A2A receptor knockout worsens survival and motor behaviour in a transgenic mouse model of Huntington's disease

The Pharmacological Potential of Adenosine A2A Receptor Antagonists for Treating Parkinson's Disease

The adenosine A_2A receptor subtype is recognized as a non-dopaminergic pharmacological target for the treatment of neurodegenerative disorders, notably Parkinson’s disease (PD). The selective A_2A receptor antagonist istradefylline is approved in the US and Japan as an adjunctive treatment to levodopa/decarboxylase inhibitors in adults with PD experiencing OFF episodes or a wearing-off phenomenon; however, the full potential of this drug class remains to be explored. In this article, we review the pharmacology of adenosine A_2A receptor antagonists from the perspective of the treatment of both motor and non-motor symptoms of PD and their potential for disease modification.

Spontaneous Adenosine and Dopamine Cotransmission in the Caudate-Putamen Is Regulated by Adenosine Receptors

Transient changes in adenosine and dopamine have been measured in vivo, but no studies have examined if these transient changes occur simultaneously. In this study, we characterized spontaneous adenosine and dopamine transients in anesthetized mice, examining coincident release in the caudate-putamen for the first time. We found that in C57B mice, most of the dopamine transients (77%) were coincident with adenosine, but fewer adenosine transients (12%) were coincident with a dopamine transient. On average, the dopamine transient started 200 ms before its coincident adenosine transient, so they occurred concurrently. There was a positive correlation (r = 0.7292) of adenosine and dopamine concentrations during coincident release. ATP is quickly broken down to adenosine in the extracellular space, and the coincident events may be due to corelease, where dopaminergic vesicles are packaged with ATP, or cotransmission, where ATP is packaged in different vesicles released simultaneously with dopamine. The high frequency of adenosine transients compared to that of dopamine transients suggests that adenosine is also released from nondopaminergic vesicles. We investigated how A₁ and A_2A adenosine receptors regulate adenosine and dopamine transients using A₁ and A_2AKO mice. In A₁KO mice, the frequency of adenosine and dopamine transients increased, while in A_2AKO mice, the frequency of adenosine alone increased. Adenosine receptors modulate coincident transients and could be drug targets to modulate both dopamine and adenosine release. Many spontaneous dopamine transients have coincident adenosine release, and regulating adenosine and dopamine cotransmission could be important for designing treatments for dopamine diseases, such as Parkinson's or addiction.

Emerging roles of dysregulated adenosine homeostasis in brain disorders with a specific focus on neurodegenerative diseases

In modern societies, with an increase in the older population, age-related neurodegenerative diseases have progressively become greater socioeconomic burdens. To date, despite the tremendous effort devoted to understanding neurodegenerative diseases in recent decades, treatment to delay disease progression is largely ineffective and is in urgent demand. The development of new strategies targeting these pathological features is a timely topic. It is important to note that most degenerative diseases are associated with the accumulation of specific misfolded proteins, which is facilitated by several common features of neurodegenerative diseases (including poor energy homeostasis and mitochondrial dysfunction). Adenosine is a purine nucleoside and neuromodulator in the brain. It is also an essential component of energy production pathways, cellular metabolism, and gene regulation in brain cells. The levels of intracellular and extracellular adenosine are thus tightly controlled by a handful of proteins (including adenosine metabolic enzymes and transporters) to maintain proper adenosine homeostasis. Notably, disruption of adenosine homeostasis in the brain under various pathophysiological conditions has been documented. In the past two decades, adenosine receptors (particularly A₁ and A_2A adenosine receptors) have been actively investigated as important drug targets in major degenerative diseases. Unfortunately, except for an A_2A antagonist (istradefylline) administered as an adjuvant treatment with levodopa for Parkinson's disease, no effective drug based on adenosine receptors has been developed for neurodegenerative diseases. In this review, we summarize the emerging findings on proteins involved in the control of adenosine homeostasis in the brain and discuss the challenges and future prospects for the development of new therapeutic treatments for neurodegenerative diseases and their associated disorders based on the understanding of adenosine homeostasis.

Purinergic Signaling in the Pathophysiology and Treatment of Huntington's Disease

Huntington’s disease (HD) is a devastating, progressive, and fatal neurodegenerative disorder inherited in an autosomal dominant manner. This condition is characterized by motor dysfunction (chorea in the early stage, followed by bradykinesia, dystonia, and motor incoordination in the late stage), psychiatric disturbance, and cognitive decline. The neuropathological hallmark of HD is the pronounced neuronal loss in the striatum (caudate nucleus and putamen). The striatum is related to the movement control, flexibility, motivation, and learning and the purinergic signaling has an important role in the control of these events. Purinergic signaling involves the actions of purine nucleotides and nucleosides through the activation of P2 and P1 receptors, respectively. Extracellular nucleotide and nucleoside-metabolizing enzymes control the levels of these messengers, modulating the purinergic signaling. The striatum has a high expression of adenosine A_2A receptors, which are involved in the neurodegeneration observed in HD. The P2X7 and P2Y2 receptors may also play a role in the pathophysiology of HD. Interestingly, nucleotide and nucleoside levels may be altered in HD animal models and humans with HD. This review presents several studies describing the relationship between purinergic signaling and HD, as well as the use of purinoceptors as pharmacological targets and biomarkers for this neurodegenerative disorder.

Purine Nucleotides Metabolism and Signaling in Huntington's Disease: Search for a Target for Novel Therapies

Huntington’s disease (HD) is a multi-system disorder that is caused by expanded CAG repeats within the exon-1 of the huntingtin (HTT) gene that translate to the polyglutamine stretch in the HTT protein. HTT interacts with the proteins involved in gene transcription, endocytosis, and metabolism. HTT may also directly or indirectly affect purine metabolism and signaling. We aimed to review existing data and discuss the modulation of the purinergic system as a new therapeutic target in HD. Impaired intracellular nucleotide metabolism in the HD affected system (CNS, skeletal muscle and heart) may lead to extracellular accumulation of purine metabolites, its unusual catabolism, and modulation of purinergic signaling. The mechanisms of observed changes might be different in affected systems. Based on collected findings, compounds leading to purine and ATP pool reconstruction as well as purinergic receptor activity modulators, i.e., P2X7 receptor antagonists, may be applied for HD treatment.

Effects of mutant huntingtin inactivation on Huntington disease-related behaviours in the BACHD mouse model

AIMS

Huntington disease (HD) is a fatal neurodegenerative disorder with no disease-modifying treatments approved so far. Ongoing clinical trials are attempting to reduce huntingtin (HTT) expression in the central nervous system (CNS) using different strategies. Yet, the distribution and timing of HTT-lowering therapies required for a beneficial clinical effect is less clear. Here, we investigated whether HD-related behaviours could be prevented by inactivating mutant HTT at different disease stages and to varying degrees in an experimental model.

METHODS

We generated mutant BACHD mice with either a widespread or circuit-specific inactivation of mutant HTT by using Cre recombinase (Cre) under the nestin promoter or the adenosine A2A receptor promoter respectively. We also simulated a clinical gene therapy scenario with allele-specific HTT targeting by injections of recombinant adeno-associated viral (rAAV) vectors expressing Cre into the striatum of adult BACHD mice. All mice were assessed using behavioural tests to investigate motor, metabolic and psychiatric outcome measures at 4-6 months of age.

RESULTS

While motor deficits, body weight changes, anxiety and depressive-like behaviours are present in BACHD mice, early widespread CNS inactivation during development significantly improves rotarod performance, body weight changes and depressive-like behaviour. However, conditional circuit-wide mutant HTT deletion from the indirect striatal pathway during development and focal striatal-specific deletion in adulthood failed to rescue any of the HD-related behaviours.

CONCLUSIONS

Our results indicate that widespread targeting and the timing of interventions aimed at reducing mutant HTT are important factors to consider when developing disease-modifying therapies for HD.

Development of 18F-Labeled Radiotracers for PET Imaging of the Adenosine A2A Receptor: Synthesis, Radiolabeling and Preliminary Biological Evaluation

The adenosine A_2A receptor (A_2AR) represents a potential therapeutic target for neurodegenerative diseases. Aiming at the development of a positron emission tomography (PET) radiotracer to monitor changes of receptor density and/or occupancy during the A_2AR-tailored therapy, we designed a library of fluorinated analogs based on a recently published lead compound (PPY). Among those, the highly affine 4-fluorobenzyl derivate (PPY1; K_i(hA_2AR) = 5.3 nM) and the 2-fluorobenzyl derivate (PPY2; K_i(hA_2AR) = 2.1 nM) were chosen for ¹⁸F-labeling via an alcohol-enhanced copper-mediated procedure starting from the corresponding boronic acid pinacol ester precursors. Investigations of the metabolic stability of [¹⁸F]PPY1 and [18F]PPY2 in CD-1 mice by radio-HPLC analysis revealed parent fractions of more than 76% of total activity in the brain. Specific binding of [¹⁸F]PPY2 on mice brain slices was demonstrated by in vitro autoradiography. In vivo PET/magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) studies in CD-1 mice revealed a reasonable high initial brain uptake for both radiotracers, followed by a fast clearance.

Use of knockout mice to explore CNS effects of adenosine

The initial exploration using pharmacological tools of the role of adenosine receptors in the brain, concluded that adenosine released as such acted on A₁R to inhibit excitability and glutamate release from principal neurons throughout the brain and that adenosine A_2A receptors (A_2AR) were striatal-'specific' receptors controlling dopamine D₂R. This indicted A₁R as potential controllers of neurodegeneration and A_2AR of psychiatric conditions. Global knockout of these two receptors questioned the key role of A₁R and instead identified extra-striatal A_2AR as robust controllers of neurodegeneration. Furthermore, transgenic lines with altered metabolic sources of adenosine revealed a coupling of ATP-derived adenosine to activate A_2AR and a role of A₁R as a hurdle to initiate neurodegeneration. Additionally, cell-selective knockout of A_2AR unveiled the different roles of A_2AR in different cell types (neurons/astrocytes) in different portions of the striatal circuits (dorsal versus lateral) and in different brain areas (hippocampus/striatum). Finally, a new transgenic mouse line with deletion of all adenosine receptors seems to indicate a major allostatic rather than homeostatic role of adenosine and may allow isolating P2R-mediated responses to unravel their role in the brain, a goal close to heart of Geoffrey Burnstock, to whom we affectionately dedicate this review.

Purinergic Receptors in Basal Ganglia Diseases: Shared Molecular Mechanisms between Huntington's and Parkinson's Disease

Huntington's (HD) and Parkinson's diseases (PD) are neurodegenerative disorders caused by the death of GABAergic and dopaminergic neurons in the basal ganglia leading to hyperkinetic and hypokinetic symptoms, respectively. We review here the participation of purinergic receptors through intracellular Ca2+ signaling in these neurodegenerative diseases. The adenosine A2A receptor stimulates striatopallidal GABAergic neurons, resulting in inhibitory actions on GABAergic neurons of the globus pallidus. A2A and dopamine D2 receptors form functional heteromeric complexes inducing allosteric inhibition, and A2A receptor activation results in motor inhibition. Furthermore, the A2A receptor physically and functionally interacts with glutamate receptors, mainly with the mGlu5 receptor subtype. This interaction facilitates glutamate release, resulting in NMDA glutamate receptor activation and an increase of Ca2+ influx. P2X7 receptor activation also promotes glutamate release and neuronal damage. Thus, modulation of purinergic receptor activity, such as A2A and P2X7 receptors, and subsequent aberrant Ca2+ signaling, might present interesting therapeutic potential for HD and PD.

Adenosine A2A Receptors in Bone Marrow-Derived Cells Attenuate Cognitive Impairment in Mice After Chronic Hypoperfusion White Matter Injury

The mechanism of cognitive dysfunction caused by ischemic white matter lesions is unclear. To explore the effect and mechanism of different cell-derived adenosine A_2A receptor (A_2AR) in cognitive impairment caused by chronic hypoperfusion white matter lesions (CHWMLs), we destroyed the bone marrow hematopoietic capacity of the recipient mice using radiation irradiation followed by establishing the selectively inactivated or reconstituted A_2AR models with the transplanting bone marrow from global A_2AR gene knockout or wild-type mice into wild-type or gene knockout mice, respectively. Then Morris Water Maze (MWM), ELISA, immunohistochemistry, and Bielschowsky silver staining were used to assess the effect and mechanism of the cognitive function in chronic cerebral blood flow hypoperfusion (CCH) model. Selectively reconstructing bone marrow-derived cells (BMDCs) A_2AR (WT → KO group) and activated total adenosine A_2AR with CGS21680 (CCH + CGS group) improved the cognitive related index. Activation of BMDC A_2AR suppressed expression of inflammatory cytokines in peripheral blood and reduced the number of activated microglia cells co-localized with cystatin F in local brain, consequently inhibited white matter lesions. On the contrary, selective inactivation of adenosine A_2AR (KO → WT group) and activation of non-BMDC A_2AR with CGS21680 (KO → WT + CGS group) served the opposite effects. These results suggested that BMDC A_2AR could inhibit white matter lesions and attenuate cognitive impairment after CHWMLs, whereas non-BMDC A_2ARs aggravate cognitive impairment. The systemic inflammatory response and local activated microglia with cystatin F high expression were involved in the process of cognitive function recovery with BMDC A_2AR. The overall trend is that BMDC A_2ARs play a leading role.

The Role of Adenosine Tone and Adenosine Receptors in Huntington's Disease

Huntington's disease (HD) is a hereditary neurodegenerative disorder caused by a mutation in the IT15 gene that encodes for the huntingtin protein. Mutated hungtingtin, although widely expressed in the brain, predominantly affects striato-pallidal neurons, particularly enriched with adenosine A2A receptors (A2AR), suggesting a possible involvement of adenosine and A2AR is the pathogenesis of HD. In fact, polymorphic variation in the ADORA2A gene influences the age at onset in HD, and A2AR dynamics is altered by mutated huntingtin. Basal levels of adenosine and adenosine receptors are involved in many processes critical for neuronal function and homeostasis, including modulation of synaptic activity and excitotoxicity, the control of neurotrophin levels and functions, and the regulation of protein degradation mechanisms. In the present review, we critically analyze the current literature involving the effect of altered adenosine tone and adenosine receptors in HD and discuss why therapeutics that modulate the adenosine system may represent a novel approach for the treatment of HD.

Neuronal adenosine A2A receptor overexpression is neuroprotective towards 3-nitropropionic acid-induced striatal toxicity: a rat model of Huntington's disease

The A_2A adenosine receptor (A_2AR) is widely distributed on different cellular types in the brain, where it exerts a broad spectrum of pathophysiological functions, and for which a role in different neurodegenerative diseases has been hypothesized or demonstrated. To investigate the role of neuronal A_2ARs in neurodegeneration, we evaluated in vitro and in vivo the effect of the neurotoxin 3-nitropropionic acid (3-NP) in a transgenic rat strain overexpressing A_2ARs under the control of the neural-specific enolase promoter (NSEA_2A rats). We recorded extracellular field potentials (FP) in corticostriatal slice and found that the synaptotoxic effect of 3-NP was significantly reduced in NSEA_2A rats compared with wild-type animals (WT). In addition, after exposing corticostriatal slices to 3-NP 10 mM for 2 h, we found that striatal cell viability was significantly higher in NSEA_2A rats compared to control rats. These in vitro results were confirmed by in vivo experiments: daily treatment of female rats with 3-NP 10 mg/kg for 8 days induced a selective bilateral lesion in the striatum, which was significantly reduced in NSEA_2A compared to WT rats. These results demonstrate that the overexpression of the A_2AR selectively at the neuronal level reduced 3-NP-induced neurodegeneration, and suggest an important function of the neuronal A_2AR in the modulation of neurodegeneration.

Purinergic Receptors in Neurological Diseases With Motor Symptoms: Targets for Therapy

Since proving adenosine triphosphate (ATP) functions as a neurotransmitter in neuron/glia interactions, the purinergic system has been more intensely studied within the scope of the central nervous system. In neurological disorders with associated motor symptoms, including Parkinson's disease (PD), motor neuron diseases (MND), multiple sclerosis (MS), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS), Huntington's Disease (HD), restless leg syndrome (RLS), and ataxias, alterations in purinergic receptor expression and activity have been noted, indicating a potential role for this system in disease etiology and progression. In neurodegenerative conditions, neural cell death provokes extensive ATP release and alters calcium signaling through purinergic receptor modulation. Consequently, neuroinflammatory responses, excitotoxicity and apoptosis are directly or indirectly induced. This review analyzes currently available data, which suggests involvement of the purinergic system in neuro-associated motor dysfunctions and underlying mechanisms. Possible targets for pharmacological interventions are also discussed.

Singular Location and Signaling Profile of Adenosine A2A-Cannabinoid CB1 Receptor Heteromers in the Dorsal Striatum

The dorsal striatum is a key node for many neurobiological processes such as motor activity, cognitive functions, and affective processes. The proper functioning of striatal neurons relies critically on metabotropic receptors. Specifically, the main adenosine and endocannabinoid receptors present in the striatum, ie, adenosine A_2A receptor (A_2AR) and cannabinoid CB₁ receptor (CB₁R), are of pivotal importance in the control of neuronal excitability. Facilitatory and inhibitory functional interactions between striatal A_2AR and CB₁R have been reported, and evidence supports that this cross-talk may rely, at least in part, on the formation of A_2AR-CB₁R heteromeric complexes. However, the specific location and properties of these heteromers have remained largely unknown. Here, by using techniques that allowed a precise visualization of the heteromers in situ in combination with sophisticated genetically modified animal models, together with biochemical and pharmacological approaches, we provide a high-resolution expression map and a detailed functional characterization of A_2AR-CB₁R heteromers in the dorsal striatum. Specifically, our data unveil that the A_2AR-CB₁R heteromer (i) is essentially absent from corticostriatal projections and striatonigral neurons, and, instead, is largely present in striatopallidal neurons, (ii) displays a striking G protein-coupled signaling profile, where co-stimulation of both receptors leads to strongly reduced downstream signaling, and (iii) undergoes an unprecedented dysfunction in Huntington's disease, an archetypal disease that affects striatal neurons. Altogether, our findings may open a new conceptual framework to understand the role of coordinated adenosine-endocannabinoid signaling in the indirect striatal pathway, which may be relevant in motor function and neurodegenerative diseases.

In Vivo PET Imaging of Adenosine 2A Receptors in Neuroinflammatory and Neurodegenerative Disease

Adenosine receptors are G-protein coupled P1 purinergic receptors that are broadly expressed in the peripheral immune system, vasculature, and the central nervous system (CNS). Within the immune system, adenosine 2A (A_2A) receptor-mediated signaling exerts a suppressive effect on ongoing inflammation. In healthy CNS, A_2A receptors are expressed mainly within the neurons of the basal ganglia. Alterations in A_2A receptor function and expression have been noted in movement disorders, and in Parkinson's disease pharmacological A_2A receptor antagonism leads to diminished motor symptoms. Although A_2A receptors are expressed only at a low level in the healthy CNS outside striatum, pathological challenge or inflammation has been shown to lead to upregulation of A_2A receptors in extrastriatal CNS tissue, and this has been successfully quantitated using in vivo positron emission tomography (PET) imaging and A_2A receptor-binding radioligands. Several radioligands for PET imaging of A_2A receptors have been developed in recent years, and A_2A receptor-targeting PET imaging may thus provide a potential additional tool to evaluate various aspects of neuroinflammation in vivo. This review article provides a brief overview of A_2A receptors in healthy brain and in a selection of most important neurological diseases and describes the recent advances in A_2A receptor-targeting PET imaging studies.

Targeting ENT1 and adenosine tone for the treatment of Huntington's disease

Huntington's disease (HD) is caused by an abnormal CAG expansion in the exon 1 of huntingtin gene. The treatment of HD is an unmet medical need. Given the important role of adenosine in modulating brain activity, in this study, levels of adenosine and adenine nucleotides in the cerebral spinal fluid of patients with HD and in the brain of two mouse models of HD (R6/2 and Hdh150Q) were analysed. The expression and activity of ENT1 in the striatum of mice with HD were measured. Targeting adenosine tone for treating HD was examined in R6/2 mice by genetic removal of ENT1 and by giving an ENT1 inhibitor, respectively. The results showed that the adenosine homeostasis is dysregulated in the brain of patients and mice with HD. In patients, the ratio of adenosine/ATP in the cerebral spinal fluid was negatively correlated with the disease duration, and tended to have a positive correlation with independence scale and functional capacity. In comparison to controls, mRNA level of ENT1 was higher in the striatum of R6/2 and Hdh150Q mice. Intrastriatal administration of ENT1 inhibitors increased extracellular level of adenosine in the striatum of R6/2 mice to a much higher level than controls. Chronic inhibition of ENT1 or by genetic removal of ENT1 enhanced the survival of R6/2 mice. Collectively, adenosine homeostasis and ENT1 expression are altered in HD. The inhibition of ENT1 can enhance extracellular adenosine level and be a potential therapeutic approach for treating HD.

Synaptopathic mechanisms of neurodegeneration and dementia: Insights from Huntington's disease

Dementia encapsulates a set of symptoms that include loss of mental abilities such as memory, problem solving or language, and reduces a person's ability to perform daily activities. Alzheimer's disease is the most common form of dementia, however dementia can also occur in other neurological disorders such as Huntington's disease (HD). Many studies have demonstrated that loss of neuronal cell function manifests pre-symptomatically and thus is a relevant therapeutic target to alleviate symptoms. Synaptopathy, the physiological dysfunction of synapses, is now being approached as the target for many neurological and psychiatric disorders, including HD. HD is an autosomal dominant and progressive degenerative disorder, with clinical manifestations that encompass movement, cognition, mood and behaviour. HD is one of the most common tandem repeat disorders and is caused by a trinucleotide (CAG) repeat expansion, encoding an extended polyglutamine tract in the huntingtin protein. Animal models as well as human studies have provided detailed, although not exhaustive, evidence of synaptic dysfunction in HD. In this review, we discuss the neuropathology of HD and how the changes in synaptic signalling in the diseased brain lead to its symptoms, which include dementia. Here, we review and discuss the mechanisms by which the 'molecular orchestras' and their 'synaptic symphonies' are disrupted in neurodegeneration and dementia, focusing on HD as a model disease. We also explore the therapeutic strategies currently in pre-clinical and clinical testing that are targeted towards improving synaptic function in HD.

The neuroprotective effects of caffeine in neurodegenerative diseases

Caffeine is the most widely used psychostimulant in Western countries, with antioxidant, anti-inflammatory and anti-apoptotic properties. In Alzheimer's disease (AD), caffeine is beneficial in both men and women, in humans and animals. Similar effects of caffeine were observed in men with Parkinson's disease (PD); however, the effect of caffeine in female PD patients is controversial due to caffeine's competition with estrogen for the estrogen-metabolizing enzyme, CYP1A2. Studies conducted in animal models of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) showed protective effects of A2A R antagonism. A study found caffeine to be associated with earlier age of onset of Huntington's disease (HD) at intakes >190 mg/d, but studies in animal models have found equivocal results. Caffeine is protective in AD and PD at dosages equivalent to 3-5 mg/kg. However, further research is needed to investigate the effects of caffeine on PD in women. As well, the effects of caffeine in ALS, HD and Machado-Joseph disease need to be further investigated. Caffeine's most salient mechanisms of action relevant to neurodegenerative diseases need to be further explored.

How does adenosine control neuronal dysfunction and neurodegeneration?

The adenosine modulation system mostly operates through inhibitory A₁ (A₁ R) and facilitatory A_2A receptors (A_2A R) in the brain. The activity-dependent release of adenosine acts as a brake of excitatory transmission through A₁ R, which are enriched in glutamatergic terminals. Adenosine sharpens salience of information encoding in neuronal circuits: high-frequency stimulation triggers ATP release in the 'activated' synapse, which is locally converted by ecto-nucleotidases into adenosine to selectively activate A_2A R; A_2A R switch off A₁ R and CB1 receptors, bolster glutamate release and NMDA receptors to assist increasing synaptic plasticity in the 'activated' synapse; the parallel engagement of the astrocytic syncytium releases adenosine further inhibiting neighboring synapses, thus sharpening the encoded plastic change. Brain insults trigger a large outflow of adenosine and ATP, as a danger signal. A₁ R are a hurdle for damage initiation, but they desensitize upon prolonged activation. However, if the insult is near-threshold and/or of short-duration, A₁ R trigger preconditioning, which may limit the spread of damage. Brain insults also up-regulate A_2A R, probably to bolster adaptive changes, but this heightens brain damage since A_2A R blockade affords neuroprotection in models of epilepsy, depression, Alzheimer's, or Parkinson's disease. This initially involves a control of synaptotoxicity by neuronal A_2A R, whereas astrocytic and microglia A_2A R might control the spread of damage. The A_2A R signaling mechanisms are largely unknown since A_2A R are pleiotropic, coupling to different G proteins and non-canonical pathways to control the viability of glutamatergic synapses, neuroinflammation, mitochondria function, and cytoskeleton dynamics. Thus, simultaneously bolstering A₁ R preconditioning and preventing excessive A_2A R function might afford maximal neuroprotection. The main physiological role of the adenosine modulation system is to sharp the salience of information encoding through a combined action of adenosine A_2A receptors (A_2A R) in the synapse undergoing an alteration of synaptic efficiency with an increased inhibitory action of A₁ R in all surrounding synapses. Brain insults trigger an up-regulation of A_2A R in an attempt to bolster adaptive plasticity together with adenosine release and A₁ R desensitization; this favors synaptotocity (increased A_2A R) and decreases the hurdle to undergo degeneration (decreased A₁ R). Maximal neuroprotection is expected to result from a combined A_2A R blockade and increased A₁ R activation. This article is part of a mini review series: "Synaptic Function and Dysfunction in Brain Diseases".

Purinergic signaling and energy homeostasis in psychiatric disorders

Purinergic signaling regulates numerous vital biological processes in the central nervous system (CNS). The two principle purines, ATP and adenosine act as excitatory and inhibitory neurotransmitters, respectively. Compared to other classical neurotransmitters, the role of purinergic signaling in psychiatric disorders is not well understood or appreciated. Because ATP exerts its main effect on energy homeostasis, neuronal function of ATP has been underestimated. Similarly, adenosine is primarily appreciated as a precursor of nucleotide synthesis during active cell growth and division. However, recent findings suggest that purinergic signaling may explain how neuronal activity is associated neuronal energy charge and energy homeostasis, especially in mental disorders. In this review, we provide an overview of the synaptic function of mitochondria and purines in neuromodulation, synaptic plasticity, and neuron-glia interactions. We summarize how mitochondrial and purinergic dysfunction contribute to mental illnesses such as schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, autism spectrum disorder (ASD), depression, and addiction. Finally, we discuss future implications regarding the pharmacological targeting of mitochondrial and purinergic function for the treatment of psychiatric disorders.

Inactivation of adenosine A2A receptors reverses working memory deficits at early stages of Huntington's disease models

Cognitive impairments in Huntington's disease (HD) are attributed to a dysfunction of the cortico-striatal pathway and significantly affect the quality of life of the patients, but this has not been a therapeutic focus in HD to date. We postulated that adenosine A(2A) receptors (A(2A)R), located at pre- and post-synaptic elements of the cortico-striatal pathways, modulate striatal neurotransmission and synaptic plasticity and cognitive behaviors. To critically evaluate the ability of A(2A)R inactivation to prevent cognitive deficits in early HD, we cross-bred A(2A)R knockout (KO) mice with two R6/2 transgenic lines of HD (CAG120 and CAG240) to generate two double transgenic R6/2-CAG120-A(2A)R KO and R6/2-CAG240-A(2A)R KO mice and their corresponding wild-type (WT) littermates. Genetic inactivation of A(2A)R prevented working memory deficits induced by R6/2-CAG120 at post-natal week 6 and by R6/2-CAG240 at post-natal month 2 and post-natal month 3, without modifying motor deficits. Similarly the A2(A)R antagonist KW6002 selectively reverted working memory deficits in R6/2-CAG240 mice at post-natal month 3. The search for possible mechanisms indicated that the genetic inactivation of A(2A)R did not affect ubiquitin-positive neuronal inclusions, astrogliosis or Thr-75 phosphorylation of DARPP-32 in the striatum. Importantly, A(2A)R blockade preferentially controlled long-term depression at cortico-striatal synapses in R6/2-CAG240 at post-natal week 6. The reported reversal of working memory deficits in R6/2 mice by the genetic and pharmacological inactivation of A(2A)R provides a proof-of-principle for A(2A)R as novel targets to reverse cognitive deficits in HD, likely by controlling LTD deregulation.

Striatal long noncoding RNA Abhd11os is neuroprotective against an N-terminal fragment of mutant huntingtin in vivo

A large number of gene products that are enriched in the striatum have ill-defined functions, although they may have key roles in age-dependent neurodegenerative diseases affecting the striatum, especially Huntington disease (HD). In the present study, we focused on Abhd11os, (called ABHD11-AS1 in human) which is a putative long noncoding RNA (lncRNA) whose expression is enriched in the mouse striatum. We confirm that despite the presence of 2 small open reading frames (ORFs) in its sequence, Abhd11os is not translated into a detectable peptide in living cells. We demonstrate that Abhd11os levels are markedly reduced in different mouse models of HD. We performed in vivo experiments in mice using lentiviral vectors encoding either Abhd11os or a small hairpin RNA targeting Abhd11os. Results show that Abhd11os overexpression produces neuroprotection against an N-terminal fragment of mutant huntingtin, whereas Abhd11os knockdown is protoxic. These novel results indicate that the loss lncRNA Abhd11os likely contribute to striatal vulnerability in HD. Our study emphasizes that lncRNA may play crucial roles in neurodegenerative diseases.

Possible involvement of self-defense mechanisms in the preferential vulnerability of the striatum in Huntington's disease

HD is caused by a mutation in the huntingtin gene that consists in a CAG repeat expansion translated into an abnormal poly-glutamine (polyQ) tract in the huntingtin (Htt) protein. The most striking neuropathological finding in HD is the atrophy of the striatum. The regional expression of mutant Htt (mHtt) is ubiquitous in the brain and cannot explain by itself the preferential vulnerability of the striatum in HD. mHtt has been shown to produce an early defect in transcription, through direct alteration of the function of key regulators of transcription and in addition, more indirectly, as a result of compensatory responses to cellular stress. In this review, we focus on gene products that are preferentially expressed in the striatum and have down- or up-regulated expression in HD and, as such, may play a crucial role in the susceptibility of the striatum to mHtt. Many of these striatal gene products are for a vast majority down-regulated and more rarely increased in HD. Recent research shows that some of these striatal markers have a pro-survival/neuroprotective role in neurons (e.g., MSK1, A2A, and CB1 receptors) whereas others enhance the susceptibility of striatal neurons to mHtt (e.g., Rhes, RGS2, D2 receptors). The down-regulation of these latter proteins may be considered as a potential self-defense mechanism to slow degeneration. For a majority of the striatal gene products that have been identified so far, their function in the striatum is unknown and their modifying effects on mHtt toxicity remain to be experimentally addressed. Focusing on these striatal markers may contribute to a better understanding of HD pathogenesis, and possibly the identification of novel therapeutic targets.

Adenosine receptors and Huntington's disease

Adenosine regulates important pathophysiological functions via four distinct adenosine receptor subtypes (A1, A2A, A2B, and A3). The A1 and A2A adenosine receptors (A1R and A2AR) are major targets of caffeine and have been extensively investigated. Huntington's disease (HD) is a dominant neurodegenerative disease caused by an abnormal CAG expansion in the Huntingtin gene. Since the first genetic HD model was created almost two decades ago, tremendous progress regarding the function of the adenosine receptors in HD has been made. Chronic intake of caffeine was recently shown to be positively associated with the disease onset of HD. Moreover, genetic polymorphism of A2AR is believed to impact the age of onset. Given the importance of adenosine receptors as drug targets for human diseases, this review highlights the recent findings that delineate the roles of adenosine receptors in HD and discusses their potential for serving as drug targets and/or biomarkers for HD. Adenosine is a purine nucleoside that regulates important physiological functions via four different adenosine receptors (A1, A2A, A2B, and A3). These adenosine receptors have seven transmembrane domains and belong to the G protein-coupled receptor family. The functions of the A1 adenosine receptor (A1R) and A2A adenosine receptor (A2AR) have been investigated relative to HD. In this review, we summarize the recent findings regarding the role of adenosine receptors in HD and discuss the potential application of adenosine receptors as drug targets and biomarkers for HD.

Association between caffeine intake and age at onset in Huntington's disease

Habitual consumption of caffeine, a non-selective adenosine receptor (AR) antagonist, has been suggested to be beneficial in Parkinson's and Alzheimer's diseases. Experimental evidence support that ARs play a role in Huntington's disease (HD) raising the hypothesis that caffeine may be a life-style modifier in HD. To determine a possible relationship between caffeine consumption and age at onset (AAO) in HD, we retrospectively assessed caffeine consumption in 80 HD patients using a dietary survey and determined relationship with AAO. Following adjustment for gender, smoking status and CAG repeat length, caffeine consumption greater than 190mg/day was significantly associated with an earlier AAO. These data support an association between habitual caffeine intake and AAO in HD patients, but further studies are warranted to understand the link between these variables.

Regulation of feedback between protein kinase A and the proteasome system worsens Huntington's disease

Huntington's disease (HD) is a neurodegenerative disease caused by the expansion of a CAG repeat in the Huntingtin (HTT) gene. Abnormal regulation of the cyclic AMP (cAMP)/protein kinase A (PKA) pathway occurs during HD progression. Here we found that lower PKA activity was associated with proteasome impairment in the striatum for two HD mouse models (R6/2 and N171-82Q) and in mutant HTT (mHTT)-expressing striatal cells. Because PKA regulatory subunits (PKA-Rs) are proteasome substrates, the mHTT-evoked proteasome impairment caused accumulation of PKA-Rs and subsequently inhibited PKA activity. Conversely, activation of PKA enhanced the phosphorylation of Rpt6 (a component of the proteasome), rescued the impaired proteasome activity, and reduced mHTT aggregates. The dominant-negative Rpt6 mutant (Rpt6(S120A)) blocked the ability of a cAMP-elevating reagent to enhance proteasome activity, whereas the phosphomimetic Rpt6 mutant (Rpt6(S120D)) increased proteasome activity, reduced HTT aggregates, and ameliorated motor impairment. Collectively, our data demonstrated that positive feedback regulation between PKA and the proteasome is critical for HD pathogenesis.

Endogenous opiates and behavior: 2011

This paper is the thirty-fourth consecutive installment of the annual review of research concerning the endogenous opioid system. It summarizes papers published during 2011 that studied the behavioral effects of molecular, pharmacological and genetic manipulation of opioid peptides, opioid receptors, opioid agonists and opioid antagonists. The particular topics that continue to be covered include the molecular-biochemical effects and neurochemical localization studies of endogenous opioids and their receptors related to behavior (Section 2), and the roles of these opioid peptides and receptors in pain and analgesia (Section 3); stress and social status (Section 4); tolerance and dependence (Section 5); learning and memory (Section 6); eating and drinking (Section 7); alcohol and drugs of abuse (Section 8); sexual activity and hormones, pregnancy, development and endocrinology (Section 9); mental illness and mood (Section 10); seizures and neurologic disorders (Section 11); electrical-related activity and neurophysiology (Section 12); general activity and locomotion (Section 13); gastrointestinal, renal and hepatic functions (Section 14); cardiovascular responses (Section 15); respiration (Section 16); and immunological responses (Section 17).

When cytokinin, a plant hormone, meets the adenosine A2A receptor: a novel neuroprotectant and lead for treating neurodegenerative disorders?

It is well known that cytokinins are a class of phytohormones that promote cell division in plant roots and shoots. However, their targets, biological functions, and implications in mammalian systems have rarely been examined. In this study, we show that one cytokinin, zeatin riboside, can prevent pheochromocytoma (PC12) cells from serum deprivation-induced apoptosis by acting on the adenosine A(2A) receptor (A(2A)-R), which was blocked by an A(2A)-R antagonist and a protein kinase A (PKA) inhibitor, demonstrating the functional ability of zeatin riboside by mediating through A(2A)-R signaling event. Since the A(2A)-R was implicated as a therapeutic target in treating Huntington's disease (HD), a cellular model of HD was applied by transfecting mutant huntingtin in PC12 cells. By using filter retardation assay and confocal microscopy we found that zeatin riboside reversed mutant huntingtin (Htt)-induced protein aggregations and proteasome deactivation through A(2A)-R signaling. PKA inhibitor blocked zeatin riboside-induced suppression of mutant Htt aggregations. In addition, PKA activated proteasome activity and reduced mutant Htt protein aggregations. However, a proteasome inhibitor blocked both zeatin riboside-and PKA activator-mediated suppression of mutant Htt aggregations, confirming mediation of the A(2A)-R/PKA/proteasome pathway. Taken together, zeatin riboside might have therapeutic potential as a novel neuroprotectant and a lead for treating neurodegenerative disorders.

Gastrodia elata prevents huntingtin aggregations through activation of the adenosine A₂A receptor and ubiquitin proteasome system

ETHNOPHARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE

Gastrodia elata Blume (Fam. Orchidaceae) is a traditional Chinese herbal medicine for treating headaches, dizziness, tetanus, epilepsy, and numbness of the limbs, which suggests that it has neuroprotective effect.

AIM OF THE STUDY

To validate the neuroprotection of Gastrodia elata in preventing neurodegenerations, such as Huntington's disease (HD).

MATERIALS AND METHODS

MTT assay was used to validate the protection of Gastrodia elata. In pheochromocytoma (PC12) cell. Transient transfection of mutant huntingtin (Htt) in PC12 cell was used as an in vitro model of HD. Filter retardation assay was used to measure Htt-induced protein aggregations. Proteasome activity was monitored by transfection of pZsProSensor-1 and imaged by a confocal laser scanning microscope.

RESULTS

This protection of Gastrodia elata could be blocked by an A(2A)-R antagonist and a protein kinase A (PKA) inhibitor, indicating an A(2A)-R signaling event. Gastrodia elata could reverse mutant Htt-induced protein aggregations and proteasome de-activation through A(2A)-R signaling. In addition, activation of PKA tended to activate proteasome activity and reduce mutant Htt protein aggregations. The proteasome inhibitor, MG 132, blocked Gastrodia elata-mediated suppression of mutant Htt aggregations.

CONCLUSION

Gastrodia elata prevented mutant Htt aggregations and increased proteasomal activity by targeting the A(2A)-R through PKA-dependent pathway.

A new drug design targeting the adenosinergic system for Huntington's disease

Background

Huntington's disease (HD) is a neurodegenerative disease caused by a CAG trinucleotide expansion in the Huntingtin (Htt) gene. The expanded CAG repeats are translated into polyglutamine (polyQ), causing aberrant functions as well as aggregate formation of mutant Htt. Effective treatments for HD are yet to be developed.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Here, we report a novel dual-function compound, N⁶-(4-hydroxybenzyl)adenine riboside (designated T1-11) which activates the A_2AR and a major adenosine transporter (ENT1). T1-11 was originally isolated from a Chinese medicinal herb. Molecular modeling analyses showed that T1-11 binds to the adenosine pockets of the A_2AR and ENT1. Introduction of T1-11 into the striatum significantly enhanced the level of striatal adenosine as determined by a microdialysis technique, demonstrating that T1-11 inhibited adenosine uptake in vivo. A single intraperitoneal injection of T1-11 in wildtype mice, but not in A_2AR knockout mice, increased cAMP level in the brain. Thus, T1-11 enters the brain and elevates cAMP via activation of the A_2AR in vivo. Most importantly, addition of T1-11 (0.05 mg/ml) to the drinking water of a transgenic mouse model of HD (R6/2) ameliorated the progressive deterioration in motor coordination, reduced the formation of striatal Htt aggregates, elevated proteasome activity, and increased the level of an important neurotrophic factor (brain derived neurotrophic factor) in the brain. These results demonstrate the therapeutic potential of T1-11 for treating HD.

Conclusions/Significance

The dual functions of T1-11 enable T1-11 to effectively activate the adenosinergic system and subsequently delay the progression of HD. This is a novel therapeutic strategy for HD. Similar dual-function drugs aimed at a particular neurotransmitter system as proposed herein may be applicable to other neurotransmitter systems (e.g., the dopamine receptor/dopamine transporter and the serotonin receptor/serotonin transporter) and may facilitate the development of new drugs for other neurodegenerative diseases.

Worsening of Huntington disease phenotype in CB1 receptor knockout mice

Huntington's disease (HD) is a progressive neurodegenerative genetic disorder which leads to motor, cognitive and psychiatric disturbances. The primary neuropathological hallmark is atrophy of the striatum. Cannabinoid CB1 receptors (CB1Rs) are particularly enriched in the striatum and previous works indicate their early loss of expression in HD, even before symptom occurrence. However, pathophysiological significance of this loss of expression remains unclear. In addition, whether specific modulation of CB1R is able to mitigate striatal neuron fate in HD remains currently controversial. In order to gain further insights on the potential role of CB1R in HD physiopathology, we evaluated the pathophysiological consequences of a genetic deletion of CB1R in the N171-82Q transgenic model and following 3-nitropropionic (3NP) intoxication. Taken together our data demonstrate that CB1R knockout (1) worsens motor performances in N171-82Q mice and (2) increases mouse susceptibility to 3NP. These results suggest that functional changes in CB1R may contribute to the physiopathological development of HD.