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Vázquez-Durán DL, Ortega A, Rodríguez A. Amino Acid Transporters Proteins Involved in the Glutamate-Glutamine Cycle and Their Alterations in Murine Models of Alzheimer's Disease. Mol Neurobiol 2024; 61:6077-6088. [PMID: 38273046 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-024-03966-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2023] [Accepted: 01/16/2024] [Indexed: 01/27/2024]
Abstract
The brain's ability to integrate external stimuli and generate responses is highly complex. While these mechanisms are not completely understood, current evidence suggests that alterations in cellular metabolism and microenvironment are involved in some dysfunctions as complex as Alzheimer's disease. This pathology courses with defects in the establishment of chemical synapses, which is dependent on the production and supply of neurotransmitters like glutamate and its recycling through the glutamate-glutamine cycle. Alterations in the expression and function of the amino acid transporters proteins involved in this cycle have recently been reported in different stages of Alzheimer's disease. Most of these data come from patients in advanced stages of the disease or post-mortem, due to the ethical and technical limitations of human studies. Therefore, genetically modified mouse models have been an excellent tool to analyze metabolic and even behavioral parameters that are very similar to those that develop in Alzheimer's disease, even at presymptomatic stages. Hence, this paper analyzes the role of glutamate metabolism and its intercellular trafficking in excitatory synapses from different approaches using transgenic mouse models; such an analysis will contribute to our present understanding of AD.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Arturo Ortega
- Departamento de Toxicología, Cinvestav- IPN, Mexico City, México
| | - Angelina Rodríguez
- Facultad de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Autónoma de Querétaro, Santiago de Querétaro, México.
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2
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Taurino G, Chiu M, Bianchi MG, Griffini E, Bussolati O. The SLC38A5/SNAT5 amino acid transporter: from pathophysiology to pro-cancer roles in the tumor microenvironment. Am J Physiol Cell Physiol 2023; 325:C550-C562. [PMID: 37458433 DOI: 10.1152/ajpcell.00169.2023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/27/2023] [Revised: 07/11/2023] [Accepted: 07/11/2023] [Indexed: 08/09/2023]
Abstract
SLC38A5/SNAT5 is a system N transporter that can mediate net inward or outward transmembrane fluxes of neutral amino acids coupled with Na+ (symport) and H+ (antiport). Its preferential substrates are not only amino acids with side chains containing amide (glutamine and asparagine) or imidazole (histidine) groups, but also serine, glycine, and alanine are transported by the carrier. Expressed in the pancreas, intestinal tract, brain, liver, bone marrow, and placenta, it is regulated at mRNA and protein levels by mTORC1 and WNT/β-catenin pathways, and it is sensitive to pH, nutritional stress, inflammation, and hypoxia. SNAT5 expression has been found to be altered in pathological conditions such as chronic inflammatory diseases, gestational complications, chronic metabolic acidosis, and malnutrition. Growing experimental evidence shows that SNAT5 is overexpressed in several types of cancer cells. Moreover, recently published results indicate that SNAT5 expression in stromal cells can support the metabolic exchanges occurring in the tumor microenvironment of asparagine-auxotroph tumors. We review the functional role of the SNAT5 transporter in pathophysiology and propose that, due to its peculiar operational and regulatory features, SNAT5 may play important pro-cancer roles when expressed either in neoplastic or in stromal cells of glutamine-auxotroph tumors.NEW & NOTEWORTHY The transporter SLC38A5/SNAT5 provides net influx or efflux of glutamine, asparagine, and serine. These amino acids are of particular metabolic relevance in several conditions. Changes in transporter expression or activity have been described in selected types of human cancers, where SNAT5 can mediate amino acid exchanges between tumor and stromal cells, thus providing a potential therapeutic target. This is the first review that recapitulates the characteristics and roles of the transporter in physiology and pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Giuseppe Taurino
- Laboratory of General Pathology, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
- MRH-Microbiome Research Hub, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
| | - Martina Chiu
- Laboratory of General Pathology, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
| | - Massimiliano G Bianchi
- Laboratory of General Pathology, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
- MRH-Microbiome Research Hub, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
| | - Erika Griffini
- Laboratory of General Pathology, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
| | - Ovidio Bussolati
- Laboratory of General Pathology, Department of Medicine and Surgery, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
- MRH-Microbiome Research Hub, University of Parma, Parma, Italy
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3
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Wang Z, Yemanyi F, Blomfield AK, Bora K, Huang S, Liu CH, Britton WR, Cho SS, Tomita Y, Fu Z, Ma JX, Li WH, Chen J. Amino acid transporter SLC38A5 regulates developmental and pathological retinal angiogenesis. eLife 2022; 11:e73105. [PMID: 36454214 PMCID: PMC9714971 DOI: 10.7554/elife.73105] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2021] [Accepted: 11/17/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Amino acid (AA) metabolism in vascular endothelium is important for sprouting angiogenesis. SLC38A5 (solute carrier family 38 member 5), an AA transporter, shuttles neutral AAs across cell membrane, including glutamine, which may serve as metabolic fuel for proliferating endothelial cells (ECs) to promote angiogenesis. Here, we found that Slc38a5 is highly enriched in normal retinal vascular endothelium, and more specifically, in pathological sprouting neovessels. Slc38a5 is suppressed in retinal blood vessels from Lrp5-/- and Ndpy/- mice, both genetic models of defective retinal vascular development with Wnt signaling mutations. Additionally, Slc38a5 transcription is regulated by Wnt/β-catenin signaling. Genetic deficiency of Slc38a5 in mice substantially delays retinal vascular development and suppresses pathological neovascularization in oxygen-induced retinopathy modeling ischemic proliferative retinopathies. Inhibition of SLC38A5 in human retinal vascular ECs impairs EC proliferation and angiogenic function, suppresses glutamine uptake, and dampens vascular endothelial growth factor receptor 2. Together these findings suggest that SLC38A5 is a new metabolic regulator of retinal angiogenesis by controlling AA nutrient uptake and homeostasis in ECs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhongxiao Wang
- Department of Ophthalmology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical SchoolBostonUnited States
| | - Felix Yemanyi
- Department of Ophthalmology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical SchoolBostonUnited States
| | - Alexandra K Blomfield
- Department of Ophthalmology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical SchoolBostonUnited States
| | - Kiran Bora
- Department of Ophthalmology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical SchoolBostonUnited States
| | - Shuo Huang
- Department of Ophthalmology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical SchoolBostonUnited States
| | - Chi-Hsiu Liu
- Department of Ophthalmology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical SchoolBostonUnited States
| | - William R Britton
- Department of Ophthalmology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical SchoolBostonUnited States
| | - Steve S Cho
- Department of Ophthalmology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical SchoolBostonUnited States
| | - Yohei Tomita
- Department of Ophthalmology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical SchoolBostonUnited States
| | - Zhongjie Fu
- Department of Ophthalmology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical SchoolBostonUnited States
| | - Jian-xing Ma
- Department of Biochemistry, Wake Forest University School of MedicineWinston-SalemUnited States
| | - Wen-hong Li
- Departments of Cell Biology and of Biochemistry, University of Texas Southwestern Medical CenterDallasUnited States
| | - Jing Chen
- Department of Ophthalmology, Boston Children's Hospital, Harvard Medical SchoolBostonUnited States
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Majewska M, Lipka A, Paukszto L, Jastrzebski JP, Szeszko K, Gowkielewicz M, Lepiarczyk E, Jozwik M, Majewski MK. Placenta Transcriptome Profiling in Intrauterine Growth Restriction (IUGR). Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:E1510. [PMID: 30917529 PMCID: PMC6471577 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20061510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2019] [Revised: 03/22/2019] [Accepted: 03/24/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) is a serious pathological complication associated with compromised fetal development during pregnancy. The aim of the study was to broaden knowledge about the transcriptomic complexity of the human placenta by identifying genes potentially involved in IUGR pathophysiology. RNA-Seq data were used to profile protein-coding genes, detect alternative splicing events (AS), single nucleotide variant (SNV) calling, and RNA editing sites prediction in IUGR-affected placental transcriptome. The applied methodology enabled detection of 37,501 transcriptionally active regions and the selection of 28 differentially-expressed genes (DEGs), among them 10 were upregulated and 18 downregulated in IUGR-affected placentas. Functional enrichment annotation indicated that most of the DEGs were implicated in the processes of inflammation and immune disorders related to IUGR and preeclampsia. Additionally, we revealed that some genes (S100A13, GPR126, CTRP1, and TFPI) involved in the alternation of splicing events were mainly implicated in angiogenic-related processes. Significant SNVs were overlapped with 6533 transcripts and assigned to 2386 coding sequence (CDS), 1528 introns, 345 5' untranslated region (UTR), 1260 3'UTR, 918 non-coding RNA (ncRNA), and 10 intergenic regions. Within CDS regions, 543 missense substitutions with functional effects were recognized. Two known mutations (rs4575, synonymous; rs3817, on the downstream region) were detected within the range of AS and DEG candidates: PA28β and PINLYP, respectively. Novel genes that are dysregulated in IUGR were detected in the current research. Investigating genes underlying the IUGR is crucial for identification of mechanisms regulating placental development during a complicated pregnancy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Majewska
- Department of Human Physiology, School of Medicine, Collegium Medicum, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Warszawska Str 30, 10-082 Olsztyn, Poland.
| | - Aleksandra Lipka
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, School of Medicine, Collegium Medicum, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Niepodleglosci Str 44, 10-045 Olsztyn, Poland.
| | - Lukasz Paukszto
- Department of Plant Physiology, Genetics and Biotechnology, Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Oczapowskiego Str 1A, 10-719 Olsztyn-Kortowo, Poland.
| | - Jan Pawel Jastrzebski
- Department of Plant Physiology, Genetics and Biotechnology, Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Oczapowskiego Str 1A, 10-719 Olsztyn-Kortowo, Poland.
| | - Karol Szeszko
- Department of Animal Anatomy and Physiology, Faculty of Biology and Biotechnology, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Oczapowskiego Str 1A, 10-719 Olsztyn-Kortowo, Poland.
| | - Marek Gowkielewicz
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, School of Medicine, Collegium Medicum, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Niepodleglosci Str 44, 10-045 Olsztyn, Poland.
| | - Ewa Lepiarczyk
- Department of Human Physiology, School of Medicine, Collegium Medicum, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Warszawska Str 30, 10-082 Olsztyn, Poland.
| | - Marcin Jozwik
- Department of Gynecology and Obstetrics, School of Medicine, Collegium Medicum, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Niepodleglosci Str 44, 10-045 Olsztyn, Poland.
| | - Mariusz Krzysztof Majewski
- Department of Human Physiology, School of Medicine, Collegium Medicum, University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Warszawska Str 30, 10-082 Olsztyn, Poland.
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Zafra F, Ibáñez I, Bartolomé-Martín D, Piniella D, Arribas-Blázquez M, Giménez C. Glycine Transporters and Its Coupling with NMDA Receptors. ADVANCES IN NEUROBIOLOGY 2018; 16:55-83. [PMID: 28828606 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-55769-4_4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Glycine plays two roles in neurotransmission. In caudal areas like the spinal cord and the brainstem, it acts as an inhibitory neurotransmitter, but in all regions of the CNS, it also works as a co-agonist with L-glutamate at N-methyl-D-aspartate receptors (NMDARs). The glycine fluxes in the CNS are regulated by two specific transporters for glycine, GlyT1 and GlyT2, perhaps with the cooperation of diverse neutral amino acid transporters like Asc-1 or SNAT5/SN2. While GlyT2 and Asc-1 are neuronal proteins, GlyT1 and SNAT5 are mainly astrocytic, although neuronal forms of GlyT1 also exist. GlyT1 has attracted considerable interest from the medical community and the pharmaceutical industry since compelling evidence indicates a clear association with the functioning of NMDARs, whose activity is decreased in various psychiatric illnesses. By controlling extracellular glycine, transporter inhibitors might potentiate the activity of NMDARs without activating excitotoxic processes. Physiologically, GlyT1 is a central actor in the cross talk between glutamatergic, glycinergic, dopaminergic, and probably other neurotransmitter systems. Many of these relationships begin to be unraveled by studies performed in recent years using genetic and pharmacological models. These studies are also clarifying the interactions between glycine, glycine transporters, and other co-agonists of the glycine site of NMDARs like D-serine. These findings are also relevant to understand the pathophysiology of devastating diseases like schizophrenia, depression, anxiety, epilepsy, stroke, and chronic pain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francisco Zafra
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, Facultad de Ciencias, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, C / Nicolás Cabrera, 1, 28049, Madrid, Spain. .,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Raras and IdiPAZ, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Ignacio Ibáñez
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, Facultad de Ciencias, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, C / Nicolás Cabrera, 1, 28049, Madrid, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Raras and IdiPAZ, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - David Bartolomé-Martín
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, Facultad de Ciencias, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, C / Nicolás Cabrera, 1, 28049, Madrid, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Raras and IdiPAZ, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Dolores Piniella
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, Facultad de Ciencias, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, C / Nicolás Cabrera, 1, 28049, Madrid, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Raras and IdiPAZ, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Marina Arribas-Blázquez
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, Facultad de Ciencias, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, C / Nicolás Cabrera, 1, 28049, Madrid, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Raras and IdiPAZ, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
| | - Cecilio Giménez
- Centro de Biología Molecular Severo Ochoa, Facultad de Ciencias, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas, Universidad Autónoma de Madrid, C / Nicolás Cabrera, 1, 28049, Madrid, Spain.,Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Enfermedades Raras and IdiPAZ, Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
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Kandasamy P, Gyimesi G, Kanai Y, Hediger MA. Amino acid transporters revisited: New views in health and disease. Trends Biochem Sci 2018; 43:752-789. [PMID: 30177408 DOI: 10.1016/j.tibs.2018.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 252] [Impact Index Per Article: 42.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/03/2018] [Revised: 05/23/2018] [Accepted: 05/25/2018] [Indexed: 02/09/2023]
Abstract
Amino acid transporters (AATs) are membrane-bound transport proteins that mediate transfer of amino acids into and out of cells or cellular organelles. AATs have diverse functional roles ranging from neurotransmission to acid-base balance, intracellular energy metabolism, and anabolic and catabolic reactions. In cancer cells and diabetes, dysregulation of AATs leads to metabolic reprogramming, which changes intracellular amino acid levels, contributing to the pathogenesis of cancer, obesity and diabetes. Indeed, the neutral amino acid transporters (NATs) SLC7A5/LAT1 and SLC1A5/ASCT2 are likely involved in several human malignancies. However, a clinical therapy that directly targets AATs has not yet been developed. The purpose of this review is to highlight the structural and functional diversity of AATs, their diverse physiological roles in different tissues and organs, their wide-ranging implications in human diseases and the emerging strategies and tools that will be necessary to target AATs therapeutically.
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Affiliation(s)
- Palanivel Kandasamy
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of Bern, Bühlstrasse 28, CH-3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Gergely Gyimesi
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of Bern, Bühlstrasse 28, CH-3012 Bern, Switzerland
| | - Yoshikatsu Kanai
- Division of Bio-system Pharmacology, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Osaka, Japan.
| | - Matthias A Hediger
- Institute of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of Bern, Bühlstrasse 28, CH-3012 Bern, Switzerland.
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Todd AC, Marx MC, Hulme SR, Bröer S, Billups B. SNAT3-mediated glutamine transport in perisynaptic astrocytesin situis regulated by intracellular sodium. Glia 2017; 65:900-916. [DOI: 10.1002/glia.23133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/20/2016] [Revised: 01/12/2017] [Accepted: 02/08/2017] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Alison C. Todd
- Eccles Institute of Neuroscience, The John Curtin School of Medical Research; The Australian National University; 131 Garran Road Canberra ACT 2601 Australia
- Centre for Integrative Physiology, School of Biomedical Sciences; University of Edinburgh; Edinburgh EH8 9XD United Kingdom
| | - Mari-Carmen Marx
- Department of Pharmacology; University of Cambridge; Tennis Court Road Cambridge CB2 1BT United Kingdom
| | - Sarah R. Hulme
- Eccles Institute of Neuroscience, The John Curtin School of Medical Research; The Australian National University; 131 Garran Road Canberra ACT 2601 Australia
| | - Stefan Bröer
- Research School of Biology; The Australian National University; Linnaeus Way 134 Canberra ACT 2601 Australia
| | - Brian Billups
- Eccles Institute of Neuroscience, The John Curtin School of Medical Research; The Australian National University; 131 Garran Road Canberra ACT 2601 Australia
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Glia plasma membrane transporters: Key players in glutamatergic neurotransmission. Neurochem Int 2016; 98:46-55. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2016.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2015] [Revised: 03/07/2016] [Accepted: 04/06/2016] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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The Glutamine Transporters and Their Role in the Glutamate/GABA-Glutamine Cycle. ADVANCES IN NEUROBIOLOGY 2016; 13:223-257. [PMID: 27885631 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-319-45096-4_8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Glutamine is a key amino acid in the CNS, playing an important role in the glutamate/GABA-glutamine cycle (GGC). In the GGC, glutamine is transferred from astrocytes to neurons, where it will replenish the inhibitory and excitatory neurotransmitter pools. Different transporters participate in this neural communication, i.e., the transporters responsible for glutamine efflux from astrocytes and influx into the neurons, such as the members of the SNAT, LAT, y+LAT, and ASC families of transporters. The SNAT family consists of the transporter isoforms SNAT3 and SNAT5 that are related to efflux from the astrocytic compartment, and SNAT1 and SNAT2 that are associated with glutamine uptake into the neuronal compartment. The isoforms SNAT7 and SNAT8 do not have their role completely understood, but they likely also participate in the GGC. The isoforms LAT2 and y+LAT2 facilitate the exchange of neutral amino acids and cationic amino acids (y+LAT2 isoform) and have been associated with glutamine efflux from astrocytes. ASCT2 is a Na+-dependent antiporter, the participation of which in the GGC also remains to be better characterized. All these isoforms are tightly regulated by transcriptional and translational mechanisms, which are induced by several determinants such as amino acid deprivation, hormones, pH, and the activity of different signaling pathways. Dysfunctional glutamine transporter activity has been associated with the pathophysiological mechanisms of certain neurologic diseases, such as Hepatic Encephalopathy and Manganism. However, there might also be other neuropathological conditions associated with an altered GGC, in which glutamine transporters are dysfunctional. Hence, it appears to be of critical importance that the physiological and pathological aspects of glutamine transporters are thoroughly investigated.
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Zielińska M, Dąbrowska K, Hadera MG, Sonnewald U, Albrecht J. System N transporters are critical for glutamine release and modulate metabolic fluxes of glucose and acetate in cultured cortical astrocytes: changes induced by ammonia. J Neurochem 2015; 136:329-38. [DOI: 10.1111/jnc.13376] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/09/2015] [Revised: 08/25/2015] [Accepted: 09/14/2015] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Magdalena Zielińska
- Department of Neurotoxicology; Mossakowski Medical Research Centre; Polish Academy of Sciences; Warsaw Poland
| | - Katarzyna Dąbrowska
- Department of Neurotoxicology; Mossakowski Medical Research Centre; Polish Academy of Sciences; Warsaw Poland
| | - Mussie Ghezu Hadera
- Department of Neuroscience; Faculty of Medicine; Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU); Trondheim Norway
| | - Ursula Sonnewald
- Department of Neuroscience; Faculty of Medicine; Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU); Trondheim Norway
- Department of Drug Design and Pharmacology; Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences; University of Copenhagen; Copenhagen Denmark
| | - Jan Albrecht
- Department of Neurotoxicology; Mossakowski Medical Research Centre; Polish Academy of Sciences; Warsaw Poland
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