapsulated ROS-responsive drug-releasing nanoparticles (PMN@NIC-MalNPs) to deliver malonate and niclosamide (NIC). The results revealed that PMN@NIC-MalNPs degraded and released malonate and niclosamide in a high-level ROS microenvironment, effectively reducing the oxidative stress and apoptosis rate. By enhancing basal mitochondrial oxygen consumption rate (OCR), adenosine triphosphate (ATP) production, and spare respiratory capacity (SRC) in vitro, reduced the oxidative stress levels and restored mitochondrial function. In vivo studies revealed that the PMN@NIC-MalNPs improved cardiac dysfunction, inhibited succinate dehydrogenase (SDH) activity, increased ATP production, and reduced the myocardial infarct size in myocardial infarction model mice. Further, transcriptome analysis and Western blot revealed that PMN@NIC-MalNPs prevented apoptosis by activating the expressions of the signal transducer and activator of transcription 3 (STAT3) and Bcl-2, and inhibiting the expression of Bax. Thus, this study provides a novel therapeutic solution for treating myocardial infarction and predicting the viability of an antioxidant and antiapoptotic therapeutic solution in the treatment of myocardial injury.

Atherosclerotic three-layer nanomatrix vascular sheets for high-throughput therapeutic evaluation

In vitro atherosclerosis models are essential to evaluate therapeutics before in vivo and clinical studies, but significant limitations remain, such as the lack of three-layer vascular architecture and limited atherosclerotic features. Moreover, no scalable 3D atherosclerosis model is available for making high-throughput assays for therapeutic evaluation. Herein, we report an in vitro 3D three-layer nanomatrix vascular sheet with critical atherosclerosis multi-features (VSA), including endothelial dysfunction, monocyte recruitment, macrophages, extracellular matrix remodeling, smooth muscle cell phenotype transition, inflammatory cytokine secretion, foam cells, and calcification initiation. Notably, we present the creation of high-throughput functional assays with VSAs and the use of these assays for evaluating therapeutics for atherosclerosis treatment. The therapeutics include conventional drugs (statin and sirolimus), candidates for treating atherosclerosis (curcumin and colchicine), and potential gene therapy (miR-146a-loaded liposomes). The high efficiency and flexibility of the scalable VSA functional assays should facilitate drug discovery and development for atherosclerosis.

Blocking tumor-platelet crosstalk to prevent tumor metastasis via reprograming glycolysis using biomimetic membrane-hybridized liposomes

Activated platelets promote tumor progression and metastasis through active interactions with cancer cells, especially in promoting epithelial-mesenchymal transition (EMT) of tumor cells and shedding tumor cells into the blood. Blocking platelet-tumor cell interactions can be a potential strategy to inhibit tumor metastasis. Platelet activation requires energy produced from aerobic glycolysis. Based on this, we propose a platelet suppression strategy by reprogramming glucose metabolism of platelets, which has an advantage over conventional antiplatelet treatment that has a risk of serious hemorrhage. We develop a biomimetic delivery system using platelet membrane-hybridized liposomes (PM-Lipo) for codelivery of quercetin and shikonin to simultaneously inhibit lactate transporter MCT-4 and a glycolytic enzyme PKM2 for achieving metabolic reprogramming of platelets and suppressing platelet activation. Notably, PM-Lipo can also inhibit glycolysis in cancer cells, which actually takes "two-birds-one-stone" action. Consequently, the platelet-tumor cell interactions are inhibited. Moreover, PM-Lipo can bind with circulating tumor cells and reduce their seeding in the premetastatic microenvironment. The in vivo studies further demonstrated that PM-Lipo can effectively suppress primary tumor growth and reduce lung metastasis without affecting inherited functions of platelets. Reprogramming glycolysis of platelets can remodel the tumor immune microenvironment, including suppression of Treg and stimulation of CTLs.

Closer to The Heart: Harnessing the Power of Targeted Extracellular Vesicle Therapies

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have emerged as novel diagnostic and therapeutic approaches for cardiovascular diseases. EVs derived from various origins exhibit distinct effects on the cardiovascular system. However, the application of native EVs is constrained due to their poor stabilities and limited targeting capabilities. Currently, targeted modification of EVs primarily involves genetic engineering, chemical modification (covalent, non-covalent), cell membrane modification, and biomaterial encapsulation. These techniques enhance the stability, biological activity, target-binding capacity, and controlled release of EVs at specific cells and tissues. The diverse origins of cardioprotective EVs are covered, and the applications of cardiac-targeting EV delivery systems in protecting against cardiovascular diseases are discussed. This review summarizes the current stage of research on the potential of EV-based targeted therapies for addressing cardiovascular disorders.

Engineering Platelet Membrane Imitating Nanoparticles for Targeted Therapeutic Delivery

Platelet Membrane Imitating Nanoparticles (PMINs) is a novel drug delivery system that imitates the structure and functionality of platelet membranes. PMINs imitate surface markers of platelets to target specific cells and transport therapeutic cargo. PMINs are engineered by incorporating the drug into the platelet membrane and encapsulating it in a nanoparticle scaffold. This allows PMINs to circulate in the bloodstream and bind to target cells with high specificity, reducing off-target effects and improving therapeutic efficacy. The engineering of PMINs entails several stages, including the separation and purification of platelet membranes, the integration of therapeutic cargo into the membrane, and the encapsulation of the membrane in a nanoparticle scaffold. In addition to being involved in a few pathological conditions including cancer, atherosclerosis, and rheumatoid arthritis, platelets are crucial to the body's physiological processes. This study includes the preparation and characterization of platelet membrane-like nanoparticles and focuses on their most recent advancements in targeted therapy for conditions, including cancer, immunological disorders, atherosclerosis, phototherapy, etc. PMINs are a potential drug delivery system that combines the advantages of platelet membranes with nanoparticles. The capacity to create PMMNs with particular therapeutic cargo and surface markers provides new possibilities for targeted medication administration and might completely change the way that medicine is practiced. Despite the need for more studies to optimize the engineering process and evaluate the effectiveness and safety of PMINs in clinical trials, this technology has a lot of potential.

An Erythrocyte Membrane-Derived Nanosystem for Efficient Reversal of Endothelial Injury in Sepsis

Sepsis is caused by a disordered host immune in response to infection and endothelial cells perform a crucial role in boosting immunity reaction in the pathophysiology of sepsis and septic organ failure. The aim of this study is to construct a novel erythrocyte membrane-derived nanosystems to reverse endothelial damage in sepsis. Herein, an innovative nanometer calcium metal-organic framework (Ca-MOF) is generated for the first time by using chelidonic acid as a ligand and calcium chloride as an ion donor for anti-inflammation. Then, zoliflodacin is loaded into Ca-MOF (CMZ) to sterilize and nanoscale erythrocyte membrane vesicles are prepared by modification with a γ3 peptide on the surface (γ3-RM) for precise targeting. Finally, γ3-RM camouflages the nanocore CMZ, to form novel erythrocyte membrane-camouflaged nanoparticle γ3-RCMZ. The superior performance of novel nanosystem results from its suitable biocompatibility, nontoxicity, specific targeting, and anti-inflammatory and bactericidal effects. Its anti-inflammatory mechanism mainly involves inhibiting the Caspase1-nuclear factor kappa-B (Caspase1-NF-κB) pathway and oxidative stress reduction to alleviate endothelial damage. Moreover, the findings have revealed for the first time that the bactericidal drug zoliflodacin also has anti-inflammatory effects in vivo and in vitro. Therefore, the novel nanosystem (γ3-RCMZ) provides a new nanotherapy strategy for sepsis treatment.

Multifunctional cell membranes-based nano-carriers for targeted therapies: a review of recent trends and future perspective

Nanotechnology has ignited a transformative revolution in disease detection, prevention, management, and treatment. Central to this paradigm shift is the innovative realm of cell membrane-based nanocarriers, a burgeoning class of biomimetic nanoparticles (NPs) that redefine the boundaries of biomedical applications. These remarkable nanocarriers, designed through a top-down approach, harness the intrinsic properties of cell-derived materials as their fundamental building blocks. Through shrouding themselves in natural cell membranes, these nanocarriers extend their circulation longevity and empower themselves to intricately navigate and modulate the multifaceted microenvironments associated with various diseases. This comprehensive review provides a panoramic view of recent breakthroughs in biomimetic nanomaterials, emphasizing their diverse applications in cancer treatment, cardiovascular therapy, viral infections, COVID-19 management, and autoimmune diseases. In this exposition, we deliver a concise yet illuminating overview of the distinctive properties underpinning biomimetic nanomaterials, elucidating their pivotal role in biomedical innovation. We subsequently delve into the exceptional advantages these nanomaterials offer, shedding light on the unique attributes that position them at the forefront of cutting-edge research. Moreover, we briefly explore the intricate synthesis processes employed in creating these biomimetic nanocarriers, shedding light on the methodologies that drive their development.

Nanomedicine for Diagnosis and Treatment of Atherosclerosis

With the changing disease spectrum, atherosclerosis has become increasingly prevalent worldwide and the associated diseases have emerged as the leading cause of death. Due to their fascinating physical, chemical, and biological characteristics, nanomaterials are regarded as a promising tool to tackle enormous challenges in medicine. The emerging discipline of nanomedicine has filled a huge application gap in the atherosclerotic field, ushering a new generation of diagnosis and treatment strategies. Herein, based on the essential pathogenic contributors of atherogenesis, as well as the distinct composition/structural characteristics, synthesis strategies, and surface design of nanoplatforms, the three major application branches (nanodiagnosis, nanotherapy, and nanotheranostic) of nanomedicine in atherosclerosis are elaborated. Then, state-of-art studies containing a sequence of representative and significant achievements are summarized in detail with an emphasis on the intrinsic interaction/relationship between nanomedicines and atherosclerosis. Particularly, attention is paid to the biosafety of nanomedicines, which aims to pave the way for future clinical translation of this burgeoning field. Finally, this comprehensive review is concluded by proposing unresolved key scientific issues and sharing the vision and expectation for the future, fully elucidating the closed loop from atherogenesis to the application paradigm of nanomedicines for advancing the early achievement of clinical applications.

Advances of nanomedicine in treatment of atherosclerosis and thrombosis

Atherosclerosis (AS) is a chronic inflammatory vascular disease. Myocardial ischemia originated from AS is the main cause of cardiovascular diseases, one of the major factors contributing to the global disease burden. AS is typically quiescent until occurrence of plaque rupture and thrombosis, leading to acute coronary syndrome and sudden death. Currently, clinical diagnostic techniques suffer from major pitfalls including lack of accuracy and specificity, which makes it rather difficult for drugs to directly target plaques to achieve therapeutic effect. Therefore, how to accurately diagnose and effectively intervene vulnerable AS plaques to achieve accurate delivery of drugs has become an urgent and evolving clinical problem. With the rapid development of nanomedicine and nanomaterials, nanotechnology has shown unique advantages in monitoring vulnerable plaques and thrombus and improving drug efficacy. Recent studies have shown that application of nanoparticle drug delivery system can booster the safety and effectiveness of drug therapy, and molecular imaging technology and nanomedicine also exhibit high clinical application potentials in disease diagnosis. Therefore, nanotechnology provides another promising avenue for diagnosis and treatment of AS and thrombosis, and has shown excellent performance in the development of targeted drug therapy and biomaterials. In this review, the research progress, challenges and prospects of nanotechnology in AS and thrombosis are discussed, expecting to provide new ideas for the prevention, diagnosis and treatment of AS and thrombosis.

A bio-inspired nanoparticle coating for vascular healing and immunomodulatory by cGMP-PKG and NF-kappa B signaling pathways

Drug-eluting stents (DESs) implantation is an effective method to tackle in-stent restenosis (ISR), which has been considered as an efficient treatment for coronary atherosclerosis. Although fruitful results have been achieved in treating coronary artery diseases (CAD), concern has arisen regarding the long-term safety and efficacy of DESs, primarily due to adverse events such as delayed re-endothelialization, persistent inflammatory response, and late stent thrombosis (LST). Taking inspiration from the immunomodulatory functions of camouflage strategies, this study designed a bio-inspired nanoparticle-coated stent. Briefly, the platelet membrane-coated poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid)/Rapamycin nanoparticles (PNP) were sprayed onto stents, forming a homogenous nanoparticle coating. The bilayer of poly (lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) and platelet membrane works synergistically to promote the sustained-release effect of rapamycin. In vitro studies revealed that the PNP-coated surfaces promoted the competitive adhesion of endothelia cells while inhibiting smooth muscle cells. Subsequent in vivo studies demonstrated that these surfaces expedite re-endothelialization and elicit immunomodulatory effects by regulating the cGMP-PKG and NF-kappa B signaling pathways, influencing the biosynthesis cofactors and immune system signaling. The study successfully deviced a novel and biomimetic drug-eluting stent system, unraveling its detailed functions and molecular mechanism of action for enhanced vascular healing.

Current research trends of nanomedicines

Owing to the inherent shortcomings of traditional therapeutic drugs in terms of inadequate therapeutic efficacy and toxicity in clinical treatment, nanomedicine designs have received widespread attention with significantly improved efficacy and reduced non-target side effects. Nanomedicines hold tremendous theranostic potential for treating, monitoring, diagnosing, and controlling various diseases and are attracting an unfathomable amount of input of research resources. Against the backdrop of an exponentially growing number of publications, it is imperative to help the audience get a panorama image of the research activities in the field of nanomedicines. Herein, this review elaborates on the development trends of nanomedicines, emerging nanocarriers, in vivo fate and safety of nanomedicines, and their extensive applications. Moreover, the potential challenges and the obstacles hindering the clinical translation of nanomedicines are also discussed. The elaboration on various aspects of the research trends of nanomedicines may help enlighten the readers and set the route for future endeavors.

Recent Advances in Anti-Atherosclerosis and Potential Therapeutic Targets for Nanomaterial-Derived Drug Formulations

Atherosclerosis, the leading cause of death worldwide, is responsible for ≈17.6 million deaths globally each year. Most therapeutic drugs for atherosclerosis have low delivery efficiencies and significant side effects, and this has hampered the development of effective treatment strategies. Diversified nanomaterials can improve drug properties and are considered to be key for the development of improved treatment strategies for atherosclerosis. The pathological mechanisms underlying atherosclerosis is summarized, rationally designed nanoparticle-mediated therapeutic strategies, and potential future therapeutic targets for nanodelivery. The content of this study reveals the potential and challenges of nanoparticle use for the treatment of atherosclerosis and highlights new effective design ideas.

Sirt6 enhances macrophage lipophagy and improves lipid metabolism disorder by regulating the Wnt1/β-catenin pathway in atherosclerosis

Lipid metabolism disorders are considerably involved in the pathology of atherosclerosis; nevertheless, the fundamental mechanism is still largely unclear. This research sought to examine the function of lipophagy in lipid metabolism disorder-induced atherosclerosis and its fundamental mechanisms. Previously, Sirt6 has been reported to stimulate plaque stability by promoting macrophage autophagy. However, its role in macrophage lipophagy and its relationship with Wnt1 remains to be established. In this study, ApoE-/-: Sirt6-/- and ApoE-/-: Sirt6Tg mice were used and lipid droplets were analysed via transmission electron microscopy and Bodipy 493/503 staining in vitro. Atherosclerotic plaques in ApoE-/-: Sirt6-/- mice showed greater necrotic cores and lower stability score. Reconstitution of Sirt6 in atherosclerotic mice improved lipid metabolism disorder and prevented the progression of atherosclerosis. Furthermore, macrophages with Ac-LDL intervention showed more lipid droplets and increased expression of adipophilin and PLIN2. Reconstitution of Sirt6 recruited using SNF2H suppressed Wnt1 expression and improved lipid metabolism disorder by promoting lipophagy. In addition, downregulation of Sirt6 expression in Ac-LDL-treated macrophages inhibited lipid droplet degradation and stimulated foam cell formation. Innovative discoveries in the research revealed that atherosclerosis is caused by lipid metabolism disorders due to downregulated Sirt6 expression. Thus, modulating Sirt6's function in lipid metabolism might be a useful therapeutic approach for treating atherosclerosis.

LPS adsorption and inflammation alleviation by polymyxin B-modified liposomes for atherosclerosis treatment

Chronic inflammation is critical in the onset and progression of atherosclerosis (AS). The lipopolysaccharide (LPS) level in the circulation system is elevated in AS patients and animal models, which is correlated with the severity of AS. Inspired by the underlying mechanism that LPS could drive the polarization of macrophages toward the M1 phenotype, aggravate inflammation, and ultimately contribute to the exacerbation of AS, LPS in the circulation system was supposed to be the therapeutic target for AS treatment. In the present study, polymyxin (PMB) covalently conjugated to PEGylated liposomes (PLPs) were formulated to adsorb LPS through specific interactions between PMB and LPS. In vitro, the experiments demonstrated that PLPs could adsorb LPS, reduce the polarization of macrophages to M1 phenotype and inhibit the formation of foam cells. In vivo, the study revealed that PLPs treatment reduced the serum levels of LPS and pro-inflammatory cytokines, decreased the proportion of M1-type macrophages in AS plaque, stabilized AS plaque, and downsized the plaque burdens in arteries, which eventually attenuated the progression of AS. Our study highlighted LPS in the circulation system as the therapeutic target for AS and provided an alternative strategy for AS treatment.

Platelet-derived extracellular vesicles for drug delivery

Platelet-derived extracellular vesicles (PEVs) are a subset of EVs that are released from platelets, which are small nuclear cell fragments that play a critical role in hemostasis and thrombosis. PEVs have been shown to have important roles in a variety of physiological and pathological processes, including inflammation, angiogenesis, and cancer. Recently, researchers, including our group have utilized PEVs as drug delivery platforms as PEVs could target inflammatory sites both passively and actively. This review summarizes the biological function of PEVs, introduces recent applications of PEVs in targeted drug delivery, and provides an outlook for the further development of utilizing PEVs for drug delivery.

Nature-inspired nanocarriers for improving drug therapy of atherosclerosis

Atherosclerosis (AS) has emerged as one of the prevalent arterial vascular diseases characterized by plaque and inflammation, primarily causing disability and mortality globally. Drug therapy remains the main treatment for AS. However, a series of obstacles hinder effective drug delivery. Nature, from natural micro-/nano-structural biological particles like natural cells and extracellular vesicles to the distinctions between the normal and pathological microenvironment, offers compelling solutions for efficient drug delivery. Nature-inspired nanocarriers of synthetic stimulus-responsive materials and natural components, such as lipids, proteins and membrane structures, have emerged as promising candidates for fulfilling drug delivery needs. These nanocarriers offer several advantages, including prolonged blood circulation, targeted plaque delivery, targeted specific cells delivery and controlled drug release at the action site. In this review, we discuss the nature-inspired nanocarriers which leverage the natural properties of cells or the microenvironment to improve atherosclerotic drug therapy. Finally, we provide an overview of the challenges and opportunities of applying these innovative nature-inspired nanocarriers.

Cell membrane-based biomimetic vehicles for effective central nervous system target delivery: Insights and challenges

Central nervous system (CNS) disorders, including brain tumor, ischemic stroke, Alzheimer's disease, and Parkinson's disease, threaten human health. And the existence of the blood-brain barrier (BBB) hinders the delivery of drugs and the design of drug targeting delivery vehicles. Over the past decades, great interest has been given to cell membrane-based biomimetic vehicles since the rise of targeting drug delivery systems and biomimetic nanotechnology. Cell membranes are regarded as natural multifunction biomaterials, and provide potential for targeting delivery design and modification. Cell membrane-based biomimetic vehicles appear timely with the participation of cell membranes and nanoparticles, and raises new lights for BBB recognition and transport, and effective therapy with its biological multifunction and high biocompatibility. This review summarizes existing challenges in CNS target delivery and recent advances of different kinds of cell membrane-based biomimetic vehicles for effective CNS target delivery, and deliberates the BBB targeting mechanism. It also discusses the challenges and possibility of clinical translation, and presents new insights for development.

Neutrophil membrane biomimetic delivery system (Ptdser-NM-Lipo/Fer-1) designed for targeting atherosclerosis therapy

Atherosclerosis is a progressive inflammatory disease characterised by excessive lipid accumulation and inflammatory cell infiltration and is the basis of most cardiovascular diseases and peripheral arterial diseases. Therefore, an effectively targeted delivery system is urgently needed to deliver ferroptosis-specific inhibitors to the site of arterial plaque and the inflammatory microenvironment. Inspired by the fact that neutrophils can be recruited to arterial plaques under the action of adhesion molecules and chemokines, the authors developed a neutrophil membrane hybrid liposome nano-mimetic system (Ptdser-NM-Lipo/Fer-1) that delivers Ferrostatin-1 (Fer-1) to the atherosclerotic plaque effectively, which is composed of Fer-1-loaded Ptdser-modified liposomes core and neutrophils shell. Fer-1 was released at the AS plaque site to remove reactive oxygen species (ROS) and improve the inflammatory microenvironment. In vitro ROS clearance experiments have shown that 50 μmol/ml Fer-1 can significantly remove ROS produced by H₂ O₂ -induced MOVAS cells and Ptdser-NM-Lipo/Fer-1 revealed a 3-fold increase in the inhibition rate of ROS than free Fer-1 in induced-RAW264.7, demonstrating its superior ROS-cleaning effect. Based on the interaction of adhesion molecules, such as vascular cell adhesion molecule 1, ICAM-1, P-selectin, E-selectin, and chemokines released in the inflamed site, the aorta in NM-Lipo-treated mice displayed 1.3-fold greater radiant efficiency than platelet membrane-Lipo-treated mice. Meanwhile, due to the modification of the Ptdser, the aorta in Ptdser-NM-Lipo/Fer-1-treated mice exhibited the highest fluorescence intensity, demonstrating its excellent targeting ability for atherosclerosis. Therefore, we present a specific formulation for the treatment of atherosclerosis with the potential for novel therapeutic uses.

Research progress on the therapeutic effects of nanoparticles loaded with drugs against atherosclerosis

Presently, there are many drugs for the treatment of atherosclerosis (AS), among which lipid-lowering, anti-inflammatory, and antiproliferative drugs have been the most studied. These drugs have been shown to have inhibitory effects on the development of AS. Nanoparticles are suitable for AS treatment research due to their fine-tunable and modifiable properties. Compared with drug monotherapy, experimental results have proven that the effects of nanoparticle-encapsulated drugs are significantly enhanced. In addition to nanoparticles containing a single drug, there have been many studies on collaborative drug treatment, collaborative physical treatment (ultrasound, near-infrared lasers, and external magnetic field), and the integration of diagnosis and treatment. This review provides an introduction to the therapeutic effects of nanoparticles loaded with drugs to treat AS and summarizes their advantages, including increased targeting ability, sustained drug release, improved bioavailability, reduced toxicity, and inhibition of plaque and vascular stenosis.

Genetically engineered cellular nanoparticles for biomedical applications

In recent years, nanoparticles derived from cellular membranes have been increasingly explored for the prevention and treatment of human disease. With their flexible design and ability to interface effectively with the surrounding environment, these biomimetic nanoparticles can outperform their traditional synthetic counterparts. As their popularity has increased, researchers have developed novel ways to modify the nanoparticle surface to introduce new or enhanced capabilities. Moving beyond naturally occurring materials derived from wild-type cells, genetic manipulation has proven to be a robust and flexible method by which nanoformulations with augmented functionalities can be generated. In this review, an overview of genetic engineering approaches to express novel surface proteins is provided, followed by a discussion on the various biomedical applications of genetically modified cellular nanoparticles.

Ultrasound-assisted biomimetic nanobubbles for targeted treatment of atherosclerosis

Cardiovascular disease caused by atherosclerosis remains the main reason of death in the worldwide scale. Although oxidative stress plays a key role in the initiation and progression of atherosclerosis, current antioxidant drugs have limited efficacy. To resolve this problem, we constructed Nox2 siRNA-loaded nanobubbles (PNBs-siNox2) coated with platelet membranes to utilize their antioxidant stress activity and targeting effect for atherosclerosis treatment. After platelet membranes modification, the capacity of PNB to target collagen, foam cells, or human umbilical vein endothelial cells (HUVECs) was significantly increased. Moreover, our study demonstrated that under ultrasonic irradiation, biomimetic nanobubbles were more effective at targeting atherosclerotic plaques and delivering genes into cells. In the present study, we provided a biomimetic gene loading strategy based on nanoplatform for noninvasive, precise and efficient therapy of atherosclerosis, which further improved the efficiency of gene transfection and effectively slowed the progression of atherosclerotic plaques when combined with ultrasound.

Unstructured Polypeptides as a Versatile Drug Delivery Technology

Although polyethylene glycol (PEG), or "PEGylation" has become a widely applied approach for improving the efficiency of drug delivery, the immunogenicity and non-biodegradability of this synthetic polymer have prompted an evident need for alternatives. To overcome these caveats and to mimic PEG -or other natural or synthetic polymers- for the purpose of drug half-life extension, unstructured polypeptides are designed. Due to their tunable length, biodegradability, low immunogenicity and easy production, unstructured polypeptides have the potential to replace PEG as the preferred technology for therapeutic protein/peptide delivery. This review provides an overview of the evolution of unstructured polypeptides, starting from natural polypeptides to engineered polypeptides and discusses their characteristics. Then, it is described that unstructured polypeptides have been successfully applied to numerous drugs, including peptides, proteins, antibody fragments, and nanocarriers, for half-life extension. Innovative applications of unstructured peptides as releasable masks, multimolecular adaptors and intracellular delivery carriers are also discussed. Finally, challenges and future perspectives of this promising field are briefly presented. STATEMENT OF SIGNIFICANCE: : Polypeptide fusion technology simulating PEGylation has become an important topic for the development of long-circulating peptide or protein drugs without reduced activity, complex processes, and kidney injury caused by PEG modification. Here we provide a detailed and in-depth review of the recent advances in unstructured polypeptides. In addition to the application of enhanced pharmacokinetic performance, emphasis is placed on polypeptides as scaffolders for the delivery of multiple drugs, and on the preparation of reasonably designed polypeptides to manipulate the performance of proteins and peptides. This review will provide insight into future application of polypeptides in peptide or protein drug development and the design of novel functional polypeptides.

Neutrophil membrane-coated taurine nanoparticles protect against hepatic ischemia-reperfusion injury

Hepatic ischemia-reperfusion (I/R) injury is a multifactorial process caused by transient tissue hypoxia and the following reoxygenation, commonly occurring in liver transplantation and hepatectomy. Hepatic I/R can induce a systemic inflammatory response, liver dysfunction, or even multiple organ failure. Although we have previously reported that taurine could attenuate acute liver injury after hepatic I/R, only a tiny proportion of the systemically injected taurine could reach the targeted organ and tissues. In this present study, we prepared taurine nanoparticles (Nano-taurine) by coating taurine with neutrophil membranes and investigated the protective effects of Nano-taurine against I/R-induced injury and the underlying mechanisms. Our results showed that Nano-taurine restored liver function by declining AST and ALT levels and reducing histology damage. Nano-taurine decreased inflammatory cytokines, including interleukin (IL)-6, tumor necrosis factor (TNF)-α, intercellular adhesion molecule (ICAM)-1, NLR pyrin domain containing 3 (NLRP3) and apoptosis-associated speck-like protein containing CARD (ASC) and oxidants including superoxide dismutase (SOD), malondialdehyde (MDA), glutathione (GSH), catalase (CAT) and reactive oxygen species (ROS), exhibiting anti-inflammatory and antioxidant properties. The expression of solute carrier family 7 member 11 (SLC7A11) and glutathione peroxidase 4 (GPX4) was increased, while prostaglandin-endoperoxide synthase 2 (Ptgs2) was decreased upon administration of Nano-taurine, suggesting that inhibiting ferroptosis may be involved in the mechanism during hepatic I/R injury. These results suggest that Nano-taurine have a targeted therapeutic effect on hepatic I/R injury by inhibiting inflammation, oxidative stress, and ferroptosis.

Current progress of mesenchymal stem cell membrane-camouflaged nanoparticles for targeted therapy

Nanodrug delivery systems have been widely used in disease treatment. However, weak drug targeting, easy to be cleared by the immune system, and low biocompatibility are great obstacles for drug delivery. As an important part of cell information transmission and behavior regulation, cell membrane can be used as drug coating material which represents a promising strategy and can overcome these limitations. Mesenchymal stem cell (MSC) membrane, as a new carrier, has the characteristics of active targeting and immune escape of MSC, and has broad application potential in tumor treatment, inflammatory disease, tissue regeneration and other fields. Here, we review recent progress on the use of MSC membrane-coated nanoparticles for therapy and drug delivery, aiming to provide guidance for the design and clinical application of membrane carrier in the future.

Bridging the Gap between Nonliving Matter and Cellular Life

A cell, the fundamental unit of life, contains the requisite blueprint information necessary to survive and to build tissues, organs, and systems, eventually forming a fully functional living creature. A slight structural alteration can result in data misprinting, throwing the entire life process off balance. Advances in synthetic biology and cell engineering enable the predictable redesign of biological systems to perform novel functions. Individual functions and fundamental processes at the core of the biology of cells can be investigated by employing a synthetically constrained micro or nanoreactor. However, constructing a life-like structure from nonliving building blocks remains a considerable challenge. Chemical compartments, cascade signaling, energy generation, growth, replication, and adaptation within micro or nanoreactors must be comparable with their biological counterparts. Although these reactors currently lack the power and behavioral sophistication of their biological equivalents, their interface with biological systems enables the development of hybrid solutions for real-world applications, such as therapeutic agents, biosensors, innovative materials, and biochemical microreactors. This review discusses the latest advances in cell membrane-engineered micro or nanoreactors, as well as the limitations associated with high-throughput preparation methods and biological applications for the real-time modulation of complex pathological states.

Biomimetic cell membrane-coated poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) nanoparticles for biomedical applications

Poly(lactic-co-glycolic acid) (PLGA) nanoparticles (NPs) are commonly used for drug delivery because of their favored biocompatibility and suitability for sustained and controlled drug release. To prolong NP circulation time, enable target-specific drug delivery and overcome physiological barriers, NPs camouflaged in cell membranes have been developed and evaluated to improve drug delivery. Here, we discuss recent advances in cell membrane-coated PLGA NPs, their preparation methods, and their application to cancer therapy, management of inflammation, treatment of cardiovascular disease and control of infection. We address the current challenges and highlight future research directions needed for effective use of cell membrane-camouflaged NPs.

Latest advances in biomimetic nanomaterials for diagnosis and treatment of cardiovascular disease

Cardiovascular disease remains one of the leading causes of death in China, with increasingly serious negative effects on people and society. Despite significant advances in preventing and treating cardiovascular diseases, such as atrial fibrillation/flutter and heart failure over the last few years, much more remains to be done. Therefore, developing innovative methods for identifying and managing cardiovascular disorders is critical. Nanomaterials provide multiple benefits in biomedicine, primarily better catalytic activity, drug loading, targeting, and imaging. Biomimetic materials and nanoparticles are specially combined to synthesize biomimetic nanoparticles that successfully reduce the nanoparticles' toxicity and immunogenicity while enhancing histocompatibility. Additionally, the biological targeting capability of nanoparticles facilitates the diagnosis and therapy of cardiovascular disease. Nowadays, nanomedicine still faces numerous challenges, which necessitates creating nanoparticles that are highly selective, toxic-free, and better clinically applicable. This study reviews the scientific accomplishments in this field over the past few years covering the classification, applications, and prospects of noble metal biomimetic nanozymes and biomimetic nanocarriers.

Advances in nanomaterial-based targeted drug delivery systems

Nanomaterial-based drug delivery systems (NBDDS) are widely used to improve the safety and therapeutic efficacy of encapsulated drugs due to their unique physicochemical and biological properties. By combining therapeutic drugs with nanoparticles using rational targeting pathways, nano-targeted delivery systems were created to overcome the main drawbacks of conventional drug treatment, including insufficient stability and solubility, lack of transmembrane transport, short circulation time, and undesirable toxic effects. Herein, we reviewed the recent developments in different targeting design strategies and therapeutic approaches employing various nanomaterial-based systems. We also discussed the challenges and perspectives of smart systems in precisely targeting different intravascular and extravascular diseases.

Advances in Extracellular Vesicle Nanotechnology for Precision Theranostics

Extracellular vesicles (EVs) have increasingly been recognized as important cell surrogates influencing many pathophysiological processes, including cellular homeostasis, cancer progression, neurologic disease, and infectious disease. These behaviors enable EVs broad application prospects for clinical application in disease diagnosis and treatment. Many studies suggest that EVs are superior to conventional synthetic carriers in terms of drug delivery and circulating biomarkers for early disease diagnosis, opening up new frontiers for modern theranostics. Despite these clinical potential, EVs containing diverse cellular components, such as nucleic acids, proteins, and metabolites are highly heterogeneous and small size. The limitation of preparatory, engineering and analytical technologies for EVs poses technical barriers to clinical translation. This article aims at present a critical overview of emerging technologies in EVs field for biomedical applications and challenges involved in their clinic translations. The current methods for isolation and identification of EVs are discussed. Additionally, engineering strategies developed to enhance scalable production and improved cargo loading as well as tumor targeting are presented. The superior clinical potential of EVs, particularly in terms of different cell origins and their application in the next generation of diagnostic and treatment platforms, are clarified.

All-stage targeted therapy for the brain metastasis from triple-negative breast cancer

Brain metastasis is a common and serious complication of breast cancer, which is commonly associated with poor survival and prognosis. In particular, the treatment of brain metastasis from triple-negative breast cancer (BM-TNBC) has to face the distinct therapeutic challenges from tumor heterogeneity, circulating tumor cells (CTCs), blood-brain barrier (BBB) and blood-tumor barrier (BTB), which is in unmet clinical needs. Herein, combining with the advantages of synthetic and natural targeting moieties, we develop a "Y-shaped" peptide pVAP-decorated platelet-hybrid liposome drug delivery system to address the all-stage targeted drug delivery for the whole progression of BM-TNBC. Inherited from the activated platelet, the hybrid liposomes still retain the native affinity toward CTCs. Further, the peptide-mediated targeting to breast cancer cells and transport across BBB/BTB are demonstrated in vitro and in vivo. The resultant delivery platform significantly improves the drug accumulation both in orthotopic breast tumors and brain metastatic lesions, and eventually exhibits an outperformance in the inhibition of BM-TNBC compared with the free drug. Overall, this work provides a promising prospect for the comprehensive treatment of BM-TNBC, which could be generalized to other cell types or used in imaging platforms in the future.

Nanodecoys: A Quintessential Candidate to Augment Theranostic Applications for a Plethora of Diseases

Nanoparticles (NPs) designed for various theranostic purposes have hugely impacted scientific research in the field of biomedicine, bringing forth hopes of a future revolutionized area called nanomedicine. A budding advancement in this area is the conjugation of various cell membranes onto nanoparticles to develop biomimetic cells called 'Nanodecoys' (NDs), which can imitate the functioning of natural cells. This technology of coating cell membranes on NPs has enhanced the working capabilities of nano-based techniques by initiating effective navigation within the bodily system. Due to the presence of multiple functional moieties, nanoparticles coated with cell membranes hold the ability to interact with complex biological microenvironments inside the body with ease. Although developed with the initial motive to increase the time of circulation in the bloodstream and stability by coating membranes of red blood cells, it has further outstretched a wide range of cell lines, such as mesenchymal stem cells, beta cells, thrombocytes, white blood cells, and cancer cells. Thus, these cells and the versatile properties they bring along with them open up a brand-new domain in the biomedical industry where different formulations of nanoparticles can be used in appropriate dosages to treat a plethora of diseases. This review comprises recent investigations of nanodecoys in biomedical applications.

Atherosclerosis: The Involvement of Immunity, Cytokines and Cells in Pathogenesis, and Potential Novel Therapeutics

As a leading contributor to coronary artery disease (CAD) and stroke, atherosclerosis has become one of the major cardiovascular diseases (CVD) negatively impacting patients worldwide. The endothelial injury is considered to be the initial step of the development of atherosclerosis, resulting in immune cell migration and activation as well as inflammatory factor secretion, which further leads to acute and chronic inflammation. In addition, the inflammation and lipid accumulation at the lesions stimulate specific responses from different types of cells, contributing to the pathological progression of atherosclerosis. As a result, recent studies have focused on using molecular biological approaches such as gene editing and nanotechnology to mediate cellular response during atherosclerotic development for therapeutic purposes. In this review, we systematically discuss inflammatory pathogenesis during the development of atherosclerosis from a cellular level with a focus on the blood cells, including all types of immune cells, together with crucial cells within the blood vessel, such as smooth muscle cells and endothelial cells. In addition, the latest progression of molecular-cellular based therapy for atherosclerosis is also discussed. We hope this review article could be beneficial for the clinical management of atherosclerosis.

HClO-triggered interventional probe enabled early detection and intervention of atherosclerosis

Foam cell formation and further accumulation in the subendothelial space of the vascular wall is a hallmark of early atherosclerosis (AS). Targeting foam cell formation can be a promising approach for the early detection and prevention of AS. However, only a few studies have actually examined foam cells in vivo, and most methods combined nanotechnology with angiography, which is complex and could cause further damage to the endothelium. Herein, based on methylene blue, a biosafe NIR dye approved by the FDA, an interventional probe (HMB-NA@Mp) triggered by hypochlorous acid (HClO) was designed for imaging foam cells easily, safely, and effectively in the early stage of AS. Here, encapsulation of the probe by foam cells targeted platelet membrane (Mp) increased probe targeting and reduced toxicity. Cell and animal experimental results showed that the probe could accumulate at the lesion site and significantly enhance fluorescence in the early AS model group. Remarkably, at the same time, it could also release the metabolite niacin, which played a role in inhibiting atherosclerosis. Thus, HMB-NA@Mp is expected to be a powerful means for the early detection and timely intervention of early AS in the absence of clinical symptoms.

Recent trends in platelet membrane-cloaked nanoparticles for application of inflammatory diseases

Platelets are multifunctional effectors of inflammatory responses and inseparable from the occurrence and development of various inflammatory diseases. The platelet membrane (PM) is integrated onto the surface of a nano-drug delivery system to form the PM-cloaked nanoparticles (PM@NPs), which can increase the biocompatibility of the nano-drug delivery system and mitigate adverse drug reactions. Owing to the strong affinity of immune regulation and adhesion-related antigens on the surface of PM to the focal sites of inflammatory diseases, which endows PM@NPs with the potential to actively target lesions and improve the therapeutic efficacy of drugs for inflammatory diseases. Based on latest developments in PM biomimetic technique and nanomedicine for the treatment of inflammatory diseases, this paper mainly elaborates three aspects: advantages of PM@NPs, experimental foundation of PM biomimetic nanotechnology, and applications of PM@NPs to the treatment of inflammatory diseases. The aim is to provide reference for the development and application of PM@NPs and novel insights into the treatment of inflammatory diseases.

Cell-Derived Vesicles for Nanoparticles' Coating: Biomimetic Approaches for Enhanced Blood Circulation and Cancer Therapy

Cancer nanomedicines are designed to encapsulate different therapeutic agents, prevent their premature release, and deliver them specifically to cancer cells, due to their ability to preferentially accumulate in tumor tissue. However, after intravenous administration, nanoparticles immediately interact with biological components that facilitate their recognition by the immune system, being rapidly removed from circulation. Reports show that less than 1% of the administered nanoparticles effectively reach the tumor site. This suboptimal pharmacokinetic profile is pointed out as one of the main factors for the nanoparticles' suboptimal therapeutic effectiveness and poor translation to the clinic. Therefore, an extended blood circulation time may be crucial to increase the nanoparticles' chances of being accumulated in the tumor and promote a site-specific delivery of therapeutic agents. For that purpose, the understanding of the forces that govern the nanoparticles' interaction with biological components and the impact of the physicochemical properties on the in vivo fate will allow the development of novel and more effective nanomedicines. Therefore, in this review, the nano-bio interactions are summarized. Moreover, the application of cell-derived vesicles for extending the blood circulation time and tumor accumulation is reviewed, focusing on the advantages and shortcomings of each cell source.

Pro-efferocytic macrophage membrane biomimetic nanoparticles for the synergistic treatment of atherosclerosis via competition effect

Macrophages participate in many links in the pathological process of atherosclerosis (AS) and the regulation of influence of macrophages at the molecular level might be a new avenue for AS treatment. For this aim, the macrophage membrane biomimetic nanoparticles, derived from macrophage membrane coated SHP1i-loaded liposome NPs (MM@Lips-SHP1i) was designed. Due to the reservation of intrinsic membrane proteins and function from macrophages, the biomimic nanoparticles could effectively evade clearance by the immune system, prolong blood circulation time and actively tend and aggregate to atherosclerotic plaques. More importantly, in the plaque area, MM@Lips-SHP1i nanoparticles could compete with macrophages in vivo to bind with oxidized low-density lipoprotein (oxLDL) and lipopolysaccharide (LPS), reduce uptake of new lipids by macrophages, reduce foam cell formation, and inhibit the expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines. In addition, small molecule inhibitor of SHP-1, the downstream effector molecule of CD47 loaded in macrophage membrane biomimetic nanoparticles could interrupt CD47-SIRPα signal transduction in monocytes and macrophages, thereby enhancing the efferocytosis of macrophages, inhibiting the progression of plaque, achieving synergistic treatment of atherosclerosis. This work focuses on the key process in the formation of AS, macrophage foaming and chronic inflammation, and is based on the fact that macrophage membrane biomimetic nanoparticles can preserve the key surface proteins of macrophages closely related to the formation of AS, providing a new avenue to inhibit the progression of AS by utilizing the biological characteristics of macrophage membrane in macrophage membrane biomimetic nanoparticles.

Platelets and platelet extracellular vesicles in drug delivery therapy: A review of the current status and future prospects

Platelets are blood cells that are primarily produced by the shedding of megakaryocytes in the bone marrow. Platelets participate in a variety of physiological and pathological processes in vivo, including hemostasis, thrombosis, immune-inflammation, tumor progression, and metastasis. Platelets have been widely used for targeted drug delivery therapies for treating various inflammatory and tumor-related diseases. Compared to other drug-loaded treatments, drug-loaded platelets have better targeting, superior biocompatibility, and lower immunogenicity. Drug-loaded platelet therapies include platelet membrane coating, platelet engineering, and biomimetic platelets. Recent studies have indicated that platelet extracellular vesicles (PEVs) may have more advantages compared with traditional drug-loaded platelets. PEVs are the most abundant vesicles in the blood and exhibit many of the functional characteristics of platelets. Notably, PEVs have excellent biological efficacy, which facilitates the therapeutic benefits of targeted drug delivery. This article provides a summary of platelet and PEVs biology and discusses their relationships with diseases. In addition, we describe the preparation, drug-loaded methods, and specific advantages of platelets and PEVs targeted drug delivery therapies for treating inflammation and tumors. We summarize the hot spots analysis of scientific articles on PEVs and provide a research trend, which aims to give a unique insight into the development of PEVs research focus.

Synthesis and Characterization of Fucoidan-Chitosan Nanoparticles Targeting P-Selectin for Effective Atherosclerosis Therapy

Atherosclerosis is the key pathogenesis of cardiovascular diseases; oxidative stress, which is induced by the generated excess reactive oxygen species (ROS), has been a crucial mechanism underlying this pathology. Nanoparticles (NPs) represent a novel strategy for the development of potential therapies against atherosclerosis, and multifunctional NPs possessing antioxidative capacities hold promise for amelioration of vascular injury caused by ROS and for evading off-target effects; materials that are currently used for NP synthesis often serve as vehicles that do not possess intrinsic biological activities; however, they may affect the surrounding healthy environment due to decomposition of products. Herein, we used nontoxic fucoidan, a sulfated polysaccharide derived from a marine organism, to develop chitosan–fucoidan nanoparticles (CFNs). Then, by binding to P-selectin, an inflammatory adhesion exhibited molecule expression on the endothelial cells and activated platelets, blocking leukocyte recruitment and rolling on platelets and endothelium. CFNs exhibit antioxidant and anti-inflammatory properties. Nevertheless, by now, the application of CFNs for the target delivery regarding therapeutics specific to atherosclerotic plaques is not well investigated. The produced CFNs were physicochemically characterized using transmission electron microscopy (TEM), together with Fourier transform infrared spectroscopy (FTIR). Evaluations of the in vitro antioxidant as well as anti-inflammatory activities exhibited by CFNs were based on the measurement of their ROS scavenging abilities and investigating inflammatory mediator levels. The in vivo pharmacokinetics and binding efficiency of the CFNs to atherosclerotic plaques were also evaluated. The therapeutic effects indicated that CFNs effectively suppressed local oxidative stress and inflammation by targeting P-selectin in atheromatous plaques and thereby preventing the progression of atherosclerosis.

Recent advances of natural and bioengineered extracellular vesicles and their application in vascular regeneration

The progression of cardiovascular diseases such as atherosclerosis and myocardial infarction leads to serious vascular injury, highlighting the urgent need for targeted regenerative therapy. Extracellular vesicles (EVs) composed of a lipid bilayer containing nuclear and cytosolic materials are relevant to the progression of cardiovascular diseases. Moreover, EVs can deliver bioactive cargo in pathological cardiovascular and regulate the biological function of recipient cells, such as inflammation, proliferation, angiogenesis and polarization. However, because the targeting and bioactivity of natural EVs are subject to several limitations, bioengineered EVs have achieved wide advancements in biomedicine. Bioengineered EVs involve three main ways to acquire including (i) modification of the EVs after isolation; (ii) modification of producer cells before EVs’ isolation; (iii) synthesize EVs using natural or modified cell membranes, and encapsulating drugs or bioactive molecules into EVs. In this review, we first summarize the cardiovascular injury-related disease and describe the role of different cells and EVs in vascular regeneration. We also discuss the application of bioengineered EVs from different producer cells to cardiovascular diseases. Finally, we summarize the surface modification on EVs which can specifically target abnormal cells in injured vascular.