1
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Liu LC, Liang JY, Liu YH, Liu B, Dong XH, Cai WH, Zhang N. The Intersection of cerebral cholesterol metabolism and Alzheimer's disease: Mechanisms and therapeutic prospects. Heliyon 2024; 10:e30523. [PMID: 38726205 PMCID: PMC11079309 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2024.e30523] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/17/2023] [Revised: 04/26/2024] [Accepted: 04/29/2024] [Indexed: 05/12/2024] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a common neurodegenerative disease in the elderly, the exact pathogenesis of which remains incompletely understood, and effective preventive and therapeutic drugs are currently lacking. Cholesterol plays a vital role in cell membrane formation and neurotransmitter synthesis, and its abnormal metabolism is associated with the onset of AD. With the continuous advancement of imaging techniques and molecular biology methods, researchers can more accurately explore the relationship between cholesterol metabolism and AD. Elevated cholesterol levels may lead to vascular dysfunction, thereby affecting neuronal function. Additionally, abnormal cholesterol metabolism may affect the metabolism of β-amyloid protein, thereby promoting the onset of AD. Brain cholesterol levels are regulated by multiple factors. This review aims to deepen the understanding of the subtle relationship between cholesterol homeostasis and AD, and to introduce the latest advances in cholesterol-regulating AD treatment strategies, thereby inspiring readers to contemplate deeply on this complex relationship. Although there are still many unresolved important issues regarding the risk of brain cholesterol and AD, and some studies may have opposite conclusions, further research is needed to enrich our understanding. However, these findings are expected to deepen our understanding of the pathogenesis of AD and provide important insights for the future development of AD treatment strategies targeting brain cholesterol homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Li-cheng Liu
- Pharmaceutical Branch, Harbin Pharmaceutical Group Co., Harbin, Heilongjiang Province, China
| | - Jun-yi Liang
- Heilongjiang University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province, China
| | - Yan-hong Liu
- Heilongjiang University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province, China
| | - Bin Liu
- Heilongjiang University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province, China
| | - Xiao-hong Dong
- Jiamusi College, Heilongjiang University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Jiamusi, Heilongjiang Province, China
| | - Wen-hui Cai
- Heilongjiang University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province, China
| | - Ning Zhang
- Heilongjiang University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Harbin, Heilongjiang Province, China
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2
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Ahmed H, Wang Y, Griffiths WJ, Levey AI, Pikuleva I, Liang SH, Haider A. Brain cholesterol and Alzheimer's disease: challenges and opportunities in probe and drug development. Brain 2024; 147:1622-1635. [PMID: 38301270 PMCID: PMC11068113 DOI: 10.1093/brain/awae028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2023] [Revised: 12/20/2023] [Accepted: 01/13/2024] [Indexed: 02/03/2024] Open
Abstract
Cholesterol homeostasis is impaired in Alzheimer's disease; however, attempts to modulate brain cholesterol biology have not translated into tangible clinical benefits for patients to date. Several recent milestone developments have substantially improved our understanding of how excess neuronal cholesterol contributes to the pathophysiology of Alzheimer's disease. Indeed, neuronal cholesterol was linked to the formation of amyloid-β and neurofibrillary tangles through molecular pathways that were recently delineated in mechanistic studies. Furthermore, remarkable advances in translational molecular imaging have now made it possible to probe cholesterol metabolism in the living human brain with PET, which is an important prerequisite for future clinical trials that target the brain cholesterol machinery in Alzheimer's disease patients-with the ultimate aim being to develop disease-modifying treatments. This work summarizes current concepts of how the biosynthesis, transport and clearance of brain cholesterol are affected in Alzheimer's disease. Further, current strategies to reverse these alterations by pharmacotherapy are critically discussed in the wake of emerging translational research tools that support the assessment of brain cholesterol biology not only in animal models but also in patients with Alzheimer's disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hazem Ahmed
- Department of Radiology and Biomedical Imaging, Yale School of Medicine, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
- Center for Radiopharmaceutical Sciences ETH-PSI-USZ, Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences ETH, 8093 Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Yuqin Wang
- Institute of Life Science, Swansea University Medical School, Swansea SA2 8PP, UK
| | - William J Griffiths
- Institute of Life Science, Swansea University Medical School, Swansea SA2 8PP, UK
| | - Allan I Levey
- Department of Neurology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Irina Pikuleva
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
| | - Steven H Liang
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Ahmed Haider
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
- Department of Radiology, Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, 8091 Zurich, Switzerland
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3
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Latorre-Leal M, Rodriguez-Rodriguez P, Franchini L, Nikolidakis O, Daniilidou M, Delac L, Varshney MK, Arroyo-García LE, Eroli F, Winblad B, Blennow K, Zetterberg H, Kivipelto M, Pacciarini M, Wang Y, Griffiths WJ, Björkhem I, Matton A, Nalvarte I, Merino-Serrais P, Cedazo-Minguez A, Maioli S. CYP46A1-mediated cholesterol turnover induces sex-specific changes in cognition and counteracts memory loss in ovariectomized mice. SCIENCE ADVANCES 2024; 10:eadj1354. [PMID: 38266095 PMCID: PMC10807813 DOI: 10.1126/sciadv.adj1354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2023] [Accepted: 12/22/2023] [Indexed: 01/26/2024]
Abstract
The brain-specific enzyme CYP46A1 controls cholesterol turnover by converting cholesterol into 24S-hydroxycholesterol (24OH). Dysregulation of brain cholesterol turnover and reduced CYP46A1 levels are observed in Alzheimer's disease (AD). In this study, we report that CYP46A1 overexpression in aged female mice leads to enhanced estrogen signaling in the hippocampus and improved cognitive functions. In contrast, age-matched CYP46A1 overexpressing males show anxiety-like behavior, worsened memory, and elevated levels of 5α-dihydrotestosterone in the hippocampus. We report that, in neurons, 24OH contributes to these divergent effects by activating sex hormone signaling, including estrogen receptors. CYP46A1 overexpression in female mice protects from memory impairments induced by ovariectomy while having no effects in gonadectomized males. Last, we measured cerebrospinal fluid levels of 24OH in a clinical cohort of patients with AD and found that 24OH negatively correlates with neurodegeneration markers only in women. We suggest that CYP46A1 activation is a valuable pharmacological target for enhancing estrogen signaling in women at risk of developing neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- María Latorre-Leal
- Department of Neurobiology Care Sciences and Society, Division of Neurogeriatrics, Center for Alzheimer Research, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Patricia Rodriguez-Rodriguez
- Department of Neurobiology Care Sciences and Society, Division of Neurogeriatrics, Center for Alzheimer Research, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Luca Franchini
- Department of Neurobiology Care Sciences and Society, Division of Neurogeriatrics, Center for Alzheimer Research, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Orestis Nikolidakis
- Department of Neurobiology Care Sciences and Society, Division of Neurogeriatrics, Center for Alzheimer Research, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Makrina Daniilidou
- Department of Neurobiology Care Sciences and Society, Division of Neurogeriatrics, Center for Alzheimer Research, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
- Department of Neurobiology Care Sciences and Society, Division of Clinical Geriatrics, Center for Alzheimer Research, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Ljerka Delac
- Department of Neurobiology Care Sciences and Society, Division of Neurogeriatrics, Center for Alzheimer Research, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Mukesh K. Varshney
- Department of Neurobiology Care Sciences and Society, Division of Neurogeriatrics, Center for Alzheimer Research, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
- Department of Biosciences and Nutrition, Karolinska Institutet, Huddinge, Sweden
| | - Luis E. Arroyo-García
- Department of Neurobiology Care Sciences and Society, Division of Neurogeriatrics, Center for Alzheimer Research, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Francesca Eroli
- Department of Neurobiology Care Sciences and Society, Division of Neurogeriatrics, Center for Alzheimer Research, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Bengt Winblad
- Department of Neurobiology Care Sciences and Society, Division of Neurogeriatrics, Center for Alzheimer Research, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Kaj Blennow
- Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, University of Gothenburg, Mölndal, Sweden
- Clinical Neurochemistry Laboratory, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Mölndal, Sweden
- Institut du Cerveau et de la Moelle épinière (ICM), Pitié-Salpêtrière Hospital, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
- University of Science and Technology of China, Hefei, Anhui, P.R. China
| | - Henrik Zetterberg
- Institute of Neuroscience and Physiology, University of Gothenburg, Mölndal, Sweden
- Clinical Neurochemistry Laboratory, Sahlgrenska University Hospital, Mölndal, Sweden
| | - Miia Kivipelto
- Department of Neurobiology Care Sciences and Society, Division of Clinical Geriatrics, Center for Alzheimer Research, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
- Theme Aging, Karolinska University Hospital, Stockholm, Sweden
| | | | - Yuqin Wang
- Swansea University Medical School, SA2 8PP Swansea, UK
| | | | - Ingemar Björkhem
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institutet, Huddinge, Sweden
| | - Anna Matton
- Department of Neurobiology Care Sciences and Society, Division of Neurogeriatrics, Center for Alzheimer Research, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
- Department of Neurobiology Care Sciences and Society, Division of Clinical Geriatrics, Center for Alzheimer Research, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Ivan Nalvarte
- Department of Neurobiology Care Sciences and Society, Division of Neurogeriatrics, Center for Alzheimer Research, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
- Department of Biosciences and Nutrition, Karolinska Institutet, Huddinge, Sweden
| | - Paula Merino-Serrais
- Department of Neurobiology Care Sciences and Society, Division of Neurogeriatrics, Center for Alzheimer Research, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
- Departamento de Neurobiología Funcional y de Sistemas, Instituto Cajal, CSIC, Madrid, Spain
- Laboratorio Cajal de Circuitos Corticales, Centro de Tecnología Biomédica, UPM, Madrid, Spain
| | - Angel Cedazo-Minguez
- Department of Neurobiology Care Sciences and Society, Division of Neurogeriatrics, Center for Alzheimer Research, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Silvia Maioli
- Department of Neurobiology Care Sciences and Society, Division of Neurogeriatrics, Center for Alzheimer Research, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
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4
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Olkkonen VM, Gylling H. Oxy- and Phytosterols as Biomarkers: Current Status and Future Perspectives. ADVANCES IN EXPERIMENTAL MEDICINE AND BIOLOGY 2024; 1440:353-375. [PMID: 38036889 DOI: 10.1007/978-3-031-43883-7_18] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/02/2023]
Abstract
Oxysterols and phytosterols are sterol compounds present at markedly low levels in tissues and serum of healthy individuals. A wealth of evidence suggests that they could be employed as biomarkers for human diseases or for cholesterol absorption.An increasing number of reports suggest circulating or tissue oxysterols as putative biomarkers for cardiovascular and neurodegenerative diseases or cancers. Thus far most of the studies have been carried out on small study populations. To achieve routine biomarker use, large prospective cohort studies are absolutely required. This, again, would necessitate thorough standardization of the oxysterol analytical methodology across the different laboratories, which now employ different technologies resulting in inconsistencies in the measured oxysterol levels. Routine use of oxysterol biomarkers would also necessitate the development of a new targeted analytical methodology suitable for high-throughput platforms.The most important use of phytosterols as biomarkers involves their use as markers for cholesterol absorption. For this to be achieved, (1) their quantitative analyses should be available in routine lipid laboratories, (2) it should be generally acknowledgment that the profile of cholesterol metabolism can reveal the risk of the development of atherosclerotic cardiovascular diseases (ASCVD), and (3) screening of the profile of cholesterol metabolism should be included in the ASCVD risk surveys. This should be done e.g. in families with a history of early onset or frequent ASCVD and in young adults aged 18-20 years, to exclude the presence of high cholesterol absorption. Individuals in high cholesterol absorption families need preventive measures from young adulthood to inhibit the possible development and progression of atherosclerosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vesa M Olkkonen
- Minerva Foundation Institute for Medical Research, Biomedicum 2U, Helsinki, Finland.
- Department of Anatomy, Faculty of Medicine, University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland.
| | - Helena Gylling
- Heart and Lung Center, Cardiology, Helsinki University Hospital and University of Helsinki, Helsinki, Finland
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5
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Rudajev V, Novotny J. Cholesterol-dependent amyloid β production: space for multifarious interactions between amyloid precursor protein, secretases, and cholesterol. Cell Biosci 2023; 13:171. [PMID: 37705117 PMCID: PMC10500844 DOI: 10.1186/s13578-023-01127-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2023] [Accepted: 09/05/2023] [Indexed: 09/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Amyloid β is considered a key player in the development and progression of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Many studies investigating the effect of statins on lowering cholesterol suggest that there may be a link between cholesterol levels and AD pathology. Since cholesterol is one of the most abundant lipid molecules, especially in brain tissue, it affects most membrane-related processes, including the formation of the most dangerous form of amyloid β, Aβ42. The entire Aβ production system, which includes the amyloid precursor protein (APP), β-secretase, and the complex of γ-secretase, is highly dependent on membrane cholesterol content. Moreover, cholesterol can affect amyloidogenesis in many ways. Cholesterol influences the stability and activity of secretases, but also dictates their partitioning into specific cellular compartments and cholesterol-enriched lipid rafts, where the amyloidogenic machinery is predominantly localized. The most complicated relationships have been found in the interaction between cholesterol and APP, where cholesterol affects not only APP localization but also the precise character of APP dimerization and APP processing by γ-secretase, which is important for the production of Aβ of different lengths. In this review, we describe the intricate web of interdependence between cellular cholesterol levels, cholesterol membrane distribution, and cholesterol-dependent production of Aβ, the major player in AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vladimir Rudajev
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Jiri Novotny
- Department of Physiology, Faculty of Science, Charles University, Prague, Czech Republic
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6
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Haider A, Zhao C, Wang L, Xiao Z, Rong J, Xia X, Chen Z, Pfister SK, Mast N, Yutuc E, Chen J, Li Y, Shao T, Warnock GI, Dawoud A, Connors TR, Oakley DH, Wei H, Wang J, Zheng Z, Xu H, Davenport AT, Daunais JB, Van RS, Shao Y, Wang Y, Zhang MR, Gebhard C, Pikuleva I, Levey AI, Griffiths WJ, Liang SH. Assessment of cholesterol homeostasis in the living human brain. Sci Transl Med 2022; 14:eadc9967. [PMID: 36197966 PMCID: PMC9581941 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.adc9967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/02/2022]
Abstract
Alterations in brain cholesterol homeostasis have been broadly implicated in neurological disorders. Notwithstanding the complexity by which cholesterol biology is governed in the mammalian brain, excess neuronal cholesterol is primarily eliminated by metabolic clearance via cytochrome P450 46A1 (CYP46A1). No methods are currently available for visualizing cholesterol metabolism in the living human brain; therefore, a noninvasive technology that quantitatively measures the extent of brain cholesterol metabolism via CYP46A1 could broadly affect disease diagnosis and treatment options using targeted therapies. Here, we describe the development and testing of a CYP46A1-targeted positron emission tomography (PET) tracer, 18F-CHL-2205 (18F-Cholestify). Our data show that PET imaging readouts correlate with CYP46A1 protein expression and with the extent to which cholesterol is metabolized in the brain, as assessed by cross-species postmortem analyses of specimens from rodents, nonhuman primates, and humans. Proof of concept of in vivo efficacy is provided in the well-established 3xTg-AD murine model of Alzheimer's disease (AD), where we show that the probe is sensitive to differences in brain cholesterol metabolism between 3xTg-AD mice and control animals. Furthermore, our clinical observations point toward a considerably higher baseline brain cholesterol clearance via CYP46A1 in women, as compared to age-matched men. These findings illustrate the vast potential of assessing brain cholesterol metabolism using PET and establish PET as a sensitive tool for noninvasive assessment of brain cholesterol homeostasis in the clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ahmed Haider
- Department of Radiology, Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, 55 Fruit Street, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Emory University, Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, 1364 Clifton Rd, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Chunyu Zhao
- Department of Radiology, Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, 55 Fruit Street, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Emory University, Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, 1364 Clifton Rd, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Lu Wang
- Center of Cyclotron and PET Radiopharmaceuticals, Department of Nuclear Medicine and PET/CT-MRI Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Jinan University, Guangzhou 510630, China
| | - Zhiwei Xiao
- Department of Radiology, Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, 55 Fruit Street, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Emory University, Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, 1364 Clifton Rd, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Jian Rong
- Department of Radiology, Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, 55 Fruit Street, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Emory University, Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, 1364 Clifton Rd, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Xiaotian Xia
- Department of Radiology, Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, 55 Fruit Street, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, Union Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 430022 Wuhan, China
| | - Zhen Chen
- Department of Radiology, Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, 55 Fruit Street, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Stefanie K. Pfister
- Department of Radiology, Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, 55 Fruit Street, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Natalia Mast
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
| | - Eylan Yutuc
- Institute of Life Science, Swansea University Medical School, SA2 8PP Swansea, Wales, United Kingdom
| | - Jiahui Chen
- Department of Radiology, Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, 55 Fruit Street, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Emory University, Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, 1364 Clifton Rd, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Yinlong Li
- Department of Radiology, Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, 55 Fruit Street, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Emory University, Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, 1364 Clifton Rd, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - Tuo Shao
- Department of Radiology, Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, 55 Fruit Street, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Geoffrey I. Warnock
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Center for Molecular Cardiology, University of Zurich, Schlieren, Switzerland
| | - Alyaa Dawoud
- Biochemistry Department, Faculty of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, German University in Cairo, 11835, Cairo, Egypt
| | - Theresa R. Connors
- Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Massachusetts Alzheimer’s Disease Research Center, Boston, MA 02129, USA
| | - Derek H. Oakley
- Harvard Medical School, Boston, Massachusetts 02115, USA
- Department of Pathology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114-2696, USA
- C.S. Kubik Laboratory for Neuropathology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Massachusetts Alzheimer’s Disease Research Center, Charlestown, MA 02129, USA
| | - Huiyi Wei
- Center of Cyclotron and PET Radiopharmaceuticals, Department of Nuclear Medicine and PET/CT-MRI Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Jinan University, Guangzhou 510630, China
| | - Jinghao Wang
- Department of Pharmacy, the First Affiliated Hospital of Jinan University, Guangzhou 510630, China
| | - Zhihua Zheng
- Guangdong Province Pharmaceutical Association, Guangzhou 510080, China
| | - Hao Xu
- Center of Cyclotron and PET Radiopharmaceuticals, Department of Nuclear Medicine and PET/CT-MRI Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Jinan University, Guangzhou 510630, China
| | - April T. Davenport
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston Salem, NC, 27157, USA
| | - James B. Daunais
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Winston Salem, NC, 27157, USA
| | - Richard S. Van
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK, 73019, USA
| | - Yihan Shao
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Oklahoma, Norman, OK, 73019, USA
| | - Yuqin Wang
- Institute of Life Science, Swansea University Medical School, SA2 8PP Swansea, Wales, United Kingdom
| | - Ming-Rong Zhang
- Department of Advanced Nuclear Medicine Sciences, Institute for Quantum Medical Science, National Institutes for Quantum Science and Technology, Chiba 263-8555, Japan
| | - Catherine Gebhard
- Department of Nuclear Medicine, University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Center for Molecular Cardiology, University of Zurich, Schlieren, Switzerland
| | - Irina Pikuleva
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
| | - Allan I. Levey
- Department of Neurology, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
| | - William J. Griffiths
- Institute of Life Science, Swansea University Medical School, SA2 8PP Swansea, Wales, United Kingdom
| | - Steven H. Liang
- Department of Radiology, Division of Nuclear Medicine and Molecular Imaging Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, 55 Fruit Street, Boston, MA 02114, USA
- Emory University, Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, 1364 Clifton Rd, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA
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7
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Rudajev V, Novotny J. Cholesterol as a key player in amyloid β-mediated toxicity in Alzheimer’s disease. Front Mol Neurosci 2022; 15:937056. [PMID: 36090253 PMCID: PMC9453481 DOI: 10.3389/fnmol.2022.937056] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/05/2022] [Accepted: 07/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a neurodegenerative disorder that is one of the most devastating and widespread diseases worldwide, mainly affecting the aging population. One of the key factors contributing to AD-related neurotoxicity is the production and aggregation of amyloid β (Aβ). Many studies have shown the ability of Aβ to bind to the cell membrane and disrupt its structure, leading to cell death. Because amyloid damage affects different parts of the brain differently, it seems likely that not only Aβ but also the nature of the membrane interface with which the amyloid interacts, helps determine the final neurotoxic effect. Because cholesterol is the dominant component of the plasma membrane, it plays an important role in Aβ-induced toxicity. Elevated cholesterol levels and their regulation by statins have been shown to be important factors influencing the progression of neurodegeneration. However, data from many studies have shown that cholesterol has both neuroprotective and aggravating effects in relation to the development of AD. In this review, we attempt to summarize recent findings on the role of cholesterol in Aβ toxicity mediated by membrane binding in the pathogenesis of AD and to consider it in the broader context of the lipid composition of cell membranes.
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8
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Wu M, Zhai Y, Liang X, Chen W, Lin R, Ma L, Huang Y, Zhao D, Liang Y, Zhao W, Fang J, Fang S, Chen Y, Wang Q, Li W. Connecting the Dots Between Hypercholesterolemia and Alzheimer’s Disease: A Potential Mechanism Based on 27-Hydroxycholesterol. Front Neurosci 2022; 16:842814. [PMID: 35464321 PMCID: PMC9021879 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2022.842814] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/24/2021] [Accepted: 03/01/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD), the most common cause of dementia, is a complex and multifactorial disease involving genetic and environmental factors, with hypercholesterolemia considered as one of the risk factors. Numerous epidemiological studies have reported a positive association between AD and serum cholesterol levels, and experimental studies also provide evidence that elevated cholesterol levels accelerate AD pathology. However, the underlying mechanism of hypercholesterolemia accelerating AD pathogenesis is not clear. Here, we review the metabolism of cholesterol in the brain and focus on the role of oxysterols, aiming to reveal the link between hypercholesterolemia and AD. 27-hydroxycholesterol (27-OHC) is the major peripheral oxysterol that flows into the brain, and it affects β-amyloid (Aβ) production and elimination as well as influencing other pathogenic mechanisms of AD. Although the potential link between hypercholesterolemia and AD is well established, cholesterol-lowering drugs show mixed results in improving cognitive function. Nevertheless, drugs that target cholesterol exocytosis and conversion show benefits in improving AD pathology. Herbs and natural compounds with cholesterol-lowering properties also have a potential role in ameliorating cognition. Collectively, hypercholesterolemia is a causative risk factor for AD, and 27-OHC is likely a potential mechanism for hypercholesterolemia to promote AD pathology. Drugs that regulate cholesterol metabolism are probably beneficial for AD, but more research is needed to unravel the mechanisms involved in 27-OHC, which may lead to new therapeutic strategies for AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mingan Wu
- Science and Technology Innovation Center, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yingying Zhai
- Science and Technology Innovation Center, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
| | - Xiaoyi Liang
- Science and Technology Innovation Center, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
| | - Weichun Chen
- Science and Technology Innovation Center, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
| | - Ruiyi Lin
- Science and Technology Innovation Center, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
| | - Linlin Ma
- Science and Technology Innovation Center, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yi Huang
- Science and Technology Innovation Center, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
| | - Di Zhao
- Science and Technology Innovation Center, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yong Liang
- Science and Technology Innovation Center, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
| | - Wei Zhao
- Science and Technology Innovation Center, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jiansong Fang
- Science and Technology Innovation Center, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
| | - Shuhuan Fang
- Science and Technology Innovation Center, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
| | - Yunbo Chen
- Science and Technology Innovation Center, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
| | - Qi Wang
- Science and Technology Innovation Center, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
- *Correspondence: Qi Wang,
| | - Weirong Li
- Science and Technology Innovation Center, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
- Institute of Clinical Pharmacology, Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
- Weirong Li,
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9
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Bhat A, Dalvi H, Jain H, Rangaraj N, Singh SB, Srivastava S. Perspective insights of repurposing the pleiotropic efficacy of statins in neurodegenerative disorders: An expository appraisal. CURRENT RESEARCH IN PHARMACOLOGY AND DRUG DISCOVERY 2021; 2:100012. [PMID: 34909647 PMCID: PMC8663947 DOI: 10.1016/j.crphar.2020.100012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/01/2020] [Revised: 12/15/2020] [Accepted: 12/18/2020] [Indexed: 10/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurodegenerative disorders which affects a larger population pose a great clinical challenge. These disorders impact the quality of life of an individual by damaging the neurons, which are the unit cells of the brain. Clinicians are faced with the grave challenge of inhibiting the progression of these diseases as available treatment options fail to meet the clinical demand. Thus, treating the disease/disorder symptomatically is the Hobson's choice. The goal of the researchers is to introduce newer therapies in this segment and introducing a new molecule will take long years of development. Hence, drug repurposing/repositioning can be a better substitute in comparison to time consuming and expensive drug discovery and development cycle. Presently, a paradigm shift towards the re-purposing of drugs can be witnessed. Statins which have been previously approved as anti-hyperlipidemic agents are in the limelight of research for re-purposed drugs. Owing to their anti-inflammatory and antioxidant nature, statins act as neuroprotective in several brain disorders. Further they attenuate the amyloid plaques and protein aggregation which are the triggering factors in the Alzheimer's and Parkinson's respectively. In case of Huntington disease and Multiple sclerosis they help in improving the psychomotor symptoms and stimulate remyelination thus acting as neuroprotective. This article reviews the potential of statins in treating neurodegenerative disorders along with a brief discussion on the safety concerns associated with use of statins and human clinical trial data linked with re-tasking statins for neurodegenerative disorders along with the regulatory perspectives involved with the drug repositioning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aditi Bhat
- Department of Pharmaceutics, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Hyderabad, Telangana, 500037, India
| | - Harshita Dalvi
- Department of Pharmaceutics, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Hyderabad, Telangana, 500037, India
| | - Harsha Jain
- Department of Pharmaceutics, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Hyderabad, Telangana, 500037, India
| | - Nagarjun Rangaraj
- Department of Pharmaceutics, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Hyderabad, Telangana, 500037, India
| | - Shashi Bala Singh
- Department of Pharmacology and Regulatory Toxicology, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Hyderabad, Telangana, 500037, India
| | - Saurabh Srivastava
- Department of Pharmaceutics, National Institute of Pharmaceutical Education and Research (NIPER), Hyderabad, Telangana, 500037, India
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Preclinical characterization of [ 18F]T-008, a novel PET imaging radioligand for cholesterol 24-hydroxylase. Eur J Nucl Med Mol Imaging 2021; 49:1148-1156. [PMID: 34651220 PMCID: PMC8921165 DOI: 10.1007/s00259-021-05565-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2021] [Accepted: 09/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/03/2022]
Abstract
PURPOSE Cholesterol 24-hydroxylase (CH24H) is a brain-specific enzyme that plays a major role in brain cholesterol homeostasis by converting cholesterol into 24S-hydroxycholesterol. The selective CH24H inhibitor soticlestat (TAK-935) is being pursued as a drug for treatment of seizures in developmental and epileptic encephalopathies. Herein, we describe the successful discovery and the preclinical validation of the novel radiolabeled CH24H ligand (3-[18F]fluoroazetidin-1-yl){1-[4-(4-fluorophenyl)pyrimidin-5-yl]piperidin-4-yl}methanone ([18F]T-008) and its tritiated analog, [3H]T-008. METHODS In vitro autoradiography (ARG) studies in the CH24H wild-type (WT) and knockout (KO) mouse brain sections were conducted using [3H]T-008. PET imaging was conducted in two adult rhesus macaques using [18F]T-008. Each macaque received two test-retest baseline scans and a series of two blocking doses of soticlestat administered prior to [18F]T-008 to determine the CH24H enzyme occupancy. PET data were analyzed with Logan graphical analysis using plasma input. A Lassen plot was applied to estimate CH24H enzyme occupancy by soticlestat. RESULTS In ARG studies, binding of [3H]T-008 was specific to CH24H in the mouse brain sections, which was not observed in CH24H KO or in wild-type mice after pretreatment with soticlestat. In rhesus PET studies, the rank order of [18F]T-008 uptake was striatum > cortical regions > cerebellum, which was consistent with CH24H distribution in the brain. Pre-blocking with soticlestat reduced the maximum uptake and increased the washout in all brain regions in a dose-dependent manner. Calculated global occupancy values for soticlestat at a dose of 0.89 mg/kg were 97-98%, indicating maximum occupancy. CONCLUSION The preclinical in vitro and in vivo evaluation of labeled T-008 demonstrates that [18F]T-008 is suitable for imaging CH24H in the brain and warrants further studies in humans.
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Koike T, Yoshikawa M, Ando HK, Farnaby W, Nishi T, Watanabe E, Yano J, Miyamoto M, Kondo S, Ishii T, Kuroita T. Discovery of Soticlestat, a Potent and Selective Inhibitor for Cholesterol 24-Hydroxylase (CH24H). J Med Chem 2021; 64:12228-12244. [PMID: 34387987 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.1c00864] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
Cholesterol 24-hydroxylase (CH24H, CYP46A1), a brain-specific cytochrome P450 (CYP) family enzyme, plays a role in the homeostasis of brain cholesterol by converting cholesterol to 24S-hydroxycholesterol (24HC). Despite a wide range of potential of CH24H as a drug target, no potent and selective inhibitors have been identified. Here, we report on the structure-based drug design (SBDD) of novel 4-arylpyridine derivatives based on the X-ray co-crystal structure of hit derivative 1b. Optimization of 4-arylpyridine derivatives led us to identify 3v ((4-benzyl-4-hydroxypiperidin-1-yl)(2,4'-bipyridin-3-yl)methanone, IC50 = 7.4 nM) as a highly potent, selective, and brain-penetrant CH24H inhibitor. Following oral administration to mice, 3v resulted in a dose-dependent reduction of 24HC levels in the brain (1, 3, and 10 mg/kg). Compound 3v (soticlestat, also known as TAK-935) is currently under clinical investigation for the treatment of Dravet syndrome and Lennox-Gastaut syndrome as a novel drug class for epilepsies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tatsuki Koike
- Research, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Ltd., 26-1 Muraoka-Higashi, 2-Chome, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 251-8555, Japan
| | - Masato Yoshikawa
- Research, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Ltd., 26-1 Muraoka-Higashi, 2-Chome, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 251-8555, Japan
| | - Haruhi Kamisaki Ando
- Research, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Ltd., 26-1 Muraoka-Higashi, 2-Chome, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 251-8555, Japan
| | - William Farnaby
- Research, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Ltd., 26-1 Muraoka-Higashi, 2-Chome, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 251-8555, Japan
| | - Toshiya Nishi
- Research, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Ltd., 26-1 Muraoka-Higashi, 2-Chome, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 251-8555, Japan
| | - Etsurou Watanabe
- Research, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Ltd., 26-1 Muraoka-Higashi, 2-Chome, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 251-8555, Japan
| | - Jason Yano
- Takeda California Inc., 9625 Towne Centre Drive, San Diego, California 92121, United States
| | - Maki Miyamoto
- Research, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Ltd., 26-1 Muraoka-Higashi, 2-Chome, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 251-8555, Japan
| | - Shigeru Kondo
- Research, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Ltd., 26-1 Muraoka-Higashi, 2-Chome, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 251-8555, Japan
| | - Tsuyoshi Ishii
- Research, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Ltd., 26-1 Muraoka-Higashi, 2-Chome, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 251-8555, Japan
| | - Takanobu Kuroita
- Research, Takeda Pharmaceutical Company Ltd., 26-1 Muraoka-Higashi, 2-Chome, Fujisawa, Kanagawa 251-8555, Japan
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Pikuleva IA, Cartier N. Cholesterol Hydroxylating Cytochrome P450 46A1: From Mechanisms of Action to Clinical Applications. Front Aging Neurosci 2021; 13:696778. [PMID: 34305573 PMCID: PMC8297829 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2021.696778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/17/2021] [Accepted: 06/15/2021] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Cholesterol, an essential component of the brain, and its local metabolism are involved in many neurodegenerative diseases. The blood-brain barrier is impermeable to cholesterol; hence, cholesterol homeostasis in the central nervous system represents a balance between in situ biosynthesis and elimination. Cytochrome P450 46A1 (CYP46A1), a central nervous system-specific enzyme, converts cholesterol to 24-hydroxycholesterol, which can freely cross the blood-brain barrier and be degraded in the liver. By the dual action of initiating cholesterol efflux and activating the cholesterol synthesis pathway, CYP46A1 is the key enzyme that ensures brain cholesterol turnover. In humans and mouse models, CYP46A1 activity is altered in Alzheimer’s and Huntington’s diseases, spinocerebellar ataxias, glioblastoma, and autism spectrum disorders. In mouse models, modulations of CYP46A1 activity mitigate the manifestations of Alzheimer’s, Huntington’s, Nieman-Pick type C, and Machao-Joseph (spinocerebellar ataxia type 3) diseases as well as amyotrophic lateral sclerosis, epilepsy, glioblastoma, and prion infection. Animal studies revealed that the CYP46A1 activity effects are not limited to cholesterol maintenance but also involve critical cellular pathways, like gene transcription, endocytosis, misfolded protein clearance, vesicular transport, and synaptic transmission. How CYP46A1 can exert central control of such essential brain functions is a pressing question under investigation. The potential therapeutic role of CYP46A1, demonstrated in numerous models of brain disorders, is currently being evaluated in early clinical trials. This review summarizes the past 70 years of research that has led to the identification of CYP46A1 and brain cholesterol homeostasis as powerful therapeutic targets for severe pathologies of the CNS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irina A Pikuleva
- Department of Ophthalmology and Visual Sciences, Case Western Reserve University, Cleveland, OH, United States
| | - Nathalie Cartier
- NeuroGenCell, Paris Brain Institute, ICM, Inserm U 1127, CNRS UMR 7225, Sorbonne Université, Paris, France
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Gamba P, Giannelli S, Staurenghi E, Testa G, Sottero B, Biasi F, Poli G, Leonarduzzi G. The Controversial Role of 24-S-Hydroxycholesterol in Alzheimer's Disease. Antioxidants (Basel) 2021; 10:antiox10050740. [PMID: 34067119 PMCID: PMC8151638 DOI: 10.3390/antiox10050740] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2021] [Revised: 04/29/2021] [Accepted: 05/03/2021] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
The development of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is influenced by several events, among which the dysregulation of cholesterol metabolism in the brain plays a major role. Maintenance of brain cholesterol homeostasis is essential for neuronal functioning and brain development. To maintain the steady-state level, excess brain cholesterol is converted into the more hydrophilic metabolite 24-S-hydroxycholesterol (24-OHC), also called cerebrosterol, by the neuron-specific enzyme CYP46A1. A growing bulk of evidence suggests that cholesterol oxidation products, named oxysterols, are the link connecting altered cholesterol metabolism to AD. It has been shown that the levels of some oxysterols, including 27-hydroxycholesterol, 7β-hydroxycholesterol and 7-ketocholesterol, significantly increase in AD brains contributing to disease progression. In contrast, 24-OHC levels decrease, likely due to neuronal loss. Among the different brain oxysterols, 24-OHC is certainly the one whose role is most controversial. It is the dominant oxysterol in the brain and evidence shows that it represents a signaling molecule of great importance for brain function. However, numerous studies highlighted the potential role of 24-OHC in favoring AD development, since it promotes neuroinflammation, amyloid β (Aβ) peptide production, oxidative stress and cell death. In parallel, 24-OHC has been shown to exert several beneficial effects against AD progression, such as preventing tau hyperphosphorylation and Aβ production. In this review we focus on the current knowledge of the controversial role of 24-OHC in AD pathogenesis, reporting a detailed overview of the findings about its levels in different AD biological samples and its noxious or neuroprotective effects in the brain. Given the relevant role of 24-OHC in AD pathophysiology, its targeting could be useful for disease prevention or slowing down its progression.
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Parrado-Fernandez C, Leoni V, Saeed A, Rodriguez-Rodriguez P, Sandebring-Matton A, Córdoba-Beldad CM, Bueno P, Gali CC, Panzenboeck U, Cedazo-Minguez A, Björkhem I. Sex difference in flux of 27-hydroxycholesterol into the brain. Br J Pharmacol 2021; 178:3194-3204. [PMID: 33345295 PMCID: PMC8359195 DOI: 10.1111/bph.15353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2020] [Revised: 11/30/2020] [Accepted: 12/05/2020] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Background and Purpose The cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)/plasma albumin ratio (QAlb) is believed to reflect the integrity of the blood–brain barrier (BBB). Recently, we reported that QAlb is lower in females. This may be important for uptake of neurotoxic 27‐hydroxycholesterol (27OH) by the brain in particular because plasma levels of 27OH are higher in males. We studied sex differences in the relation between CSF and plasma levels of 27OH and its major metabolite 7α‐hydroxy‐3‐oxo‐4‐cholestenoic acid (7HOCA) with QAlb. We tested the possibility of sex differences in the brain metabolism of 27OH and if its flux into the brain disrupted integrity of the BBB. Experimental Approach We have examined our earlier studies looking for sex differences in CSF levels of oxysterols and their relation to QAlb. We utilized an in vitro model for the BBB with primary cultured brain endothelial cells to test if 27OH has a disruptive effect on this barrier. We measured mRNA and protein levels of CYP7B1 in autopsy brain samples. Key Results The correlation between CSF levels of 27OH and QAlb was higher in males whereas, with 7HOCA, the correlation was higher in females. No significant sex difference in the expression of CYP7B1 mRNA in brain autopsy samples. A correlation was found between plasma levels of 27OH and QAlb. No support was obtained for the hypothesis that plasma levels of 27OH have a disruptive effect on the BBB. Conclusions and Implications The sex differences are discussed in relation to negative effects of 27OH on different brain functions. LINKED ARTICLES This article is part of a themed issue on Oxysterols, Lifelong Health and Therapeutics. To view the other articles in this section visit http://onlinelibrary.wiley.com/doi/10.1111/bph.v178.16/issuetoc
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Parrado-Fernandez
- Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Karolinska Institute, Solna, Sweden.,Discovery and Research, AlzeCure Pharma AB, Huddinge, Sweden
| | - Valerio Leoni
- Laboratory of Clinical Chemistry, Hospital of Desio, ASST-Monza and School of Medicine, University of Milano Bicocca, Monza, Italy
| | - Ahmed Saeed
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institute, Huddinge, Sweden
| | | | - Anna Sandebring-Matton
- Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Karolinska Institute, Solna, Sweden
| | | | - Paula Bueno
- Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Karolinska Institute, Solna, Sweden
| | - Chaitanya Chakravarthi Gali
- Division of Immunology and Pathophysiology, Otto Loewi Research Center, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Ute Panzenboeck
- Division of Immunology and Pathophysiology, Otto Loewi Research Center, Medical University of Graz, Graz, Austria
| | - Angel Cedazo-Minguez
- Department of Neurobiology, Care Sciences and Society, Karolinska Institute, Solna, Sweden.,Rare & Neurologic Diseases Research Therapeutic Area, Neurodegeneration Research, Sanofi Pharmaceuticals, Paris, France
| | - Ingemar Björkhem
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Karolinska Institute, Huddinge, Sweden
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15
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McFarlane O, Kozakiewicz M, Kędziora-Kornatowska K, Gębka D, Szybalska A, Szwed M, Klich-Rączka A. Blood Lipids and Cognitive Performance of Aging Polish Adults: A Case-Control Study Based on the PolSenior Project. Front Aging Neurosci 2020; 12:590546. [PMID: 33328967 PMCID: PMC7717968 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2020.590546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/01/2020] [Accepted: 10/21/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: The demand for effective strategies for maintaining cognitive capableness and establishing early dementia diagnosis has been tremendous, especially in the context of population aging. However, studies on the elderly population and neurocognitive impairment had provided ambiguous results throughout, while potential blood biomarkers of cognitive decline are yet to be clearly understood. Objectives: The present study is aimed at assessing the relationship between blood lipids—especially in the context of their usefulness as biomarkers of an early cognitive decline—and cognitive functioning of aging adults. Materials and Methods: The study sample consisted of 230 participants—(109 women, 121 men) aged 65+ years. Plasma 24(S)-hydroxycholesterol [24(S)-OHC], serum total cholesterol (TC), high-density lipoprotein cholesterol (HDL), and low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL) were assessed. The analyses were conducted in three groups of cognitive performance: cognitively normal, mild cognitive impairment (MCI), and mild dementia, of which the subjects were divided with the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE). Results: No significant differences in 24(S)-OHC plasma concentrations for different levels of cognitive performance were found. Significant differences were found in serum TC (p = 0.026) and LDL (p = 0.007) concentrations for different levels of cognitive performance. Concentrations of both parameters were highest in the MCI group and lowest in mild dementia and cognitive norm, respectively. No significant differences between serum HDL concentrations and cognitive performance were found. Conclusions: To fully assess the potential of research on blood lipids in regards to a cognitive decline, cross-sectional or epidemiological studies aimed at further exploring blood lipid roles in both the early and advanced MCI and dementia, are needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliwia McFarlane
- Department of Social and Medical Sciences, L. Rydygier Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Toruń, Poland.,Department of Geriatrics, L. Rydygier Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Toruń, Poland
| | - Mariusz Kozakiewicz
- Department of Geriatrics, Division of Biochemistry and Biogerontology, L. Rydygier Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Toruń, Poland
| | - Kornelia Kędziora-Kornatowska
- Department of Geriatrics, L. Rydygier Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Toruń, Poland
| | - Dominika Gębka
- Department of Geriatrics, L. Rydygier Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz, Nicolaus Copernicus University in Toruń, Toruń, Poland
| | - Aleksandra Szybalska
- International Institute of Molecular and Cell Biology, Aging and Longevity Strategic Project, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Małgorzata Szwed
- Department of Human Epigenetics, Mossakowski Medical Research Centre, Polish Academy of Sciences, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Alicja Klich-Rączka
- Department of Internal Medicine and Gerontology, Faculty of Medicine, Jagiellonian University Medical College, Kraków, Poland
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16
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McFarlane O, Kędziora-Kornatowska K. Cholesterol and Dementia: A Long and Complicated Relationship. Curr Aging Sci 2020; 13:42-51. [PMID: 31530269 PMCID: PMC7403650 DOI: 10.2174/1874609812666190917155400] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/06/2019] [Revised: 08/09/2019] [Accepted: 08/16/2019] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND There is a huge demand for efficient strategies for maintaining cognitive wellbeing with age, especially in the context of population aging. Dementia constitutes the main reason for disability and dependency in the elderly. Identification of potential risk and protective factors, as well as determinants of conversion from MCI to dementia, is therefore crucial. In case of Alzheimer's disease, the most prevalent dementia syndrome amongst the members of modern societies, neurodegenerative processes in the brain can begin many years before first clinical symptoms appear. First functional changes typically mean advanced neuron loss, therefore, the earliest possible diagnosis is critical for implementation of promising early pharmaceutical interventions. OBJECTIVE The study aimed to discuss the relationships between both circulating and brain cholesterol with cognition, and explore its potential role in early diagnosis of cognitive disorders. METHODS Literature review. RESULTS The causal role of high cholesterol levels in AD or MCI has not been confirmed. It has been postulated that plasma levels of 24(S)-OHC can potentially be used as an early biochemical marker of altered cholesterol homeostasis in the CNS. Some studies brought conflicting results, finding normal or lowered levels of 24(S)-OHC in dementia patients compared to controls. In spite of decades of research on the relationship between cholesterol and dementia, so far, no single trusted indicator of an early cognitive deterioration has been identified. CONCLUSION The current state of knowledge makes the use of cholesterol markers of cognitive decline in clinical practice impossible.
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Affiliation(s)
- Oliwia McFarlane
- Address correspondence to this author at the Department of Public Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, Nicolaus Copernicus University, Ludwik Rydygier Collegium Medicum in Bydgoszcz, P.O. Box: 85-830, Bydgoszcz, Poland; Tel/Fax: ++48-52-585-5408; E-mail:
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Dias IH, Borah K, Amin B, Griffiths HR, Sassi K, Lizard G, Iriondo A, Martinez-Lage P. Localisation of oxysterols at the sub-cellular level and in biological fluids. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2019; 193:105426. [PMID: 31301352 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.105426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2019] [Revised: 06/25/2019] [Accepted: 07/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Oxysterols are oxidized derivatives of cholesterol that are formed enzymatically or via reactive oxygen species or both. Cholesterol or oxysterols ingested as food are absorbed and packed into lipoproteins that are taken up by hepatic cells. Within hepatic cells, excess cholesterol is metabolised to form bile acids. The endoplasmic reticulum acts as the main organelle in the bile acid synthesis pathway. Metabolised sterols originating from this pathway are distributed within other organelles and in the cell membrane. The alterations to membrane oxysterol:sterol ratio affects the integrity of the cell membrane. The presence of oxysterols changes membrane fluidity and receptor orientation. It is well documented that hydroxylase enzymes located in mitochondria facilitate oxysterol production via an acidic pathway. More recently, the presence of oxysterols was also reported in lysosomes. Peroxisomal deficiencies favour intracellular oxysterols accumulation. Despite the low abundance of oxysterols compared to cholesterol, the biological actions of oxysterols are numerous and important. Oxysterol levels are implicated in the pathogenesis of multiple diseases ranging from chronic inflammatory diseases (atherosclerosis, Alzheimer's disease and bowel disease), cancer and numerous neurodegenerative diseases. In this article, we review the distribution of oxysterols in sub-cellular organelles and in biological fluids.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irundika Hk Dias
- Aston Medical Research Institute, Aston Medical School, Aston University, Birmingham, B4 7ET, UK.
| | - Khushboo Borah
- Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Stag Hill, Guildford, GU2 7XH, UK
| | - Berivan Amin
- Aston Medical Research Institute, Aston Medical School, Aston University, Birmingham, B4 7ET, UK
| | - Helen R Griffiths
- Aston Medical Research Institute, Aston Medical School, Aston University, Birmingham, B4 7ET, UK; Faculty of Health and Medical Sciences, University of Surrey, Stag Hill, Guildford, GU2 7XH, UK
| | - Khouloud Sassi
- Team Bio-PeroxIL, Biochemistry of the Peroxisome, Inflammation and Lipid Metabolism (EA7270)/University Bourgogne Franche-Comté/Inserm, 21000 Dijon, France; Univ. Tunis El Manar, Laboratory of Onco-Hematology (LR05ES05), Faculty of Medicine, Tunis, Tunisia
| | - Gérard Lizard
- Team Bio-PeroxIL, Biochemistry of the Peroxisome, Inflammation and Lipid Metabolism (EA7270)/University Bourgogne Franche-Comté/Inserm, 21000 Dijon, France
| | - Ane Iriondo
- Department of Neurology, Center for Research and Advanced Therapies, CITA-Alzheimer Foundation, San Sebastian, Spain
| | - Pablo Martinez-Lage
- Department of Neurology, Center for Research and Advanced Therapies, CITA-Alzheimer Foundation, San Sebastian, Spain
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18
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Loera-Valencia R, Goikolea J, Parrado-Fernandez C, Merino-Serrais P, Maioli S. Alterations in cholesterol metabolism as a risk factor for developing Alzheimer's disease: Potential novel targets for treatment. J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2019; 190:104-114. [PMID: 30878503 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2019.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 140] [Impact Index Per Article: 28.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2018] [Revised: 02/28/2019] [Accepted: 03/01/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common form of dementia and it is characterized by the deposition of amyloid-β (Aβ) plaques and neurofibrillary tangles in the brain. However, the complete pathogenesis of the disease is still unknown. High level of serum cholesterol has been found to positively correlate with an increased risk of dementia and some studies have reported a decreased prevalence of AD in patients taking cholesterol-lowering drugs. Years of research have shown a strong correlation between blood hypercholesterolemia and AD, however cholesterol is not able to cross the Blood Brain Barrier (BBB) into the brain. Cholesterol lowering therapies have shown mixed results in cognitive performance in AD patients, raising questions of whether brain cholesterol metabolism in the brain should be studied separately from peripheral cholesterol metabolism and what their relationship is. Unlike cholesterol, oxidized cholesterol metabolites known as oxysterols are able to cross the BBB from the circulation into the brain and vice-versa. The main oxysterols present in the circulation are 24S-hydroxycholesterol and 27-hydroxycholesterol. These oxysterols and their catalysing enzymes have been found to be altered in AD brains and there is evidence indicating their influence in the progression of the disease. This review gives a broad perspective on the relationship between hypercholesterolemia and AD, cholesterol lowering therapies for AD patients and the role of oxysterols in pathological and non-pathological conditions. Also, we propose cholesterol metabolites as valuable targets for prevention and alternative AD treatments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raúl Loera-Valencia
- Karolinska Institutet, Center for Alzheimer Research, Department of Neurobiology Care Sciences and Society, Division of Neurogeriatrics, Stockholm, Sweden.
| | - Julen Goikolea
- Karolinska Institutet, Center for Alzheimer Research, Department of Neurobiology Care Sciences and Society, Division of Neurogeriatrics, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Cristina Parrado-Fernandez
- Karolinska Institutet, Center for Alzheimer Research, Department of Neurobiology Care Sciences and Society, Division of Neurogeriatrics, Stockholm, Sweden; Institute of Molecular Biology and Genetics-IBGM, (University of Valladolid-CSIC), Valladolid, Spain
| | - Paula Merino-Serrais
- Karolinska Institutet, Center for Alzheimer Research, Department of Neurobiology Care Sciences and Society, Division of Neurogeriatrics, Stockholm, Sweden; Instituto Cajal (CSIC), Laboratorio Cajal de Circuitos Corticales, Madrid, Spain
| | - Silvia Maioli
- Karolinska Institutet, Center for Alzheimer Research, Department of Neurobiology Care Sciences and Society, Division of Neurogeriatrics, Stockholm, Sweden.
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Griffiths WJ, Abdel-Khalik J, Yutuc E, Roman G, Warner M, Gustafsson JÅ, Wang Y. Concentrations of bile acid precursors in cerebrospinal fluid of Alzheimer's disease patients. Free Radic Biol Med 2019; 134:42-52. [PMID: 30578919 PMCID: PMC6597949 DOI: 10.1016/j.freeradbiomed.2018.12.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/09/2018] [Revised: 11/20/2018] [Accepted: 12/17/2018] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Using liquid chromatography - mass spectrometry in combination with derivatisation chemistry we profiled the oxysterol and cholestenoic acid content of cerebrospinal fluid from patients with Alzheimer's disease (n = 21), vascular dementia (n = 11), other neurodegenerative diseases (n = 15, Lewy bodies dementia, n = 3, Frontotemporal dementia, n = 11) and controls (n = 15). Thirty different sterols were quantified and the bile acid precursor 7α,25-dihydroxy-3-oxocholest-4-en-26-oic acid found to be reduced in abundance in cerebrospinal fluid of Alzheimer's disease patient-group. This was the only sterol found to be changed amongst the different groups.
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Affiliation(s)
- William J Griffiths
- Swansea University Medical School, ILS1 Building, Singleton Park, Swansea SA2 8PP, UK.
| | - Jonas Abdel-Khalik
- Swansea University Medical School, ILS1 Building, Singleton Park, Swansea SA2 8PP, UK
| | - Eylan Yutuc
- Swansea University Medical School, ILS1 Building, Singleton Park, Swansea SA2 8PP, UK
| | - Gustavo Roman
- Methodist Neurological Institute, Methodist Hospital, Houston, TX 77030, USA
| | - Margaret Warner
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, Center for Nuclear Receptors and Cell Signaling, University of Houston, 3517 Cullen Blvd, Houston, TX 77204, USA
| | - Jan-Åke Gustafsson
- Department of Biology and Biochemistry, Center for Nuclear Receptors and Cell Signaling, University of Houston, 3517 Cullen Blvd, Houston, TX 77204, USA
| | - Yuqin Wang
- Swansea University Medical School, ILS1 Building, Singleton Park, Swansea SA2 8PP, UK.
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20
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Björkhem I, Leoni V, Svenningsson P. On the fluxes of side-chain oxidized oxysterols across blood-brain and blood-CSF barriers and origin of these steroids in CSF (Review). J Steroid Biochem Mol Biol 2019; 188:86-89. [PMID: 30586624 DOI: 10.1016/j.jsbmb.2018.12.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2018] [Accepted: 12/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
In contrast to cholesterol itself the side-chain oxidized metabolites 24S-hydroxycholesterol (24OH) and 27-hydroxycholesterol (27OH) are able to pass the blood-brain barrier and the blood-CSF barrier. Most 27OH in circulation is formed extracerebrally and according to catheterization experiments about 5 mg of it is taken up by the brain per 24 h. 24OH is almost exclusively produced in the brain and about 6 mg fluxes from the brain into the circulation per 24 h. In addition to these major fluxes a very minor fraction of these two oxysterols flux from the circulation into CSF. Isotope experiments have shown that almost all 27OH in CSF originates from the circulation and evidence has been presented that this is the case also with a substantial part of 24OH. The levels of both 24OH and 27OH in CSF are thus affected by the integrity of the blood-CSF barrier with higher levels when the barrier is defect. Both levels of 24OH and 27OH in CSF are increased in connection with neurodegeneration and in general the increase in 24OH levels is higher than the increase in 27OH levels. A number of observations in different type of patients including measurements of other biochemical markers support that the increase in levels of 24OH due to neurodegeneration is due to a release of this oxysterol or its precursor cholesterol from dying neuronal cells. In contrast the increase in levels of 27OH is likely to be a consequence of reduced metabolism due to loss of the neuronal enzyme CYP7B1. We discuss the driving forces behind the fluxes of oxysterols in the brain, the limitations in the flux across the barriers and the diagnostic potential for side-chain oxidized oxysterols in CSF.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Valerio Leoni
- Laboratory of Clinical Chemistry, Hospital of Varese, Varese, Italy
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21
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Oxysterols as a biomarker in diseases. Clin Chim Acta 2019; 491:103-113. [PMID: 30685361 DOI: 10.1016/j.cca.2019.01.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/22/2018] [Revised: 01/20/2019] [Accepted: 01/23/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Cholesterol is one of the most important chemical substances as a structural element in human cells, and it is very susceptible to oxidation reactions that form oxysterol. Oxysterols exhibit almost the exact structure as cholesterol and a cholesterol precursor (7-dehydrocholesterol) with an additional hydroxyl, epoxy or ketone moiety. The oxidation reaction is performed via an enzymatic or non-enzymatic mechanism. The wide array of enzymatic oxysterols encountered in the human body varies in origin and function. Oxysterols establish a concentration equilibrium in human body fluids. Disease may alter the equilibrium, and oxysterols may be used as a diagnostic tool. The current review presents the possibility of using non-enzymatic oxysterols and disturbances in enzymatic oxysterol equilibrium in the human body as a potential biomarker for diagnosing and/or monitoring of the progression of various diseases.
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22
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Björkhem I, Patra K, Boxer AL, Svenningsson P. 24S-Hydroxycholesterol Correlates With Tau and Is Increased in Cerebrospinal Fluid in Parkinson's Disease and Corticobasal Syndrome. Front Neurol 2018; 9:756. [PMID: 30245667 PMCID: PMC6137204 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2018.00756] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/05/2018] [Accepted: 08/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/29/2022] Open
Abstract
24S-hydroxycholesterol (24OHC) and Tau are produced in neuronal cells and neurodegeneration leads to increased flux of both of them into cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). In the present study, CSF levels of 24OHC and 27S-hydroxycholesterol (27OHC) along with those of Tau, P-Thr181-Tau and Aβ42 were measured in patients with early Parkinson's disease (PD), Corticobasal syndrome (CBS), Corticobasal Degeneration (CBD), and controls. Using mouse models with increased or no formation of Tau protein and increased production of 24OHC, we have also tested the hypothesis that there is a direct association between neuronal turnover of 24OHC and Tau. The levels of 24OHC are increased, at a group level, in patients with PD or CBS. We found significant correlations between levels of 24OHC and Tau or P-Thr181-Tau in CSF from patients with PD, CBS or CBD. There were no similar correlations between 24OHC and Aβ42 in CSF from these patients. The neuronal levels of 24OHC were not altered in Tau knockout or Tau overexpressing mice. Vice versa, Tau species levels were not changed in Cyp46 overexpressing mice with increased neuronal levels of 24OHC. We conclude that the strongly correlative fluxes of 24OHC and Tau from neuronal cells to CSF are likely to be secondary to neurodegeneration and not due to direct interaction between the two factors. We suggest that this high correlation reflects a rapid neurodegeneration of specific neuronal subtypes with simultaneous release of 24OHC and Tau into the CSF.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ingemar Björkhem
- Department of Laboratory Medicine Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Kalicharan Patra
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
| | - Adam L Boxer
- Memory and Aging Center, University of California, San Francisco San Francisco, CA, United States
| | - Per Svenningsson
- Department of Clinical Neuroscience Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
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23
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Li J, Sun L, Xu F, Qi H, Shen C, Jiao W, Xiao J, Li Q, Xu B, Shen A. Screening and Identification of APOC1 as a Novel Potential Biomarker for Differentiate of Mycoplasma pneumoniae in Children. Front Microbiol 2016; 7:1961. [PMID: 28018301 PMCID: PMC5156883 DOI: 10.3389/fmicb.2016.01961] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2016] [Accepted: 11/23/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Although Mycoplasma pneumoniae (MP) is a common cause of community-acquired pneumonia (CAP) in children, the currently used diagnostic methods are not optimal. Proteomics is increasingly being used to study the biomarkers of infectious diseases. Methods: Label-free quantitative proteomics and liquid chromatography-mass/mass spectrometry were used to analyze the fold change of protein expression in plasma of children with MP pneumonia (MPP), infectious disease control (IDC), and healthy control (HC) groups. Selected proteins that can distinguish MPP from HC and IDC were further validated by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Results: After multivariate analyses, 27 potential plasma biomarkers were identified to be expressed differently among child MPP, HC, and IDC groups. Among these proteins, SERPINA3, APOC1, ANXA6, KNTC1, and CFLAR were selected for ELISA verification. SERPINA3, APOC1, and CFLAR levels were significantly different among the three groups and the ratios were consistent with the trends of proteomics results. A comparison of MPP patients and HC showed APOC1 had the largest area under the curve (AUC) of 0.853, with 77.6% sensitivity and 81.1% specificity. When APOC1 levels were compared between MPP and IDC patients, it also showed a relatively high AUC of 0.882, with 77.6% sensitivity and 85.3% specificity. Conclusion: APOC1 is a potential biomarker for the rapid and noninvasive diagnosis of MPP in children. The present finding may offer new insights into the pathogenesis and biomarker selection of MPP in children.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jieqiong Li
- MOE Key Laboratory of Major Diseases in Children, National Key Discipline of Pediatrics (Capital Medical University), National Clinical Research Center for Respiratory Diseases, Beijing Key Laboratory of Pediatric Respiratory Infection Diseases, Beijing Pediatric Research Institute, Beijing Children's Hospital, Capital Medical University Beijing, China
| | - Lin Sun
- MOE Key Laboratory of Major Diseases in Children, National Key Discipline of Pediatrics (Capital Medical University), National Clinical Research Center for Respiratory Diseases, Beijing Key Laboratory of Pediatric Respiratory Infection Diseases, Beijing Pediatric Research Institute, Beijing Children's Hospital, Capital Medical University Beijing, China
| | - Fang Xu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Major Diseases in Children, National Key Discipline of Pediatrics (Capital Medical University), National Clinical Research Center for Respiratory Diseases, Beijing Key Laboratory of Pediatric Respiratory Infection Diseases, Beijing Pediatric Research Institute, Beijing Children's Hospital, Capital Medical University Beijing, China
| | - Hui Qi
- MOE Key Laboratory of Major Diseases in Children, National Key Discipline of Pediatrics (Capital Medical University), National Clinical Research Center for Respiratory Diseases, Beijing Key Laboratory of Pediatric Respiratory Infection Diseases, Beijing Pediatric Research Institute, Beijing Children's Hospital, Capital Medical University Beijing, China
| | - Chen Shen
- MOE Key Laboratory of Major Diseases in Children, National Key Discipline of Pediatrics (Capital Medical University), National Clinical Research Center for Respiratory Diseases, Beijing Key Laboratory of Pediatric Respiratory Infection Diseases, Beijing Pediatric Research Institute, Beijing Children's Hospital, Capital Medical University Beijing, China
| | - Weiwei Jiao
- MOE Key Laboratory of Major Diseases in Children, National Key Discipline of Pediatrics (Capital Medical University), National Clinical Research Center for Respiratory Diseases, Beijing Key Laboratory of Pediatric Respiratory Infection Diseases, Beijing Pediatric Research Institute, Beijing Children's Hospital, Capital Medical University Beijing, China
| | - Jing Xiao
- MOE Key Laboratory of Major Diseases in Children, National Key Discipline of Pediatrics (Capital Medical University), National Clinical Research Center for Respiratory Diseases, Beijing Key Laboratory of Pediatric Respiratory Infection Diseases, Beijing Pediatric Research Institute, Beijing Children's Hospital, Capital Medical University Beijing, China
| | - Qinjing Li
- MOE Key Laboratory of Major Diseases in Children, National Key Discipline of Pediatrics (Capital Medical University), National Clinical Research Center for Respiratory Diseases, Beijing Key Laboratory of Pediatric Respiratory Infection Diseases, Beijing Pediatric Research Institute, Beijing Children's Hospital, Capital Medical University Beijing, China
| | - Baoping Xu
- MOE Key Laboratory of Major Diseases in Children, National Key Discipline of Pediatrics (Capital Medical University), National Clinical Research Center for Respiratory Diseases, Beijing Key Laboratory of Pediatric Respiratory Infection Diseases, Beijing Pediatric Research Institute, Beijing Children's Hospital, Capital Medical University Beijing, China
| | - Adong Shen
- MOE Key Laboratory of Major Diseases in Children, National Key Discipline of Pediatrics (Capital Medical University), National Clinical Research Center for Respiratory Diseases, Beijing Key Laboratory of Pediatric Respiratory Infection Diseases, Beijing Pediatric Research Institute, Beijing Children's Hospital, Capital Medical University Beijing, China
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24
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Wang HL, Wang YY, Liu XG, Kuo SH, Liu N, Song QY, Wang MW. Cholesterol, 24-Hydroxycholesterol, and 27-Hydroxycholesterol as Surrogate Biomarkers in Cerebrospinal Fluid in Mild Cognitive Impairment and Alzheimer's Disease: A Meta-Analysis. J Alzheimers Dis 2016; 51:45-55. [PMID: 26836015 DOI: 10.3233/jad-150734] [Citation(s) in RCA: 58] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Abnormal cholesterol metabolism is an established feature of Alzheimer's disease (AD). Cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) is the fluid surrounding the central nervous system, and the protein and lipid content alterations in the CSF could be biomarkers for degenerative changes in the brain. The laboratory diagnosis of AD is limited to the analysis of three biomarkers in CSF: Aβ42, total tau, and phospho-tau. The purpose of this analysis is to systematically analyze the available data describing the biomarkers of cholesterol and its metabolites in the CSF of subjects with AD. MEDLINE, EMBASE, and the Cochrane Central database were systematically queried to collect studies that have evaluated the markers of cholesterol and its metabolites in the CSF of subjects with mild cognitive impairment (MCI) or AD and age-matched controls. Analysis of the published data shows that the levels of cholesterol are increased in MCI subjects; 24-hydroxycholesterol and 27-hydroxycholesterol are elevated in AD and MCI subjects compared to controls. There is a significant dysfunction of cholesterol metabolism in the CSF of AD subjects. This analysis indicates that in addition to the available biomarkers in the CSF, such as Aβ42, total tau, and phospho-tau, 24-hydroxycholesterol, 27-hydroxycholesterol, and cholesterol appear to be sensitive biomarkers for the evaluation of MCI and AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hua-Long Wang
- Department of Neurology, the First Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei, PR China
| | - Yan-Yong Wang
- Department of Neurology, the First Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei, PR China
| | - Xin-Gang Liu
- Department of Rehabilitation, Jingxing Hospital, Jingxing, Hebei, PR China
| | - Sheng-Han Kuo
- Department of Neurology, Columbia University, New York, NY, USA
| | - Na Liu
- Department of Neurology, the First Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei, PR China
| | - Qiao-Yun Song
- Department of Reproductive Genetics, Hebei General Hospital, Shijiazhuang, Hebei, PR China
| | - Ming-Wei Wang
- Department of Neurology, the First Hospital of Hebei Medical University, Shijiazhuang, Hebei, PR China.,Brain Aging and Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory of Hebei province, Shijiazhuang, Hebei, PR China
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25
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Crick PJ, Griffiths WJ, Zhang J, Beibel M, Abdel-Khalik J, Kuhle J, Sailer AW, Wang Y. Reduced Plasma Levels of 25-Hydroxycholesterol and Increased Cerebrospinal Fluid Levels of Bile Acid Precursors in Multiple Sclerosis Patients. Mol Neurobiol 2016; 54:8009-8020. [PMID: 27878760 PMCID: PMC5684259 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-016-0281-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/12/2016] [Accepted: 10/31/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an autoimmune, inflammatory disease of the central nervous system (CNS). We have measured the levels of over 20 non-esterified sterols in plasma and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) from patients suffering from MS, inflammatory CNS disease, neurodegenerative disease and control patients. Analysis was performed following enzyme-assisted derivatisation by liquid chromatography–mass spectrometry (LC–MS) exploiting multistage fragmentation (MSn). We found increased concentrations of bile acid precursors in CSF from each of the disease states and that patients with inflammatory CNS disease classified as suspected autoimmune disease or of unknown aetiology also showed elevated concentrations of 25-hydroxycholestertol (25-HC, P < 0.05) in CSF. Cholesterol concentrations in CSF were not changed except for patients diagnosed with amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (P < 0.01) or pathogen-based infections of the CNS (P < 0.05) where they were elevated. In plasma, we found that 25-HC (P < 0.01), (25R)26-hydroxycholesterol ((25R)26-HC, P < 0.05) and 7α-hydroxy-3-oxocholest-4-enoic acid (7αH,3O-CA, P < 0.05) were reduced in relapsing-remitting MS (RRMS) patients compared to controls. The pattern of reduced plasma levels of 25-HC, (25R)26-HC and 7αH,3O-CA was unique to RRMS. In summary, in plasma, we find that the concentration of 25-HC in RRMS patients is significantly lower than in controls. This is consistent with the hypothesis that a lower propensity of macrophages to synthesise 25-HC will result in reduced negative feedback by 25-HC on IL-1 family cytokine production and exacerbated MS. In CSF, we find that the dominating metabolites reflect the acidic pathway of bile acid biosynthesis and the elevated levels of these in CNS disease is likely to reflect cholesterol release as a result of demyelination or neuronal death. 25-HC is elevated in patients with inflammatory CNS disease probably as a consequence of up-regulation of the type 1 interferon-stimulated gene cholesterol 25-hydroxylase in macrophages.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter J Crick
- Swansea University Medical School, Singleton Park, Swansea, SA2 8PP, UK
| | | | - Juan Zhang
- Analytical Science and Imaging, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, CH-4002, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Martin Beibel
- Developmental & Molecular Pathways, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, CH-4002, Basel, Switzerland
| | | | - Jens Kuhle
- Neurology, Departments of Medicine, Biomedicine and Clinical Research, University Hospital Basel, CH-4031, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Andreas W Sailer
- Developmental & Molecular Pathways, Novartis Institutes for BioMedical Research, CH-4002, Basel, Switzerland.
| | - Yuqin Wang
- Swansea University Medical School, Singleton Park, Swansea, SA2 8PP, UK.
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26
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Hou X, Adeosun SO, Zhang Q, Barlow B, Brents M, Zheng B, Wang J. Differential contributions of ApoE4 and female sex to BACE1 activity and expression mediate Aβ deposition and learning and memory in mouse models of Alzheimer's disease. Front Aging Neurosci 2015; 7:207. [PMID: 26582141 PMCID: PMC4628114 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2015.00207] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/17/2015] [Accepted: 10/15/2015] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD), the most common form of dementia, disproportionately affects women in both prevalence and severity. This increased vulnerability to AD in women is strongly associated with age-related ovarian hormone loss and apolipoprotein E 4 allele (ApoE4), the most important genetic risk factor for sporadic AD. Up to date, the mechanism involved in the interaction between ApoE4 and sex/gender in AD is still unclear. This study evaluated the sex-dependent ApoE4 effects on learning and memory, Aβ deposition and potential mechanisms, using mice bearing both sporadic (ApoE4) and familial (APPSwe, PS1M146V, tauP301L; 3xTg) AD risk factors and compared with sex- and age-matched 3xTg or nonTg mice. Compared to nonTg mice, transgenic mice of both sexes showed spatial learning and memory deficits in the radial arm water maze and novel arm discrimination tests at 20 months of age. However, at 10 months, only ApoE4/3xTg mice showed significant learning and memory impairment. Moreover, molecular studies of hippocampal tissue revealed significantly higher protein levels of Aβ species, β-site APP cleavage enzyme (BACE1) and Sp1, a transcription factor of BACE1, in female ApoE4/3xTg when compared with female nonTg, female 3xTg, and male ApoE4/3xTg mice. Significantly increased BACE1 enzymatic activities were observed in both male and female mice carrying ApoE4; however, only the females showed significant higher BACE1 expressions. Together, these data suggest that ApoE4 allele is associated with increased BACE1 enzymatic activity, while female sex plays an important role in increasing BACE1 expression. The combination of both provides a molecular basis for high Aβ pathology and the resultant hippocampus-dependent learning and memory deficits in female ApoE4 carriers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xu Hou
- Program in Neuroscience, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson MS, USA
| | - Samuel O Adeosun
- Department of Pathology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson MS, USA
| | - Qinli Zhang
- Department of Pathology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson MS, USA
| | - Brett Barlow
- Department of Pathology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson MS, USA
| | - Melissa Brents
- Department of Pathology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson MS, USA
| | - Baoying Zheng
- Department of Pathology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson MS, USA
| | - Junming Wang
- Program in Neuroscience, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson MS, USA ; Department of Pathology, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson MS, USA ; Department of Psychiatry and Human Behavior, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson MS, USA ; Center of Memory Impairment and Neurodegenerative Dementia, University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson MS, USA
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27
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Simpson JE, Ince PG, Minett T, Matthews FE, Heath PR, Shaw PJ, Goodall E, Garwood CJ, Ratcliffe LE, Brayne C, Rattray M, Wharton SB. Neuronal DNA damage response-associated dysregulation of signalling pathways and cholesterol metabolism at the earliest stages of Alzheimer-type pathology. Neuropathol Appl Neurobiol 2015; 42:167-79. [PMID: 26095650 PMCID: PMC5102584 DOI: 10.1111/nan.12252] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2015] [Accepted: 06/02/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Aims Oxidative damage and an associated DNA damage response (DDR) are evident in mild cognitive impairment and early Alzheimer's disease, suggesting that neuronal dysfunction resulting from oxidative DNA damage may account for some of the cognitive impairment not fully explained by Alzheimer‐type pathology. Methods Frontal cortex (Braak stage 0–II) was obtained from the Medical Research Council's Cognitive Function and Ageing Study cohort. Neurones were isolated from eight cases (four high and four low DDR) by laser capture microdissection and changes in the transcriptome identified by microarray analysis. Results Two thousand three hundred seventy‐eight genes were significantly differentially expressed (1690 up‐regulated, 688 down‐regulated, P < 0.001) in cases with a high neuronal DDR. Functional grouping identified dysregulation of cholesterol biosynthesis, insulin and Wnt signalling, and up‐regulation of glycogen synthase kinase 3β. Candidate genes were validated by quantitative real‐time polymerase chain reaction. Cerebrospinal fluid levels of 24(S)‐hydroxycholesterol associated with neuronal DDR across all Braak stages (rs = 0.30, P = 0.03). Conclusions A persistent neuronal DDR may result in increased cholesterol biosynthesis, impaired insulin and Wnt signalling, and increased GSK3β, thereby contributing to neuronal dysfunction independent of Alzheimer‐type pathology in the ageing brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julie E Simpson
- Sheffield Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Paul G Ince
- Sheffield Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Thais Minett
- Institute of Public Health, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK.,Department of Radiology, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Fiona E Matthews
- MRC Biostatistics Unit, Institute of Public Health, Cambridge, UK.,Institute of Health and Society, University of Newcastle, Newcastle, UK
| | - Paul R Heath
- Sheffield Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Pamela J Shaw
- Sheffield Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Emily Goodall
- Sheffield Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Claire J Garwood
- Sheffield Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Laura E Ratcliffe
- Sheffield Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
| | - Carol Brayne
- Institute of Public Health, University of Cambridge, Cambridge, UK
| | - Magnus Rattray
- Sheffield Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK.,Faculty of Life Sciences, University of Manchester, Manchester, UK
| | - Stephen B Wharton
- Sheffield Institute for Translational Neuroscience, University of Sheffield, Sheffield, UK
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28
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Babić M, Svob Štrac D, Mück-Šeler D, Pivac N, Stanić G, Hof PR, Simić G. Update on the core and developing cerebrospinal fluid biomarkers for Alzheimer disease. Croat Med J 2015; 55:347-65. [PMID: 25165049 PMCID: PMC4157375 DOI: 10.3325/cmj.2014.55.347] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer disease (AD) is a complex neurodegenerative disorder, whose prevalence will dramatically rise by 2050. Despite numerous clinical trials investigating this disease, there is still no effective treatment. Many trials showed negative or inconclusive results, possibly because they recruited only patients with severe disease, who had not undergone disease-modifying therapies in preclinical stages of AD before severe degeneration occurred. Detection of AD in asymptomatic at risk individuals (and a few presymptomatic individuals who carry an autosomal dominant monogenic AD mutation) remains impractical in many of clinical situations and is possible only with reliable biomarkers. In addition to early diagnosis of AD, biomarkers should serve for monitoring disease progression and response to therapy. To date, the most promising biomarkers are cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and neuroimaging biomarkers. Core CSF biomarkers (amyloid β1-42, total tau, and phosphorylated tau) showed a high diagnostic accuracy but were still unreliable for preclinical detection of AD. Hence, there is an urgent need for detection and validation of novel CSF biomarkers that would enable early diagnosis of AD in asymptomatic individuals. This article reviews recent research advances on biomarkers for AD, focusing mainly on the CSF biomarkers. In addition to core CSF biomarkers, the potential usefulness of novel CSF biomarkers is discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | - Goran Simić
- Goran Šimić, Croatian Institute for Brain Research, University of Zagreb School of Medicine, Šalata 12, 10000 Zagreb, Croatia,
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29
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Uto Y. Imidazo[1,2-a]pyridines as cholesterol 24-hydroxylase (CYP46A1) inhibitors: a patent evaluation (WO2014061676). Expert Opin Ther Pat 2014; 25:373-7. [DOI: 10.1517/13543776.2014.989214] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/05/2022]
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30
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Ali-Rahmani F, Schengrund CL, Connor JR. HFE gene variants, iron, and lipids: a novel connection in Alzheimer's disease. Front Pharmacol 2014; 5:165. [PMID: 25071582 PMCID: PMC4086322 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2014.00165] [Citation(s) in RCA: 30] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/21/2014] [Accepted: 06/24/2014] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Iron accumulation and associated oxidative stress in the brain have been consistently found in several neurodegenerative diseases. Multiple genetic studies have been undertaken to try to identify a cause of neurodegenerative diseases but direct connections have been rare. In the iron field, variants in the HFE gene that give rise to a protein involved in cellular iron regulation, are associated with iron accumulation in multiple organs including the brain. There is also substantial epidemiological, genetic, and molecular evidence of disruption of cholesterol homeostasis in several neurodegenerative diseases, in particular Alzheimer's disease (AD). Despite the efforts that have been made to identify factors that can trigger the pathological events associated with neurodegenerative diseases they remain mostly unknown. Because molecular phenotypes such as oxidative stress, synaptic failure, neuronal loss, and cognitive decline, characteristics associated with AD, have been shown to result from disruption of a number of pathways, one can easily argue that the phenotype seen may not arise from a linear sequence of events. Therefore, a multi-targeted approach is needed to understand a complex disorder like AD. This can be achieved only when knowledge about interactions between the different pathways and the potential influence of environmental factors on them becomes available. Toward this end, this review discusses what is known about the roles and interactions of iron and cholesterol in neurodegenerative diseases. It highlights the effects of gene variants of HFE (H63D- and C282Y-HFE) on iron and cholesterol metabolism and how they may contribute to understanding the etiology of complex neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fatima Ali-Rahmani
- Departments of Neurosurgery, Neural and Behavioral Sciences and Pediatrics, Center for Aging and Neurodegenerative Diseases, Penn State Hershey Medical CenterHershey, PA, USA
- Departments of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The Pennsylvania State University College of MedicineHershey, PA, USA
| | - Cara-Lynne Schengrund
- Departments of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The Pennsylvania State University College of MedicineHershey, PA, USA
| | - James R. Connor
- Departments of Neurosurgery, Neural and Behavioral Sciences and Pediatrics, Center for Aging and Neurodegenerative Diseases, Penn State Hershey Medical CenterHershey, PA, USA
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Barbisin M, Vanni S, Schmädicke AC, Montag J, Motzkus D, Opitz L, Salinas-Riester G, Legname G. Gene expression profiling of brains from bovine spongiform encephalopathy (BSE)-infected cynomolgus macaques. BMC Genomics 2014; 15:434. [PMID: 24898206 PMCID: PMC4061447 DOI: 10.1186/1471-2164-15-434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/13/2014] [Accepted: 05/07/2014] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Prion diseases are fatal neurodegenerative disorders whose pathogenesis mechanisms are not fully understood. In this context, the analysis of gene expression alterations occurring in prion-infected animals represents a powerful tool that may contribute to unravel the molecular basis of prion diseases and therefore discover novel potential targets for diagnosis and therapeutics. Here we present the first large-scale transcriptional profiling of brains from BSE-infected cynomolgus macaques, which are an excellent model for human prion disorders. RESULTS The study was conducted using the GeneChip® Rhesus Macaque Genome Array and revealed 300 transcripts with expression changes greater than twofold. Among these, the bioinformatics analysis identified 86 genes with known functions, most of which are involved in cellular development, cell death and survival, lipid homeostasis, and acute phase response signaling. RT-qPCR was performed on selected gene transcripts in order to validate the differential expression in infected animals versus controls. The results obtained with the microarray technology were confirmed and a gene signature was identified. In brief, HBB and HBA2 were down-regulated in infected macaques, whereas TTR, APOC1 and SERPINA3 were up-regulated. CONCLUSIONS Some genes involved in oxygen or lipid transport and in innate immunity were found to be dysregulated in prion infected macaques. These genes are known to be involved in other neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer's and Parkinson's diseases. Our results may facilitate the identification of potential disease biomarkers for many neurodegenerative diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Giuseppe Legname
- Department of Neuroscience, Scuola Internazionale Superiore di Studi Avanzati (SISSA), Via Bonomea 265, 34136 Trieste, Italy.
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Sun JH, Yu JT, Tan L. The Role of Cholesterol Metabolism in Alzheimer’s Disease. Mol Neurobiol 2014; 51:947-65. [DOI: 10.1007/s12035-014-8749-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2014] [Accepted: 05/07/2014] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
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Shinohara M, Sato N, Shimamura M, Kurinami H, Hamasaki T, Chatterjee A, Rakugi H, Morishita R. Possible modification of Alzheimer's disease by statins in midlife: interactions with genetic and non-genetic risk factors. Front Aging Neurosci 2014; 6:71. [PMID: 24795626 PMCID: PMC4005936 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2014.00071] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2014] [Accepted: 03/30/2014] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
The benefits of statins, commonly prescribed for hypercholesterolemia, in treating Alzheimer's disease (AD) have not yet been fully established. A recent randomized clinical trial did not show any therapeutic effects of two statins on cognitive function in AD. Interestingly, however, the results of the Rotterdam study, one of the largest prospective cohort studies, showed reduced risk of AD in statin users. Based on the current understanding of statin actions and AD pathogenesis, it is still worth exploring whether statins can prevent AD when administered decades before the onset of AD or from midlife. This review discusses the possible beneficial effects of statins, drawn from previous clinical observations, pathogenic mechanisms, which include β-amyloid (Aβ) and tau metabolism, genetic and non-genetic risk factors (apolipoprotein E, cholesterol, sex, hypertension, and diabetes), and other clinical features (vascular dysfunction and oxidative and inflammatory stress) of AD. These findings suggest that administration of statins in midlife might prevent AD in late life by modifying genetic and non-genetic risk factors for AD. It should be clarified whether statins inhibit Aβ accumulation, tau pathological features, and brain atrophy in humans. To answer this question, a randomized controlled study using amyloid positron emission tomography (PET), tau-PET, and magnetic resonance imaging would be useful. This clinical evaluation could help us to overcome this devastating disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mitsuru Shinohara
- Department of Clinical Gene Therapy, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka UniversitySuita, Japan
- Department of Geriatric Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka UniversitySuita, Japan
| | - Naoyuki Sato
- Department of Clinical Gene Therapy, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka UniversitySuita, Japan
- Department of Geriatric Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka UniversitySuita, Japan
| | - Munehisa Shimamura
- Division of Vascular Medicine and Epigenetics, Department of Child Development, United Graduate School of Child Development, Osaka University Office for University-Industry CollaborationSuita, Japan
| | - Hitomi Kurinami
- Division of Vascular Medicine and Epigenetics, Department of Child Development, United Graduate School of Child Development, Osaka University Office for University-Industry CollaborationSuita, Japan
| | - Toshimitsu Hamasaki
- Department of Biomedical Statistics, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka UniversitySuita, Japan
| | - Amarnath Chatterjee
- Department of Clinical Gene Therapy, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka UniversitySuita, Japan
| | - Hiromi Rakugi
- Department of Geriatric Medicine, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka UniversitySuita, Japan
| | - Ryuichi Morishita
- Department of Clinical Gene Therapy, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka UniversitySuita, Japan
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Hughes TM, Rosano C, Evans RW, Kuller LH. Brain cholesterol metabolism, oxysterols, and dementia. J Alzheimers Dis 2013; 33:891-911. [PMID: 23076077 DOI: 10.3233/jad-2012-121585] [Citation(s) in RCA: 82] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Cholesterol metabolism is implicated in the etiology of Alzheimer's disease (AD) and amyloid production in the brain. While brain cholesterol cannot be measured directly in vivo, the oxysterol, 24S-hydroxycholesterol (24-OHC), is the predominant metabolite of brain cholesterol and can be measured in the blood. The aim of this review is to evaluate plasma 24-OHC as a potential biomarker of AD risk and discuss factors related to its levels in the brain and blood. This systematic review examines studies published between 1950 and June 2012 that examined the relationship between plasma 24-OHC, cognition, brain structure, and dementia using the following key words ("24S-hydroxycholesterol" or "24-hydroxycholesterol") and ("Brain" or "Cognitive"). We found a total of 28 studies of plasma 24-OHC and neurodegenerative disease, including a subset of 12 that used dementia as a clinical endpoint. These studies vary in the direction of the observed associations. Results suggest plasma 24-OHC may be higher in the early stages of cognitive impairment and lower in more advanced stages of AD when compared to cognitively normal controls. Measures of 24-OHC in the blood may be an important potential marker for cholesterol metabolism in the brain and risk of AD. Further studies of plasma 24-OHC and dementia must account for the stage of disease, establish the temporal trends in oxysterol concentrations, and employ neuroimaging modalities to assess the structural and metabolic changes occurring in the brain prior to the onset of cognitive impairment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Timothy M Hughes
- Department of Epidemiology, Graduate School of Public Health, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA 15213, USA.
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35
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Björkhem I, Lövgren-Sandblom A, Leoni V, Meaney S, Brodin L, Salveson L, Winge K, Pålhagen S, Svenningsson P. Oxysterols and Parkinson's disease: Evidence that levels of 24S-hydroxycholesterol in cerebrospinal fluid correlates with the duration of the disease. Neurosci Lett 2013; 555:102-5. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2013.09.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2013] [Revised: 08/27/2013] [Accepted: 09/01/2013] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Popp J, Meichsner S, Kölsch H, Lewczuk P, Maier W, Kornhuber J, Jessen F, Lütjohann D. Cerebral and extracerebral cholesterol metabolism and CSF markers of Alzheimer's disease. Biochem Pharmacol 2013; 86:37-42. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2012.12.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 79] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2012] [Revised: 12/11/2012] [Accepted: 12/11/2012] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
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37
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Leoni V, Caccia C. Potential diagnostic applications of side chain oxysterols analysis in plasma and cerebrospinal fluid. Biochem Pharmacol 2013; 86:26-36. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bcp.2013.03.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2013] [Revised: 03/18/2013] [Accepted: 03/20/2013] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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Abstract
I have been involved in research on oxysterols since 1963 and this review is intended to cover some of the most important aspects of this work. The first project dealed with 7α-hydroxy-4-cholesten-3-one. My successful synthesis of this steroid with high specific radioactivity allowed a demonstration that it is a bile acid precursor. The mechanism of conversion of 7α-hydroxycholesterol into 7α-hydroxy-4-cholesten-3-one was investigated and I concluded that only one enzyme is required and that no isomerase is involved. Accumulation of 7α-hydroxy-4-cholesten-3-one in patients with lack of sterol 27-hydroxylase (Cerebrotendinous xanthomatosis was shown to be an important pathogenetic factor. This disease is characterized by cholestanol-containing xanthomas in tendons and brain and we could show that most of this cholestanol is formed from 7α-hydroxy-4-cholesten-3-one. We also showed that 7α-hydroxy-4-cholesten-3-one passes the blood-brain barrier. In contrast to cholesterol itself, side-chain oxidized oxysterols have a high capacity to pass lipophilic membranes. We demonstrated conversion of cholesterol into 27-hydroxycholesterol to be a significant mechanism for elimination of cholesterol from macrophages. We also showed that conversion of cholesterol into 24S-hydroxycholesterol is important for elimination of cholesterol from the brain. Side-chain oxidized oxysterols have a high capacity to affect critical genes in cholesterol turnover in vitro. Most of the published in vitro experiments with oxysteroids are highly unphysiological, however. Mouse models studied in my laboratory with high or low levels of 27-hydroxycholesterol have little or no disturbances in cholesterol homeostasis. 24S-hydroxycholesterol is an efficient ligand to LXR and suggested to be important for cholesterol homeostasis in the brain. We recently developed a mouse model with markedly increased levels of this oxysterol in circulation and brain. This overexpression had however only a very modest effect on cholesterol turnover. We concluded that oxysterols are not the master regulators of cholesterol homeostasis in vivo suggested previously.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ingemar Björkhem
- Department of Laboratory Medicine, Division of Clinical Chemistry, Karolinska Institutet, Karolinska University Hospital Huddinge, Huddinge, Sweden.
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Lütjohann D, Meichsner S, Pettersson H. Lipids in Alzheimer’s disease and their potential for therapy. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2012. [DOI: 10.2217/clp.11.74] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
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Vanmierlo T, Popp J, Kölsch H, Friedrichs S, Jessen F, Stoffel-Wagner B, Bertsch T, Hartmann T, Maier W, von Bergmann K, Steinbusch H, Mulder M, Lütjohann D. The plant sterol brassicasterol as additional CSF biomarker in Alzheimer's disease. Acta Psychiatr Scand 2011; 124:184-92. [PMID: 21585343 DOI: 10.1111/j.1600-0447.2011.01713.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 35] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Plant sterols (sitosterol, campesterol, stigmasterol and brassicasterol) are solely dietary-derivable sterols that are structurally very similar to cholesterol. In contrast to peripheral cholesterol, plant sterols can cross the blood-brain barrier and accumulate within mammalian brain. As an impaired function of the cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)-blood barrier is linked to neurodegenerative disorders, i.e. Alzheimer's disease (AD), we investigated whether this results in altered plant sterol concentrations in CSF. METHOD Applying gas chromatography/mass spectrometry analysis, plant sterol concentrations were measured in plasma and CSF of patients with AD (n = 67) and controls (n = 29). Age, gender, plasma-to-CSF albumin ratio, CSF Aβ(42) , CSF pTau, APOE4 genotype, and serum creatinine were applied as covariates in the statistical analysis for individual plant sterols in order to compare plasma and CSF plant sterol concentrations between patients with AD and controls. RESULTS Albumin quotient was a consistent predictor in CSF for cholesterol and methyl plant sterols campesterol and brassicasterol. Comparison of lipid parameters per diagnosis based on relevant predictors revealed significantly lower concentrations of brassicasterol (P < 0.001) in CSF of patients with AD. Binary logistic regression analysis revealed that brassicasterol improved the predictive value when added to pTau and Aβ42 in a biomarker model. CONCLUSION Brassicasterol might be a relevant additional biomarker in AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- T Vanmierlo
- Institute of Clinical Chemistry and Clinical Pharmacology, University Clinics Bonn, Germany
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Leoni V, Caccia C. Relationship between cholesterol metabolism, ApoE and brain volumes in Alzheimer’s disease. FUTURE NEUROLOGY 2011. [DOI: 10.2217/fnl.11.38] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
APOE genotype, aging and midlife hypercholesterolemia are well-established risk factors for late-onset Alzheimer’s disease (AD). ApoE and cholesterol are involved in the pathogenesis of AD since they influence amyloid-β accumulation and Tau pathology. APOE ε4 carriers were found to present lower levels of amyloid-β1–42, higher tau and phosphorylated tau and a higher degree of brain atrophy at any disease stage. Presence of ApoE4 shifts the onset of the disease towards a younger age and makes progression faster. Hypercholesterolemia together with other major cardiovascular risk factors were found to be involved in the pathogenesis of AD, but reduced plasma cholesterol levels were described in demented patients. Significant correlations were found between cholesterol precursors lathosterol, lanosterol and 24S-hydroxycholesterol (a putative marker of brain cholesterol turnover) in plasma and brain atrophy as quantified by MRI. It is likely that neurodegeneration affects both brain and whole-body cholesterol metabolism in AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valerio Leoni
- Laboratory of Clinical Pathology & Medical Genetics, R17, IRCCS National Institute of Neurology ‘C Besta’, Via Celoria 11, 20133 Milano, Italy
| | - Claudio Caccia
- Laboratory of Clinical Pathology & Medical Genetics, R17, IRCCS National Institute of Neurology ‘C Besta’, Via Celoria 11, 20133 Milano, Italy
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42
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Leoni V, Caccia C. Oxysterols as biomarkers in neurodegenerative diseases. Chem Phys Lipids 2011; 164:515-24. [DOI: 10.1016/j.chemphyslip.2011.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 139] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2011] [Revised: 04/06/2011] [Accepted: 04/08/2011] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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43
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Links between ApoE, brain cholesterol metabolism, tau and amyloid beta-peptide in patients with cognitive impairment. Biochem Soc Trans 2010; 38:1021-5. [PMID: 20658997 DOI: 10.1042/bst0381021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Brain neurons remove the excess of cholesterol via conversion into the more polar 24OHC [(24S)-hydroxycholesterol]. 24OHC acts as a signalling molecule inducing ApoE (apolipoprotein E)-mediated cholesterol efflux from astrocytes, by a direct effect on ApoE transcription, protein synthesis and secretion. In CSF (cerebrospinal fluid) collected form from patients with cognitive impairment (Alzheimer's disease and patients with mild cognitive impairment) the levels of ApoE, tau, p-tau (hyperphosphorylated tau) were significantly increased, together with 24OHC, compared with controls. We also found that the levels of tau and p-tau were significantly correlated with ApoE and 24OHC in the same samples. Such a correlation was not found in control patients. Increased levels of cholesterol in membranes and impairment in brain cholesterol metabolism were found to be involved both in APP (amyloid precursor protein) processing and amyloid beta-peptide deposition and, recently, in tau pathology. The CSF tau levels are considered to be related to the neurodegenerative process in Alzheimer's disease. During neurodegeneration, the cholesterol accumulated in neurons is converted into 24OHC. The release of 24OHC from neurons induces ApoE secretion by astrocytes, and both are related to the intensity of the neurodegenerative process and neuronal injury. ApoE can also be involved in the scavenging of tau from neurons. The direct correlations between ApoE, 24OHC and tau suggest that cholesterol metabolism may be involved in generation of both tau and amyloid beta-peptide and that the ApoE is released by astrocytes in order to counteract this ongoing process.
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Griffiths W, Koal T, Wang Y, Kohl M, Enot D, Deigner HP. Targeted Metabolomics for Biomarker Discovery. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2010; 49:5426-45. [DOI: 10.1002/anie.200905579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 259] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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45
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Griffiths W, Koal T, Wang Y, Kohl M, Enot D, Deigner HP. “Targeted Metabolomics” in der Biomarkerforschung. Angew Chem Int Ed Engl 2010. [DOI: 10.1002/ange.200905579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
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46
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Ogundare M, Theofilopoulos S, Lockhart A, Hall LJ, Arenas E, Sjövall J, Brenton AG, Wang Y, Griffiths WJ. Cerebrospinal fluid steroidomics: are bioactive bile acids present in brain? J Biol Chem 2009; 285:4666-79. [PMID: 19996111 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.m109.086678] [Citation(s) in RCA: 97] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
In this study we have profiled the free sterol content of cerebrospinal fluid by a combination of charge tagging and liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Surprisingly, the most abundant cholesterol metabolites were found to be C(27) and C(24) intermediates of the bile acid biosynthetic pathways with structures corresponding to 7alpha-hydroxy-3-oxocholest-4-en-26-oic acid (7.170 +/- 2.826 ng/ml, mean +/- S.D., six subjects), 3beta-hydroxycholest-5-en-26-oic acid (0.416 +/- 0.193 ng/ml), 7alpha,x-dihydroxy-3-oxocholest-4-en-26-oic acid (1.330 +/- 0.543 ng/ml), and 7alpha-hydroxy-3-oxochol-4-en-24-oic acid (0.172 +/- 0.085 ng/ml), and the C(26) sterol 7alpha-hydroxy-26-norcholest-4-ene-3,x-dione (0.204 +/- 0.083 ng/ml), where x is an oxygen atom either on the CD rings or more likely on the C-17 side chain. The ability of intermediates of the bile acid biosynthetic pathways to activate the liver X receptors (LXRs) and the farnesoid X receptor was also evaluated. The acidic cholesterol metabolites 3beta-hydroxycholest-5-en-26-oic acid and 3beta,7alpha-dihydroxycholest-5-en-26-oic acid were found to activate LXR in a luciferase assay, but the major metabolite identified in this study, i.e. 7alpha-hydroxy-3-oxocholest-4-en-26-oic acid, was not an LXR ligand. 7Alpha-hydroxy-3-oxocholest-4-en-26-oic acid is formed from 3beta,7alpha-dihydroxycholest-5-en-26-oic acid in a reaction catalyzed by 3beta-hydroxy-Delta(5)-C(27)-steroid dehydrogenase (HSD3B7), which may thus represent a deactivation pathway of LXR ligands in brain. Significantly, LXR activation has been found to reduce the symptoms of Alzheimer disease (Fan, J., Donkin, J., and Wellington C. (2009) Biofactors 35, 239-248); thus, cholesterol metabolites may play an important role in the etiology of Alzheimer disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michael Ogundare
- Institute of Mass Spectrometry, School of Medicine, Grove Building, Swansea University, Singleton Park, Swansea SA2 8PP, United Kingdom
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Garenc C, Julien P, Levy E. Oxysterols in biological systems: The gastrointestinal tract, liver, vascular wall and central nervous system. Free Radic Res 2009; 44:47-73. [DOI: 10.3109/10715760903321804] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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48
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Russell DW, Halford RW, Ramirez DMO, Shah R, Kotti T. Cholesterol 24-hydroxylase: an enzyme of cholesterol turnover in the brain. Annu Rev Biochem 2009; 78:1017-40. [PMID: 19489738 DOI: 10.1146/annurev.biochem.78.072407.103859] [Citation(s) in RCA: 208] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Cholesterol 24-hydroxylase is a highly conserved cytochrome P450 that is responsible for the majority of cholesterol turnover in the vertebrate central nervous system. The enzyme is expressed in neurons, including hippocampal and cortical neurons that are important for learning and memory formation. Disruption of the cholesterol 24-hydroxylase gene in the mouse reduces both cholesterol turnover and synthesis in the brain but does not alter steady-state levels of cholesterol in the tissue. The decline in synthesis reduces the flow of metabolites through the cholesterol biosynthetic pathway, of which one, geranylgeraniol diphosphate, is required for learning in the whole animal and for synaptic plasticity in vitro. This review focuses on how the link between cholesterol metabolism and higher-order brain function was experimentally established.
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Affiliation(s)
- David W Russell
- Department of Molecular Genetics, University of Texas Southwestern Medical Center, Dallas, TX 75390, USA.
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49
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Leoni V. Oxysterols as markers of neurological disease – a review. Scandinavian Journal of Clinical and Laboratory Investigation 2009; 69:22-5. [DOI: 10.1080/00365510802651858] [Citation(s) in RCA: 48] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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50
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Griffiths WJ, Wang Y. Analysis of neurosterols by GC-MS and LC-MS/MS. J Chromatogr B Analyt Technol Biomed Life Sci 2009; 877:2778-805. [PMID: 19560986 DOI: 10.1016/j.jchromb.2009.05.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2009] [Revised: 05/07/2009] [Accepted: 05/09/2009] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
Abstract
The term neurosteroid was coined by Baulieu and colleagues in Paris towards the end of the last century to describe steroids which are synthesised in the central or peripheral nervous system [E.E. Baulieu, Psychoneuroendocrinology 23 (1998) 963-87]. This definition was restricted to side-chain "shortened" steroids with 21 carbon atoms or less, and excluded sterols and their carboxylic acids with an intact side-chain. By analogy, we now use the term neurosterol to describe C(27) sterols synthesised in the nervous system. In this review we discuss the biological importance of neurosterols, and how they are extracted, isolated, and analysed by GC-MS and LC-MS/MS, from brain and relevant body fluids. We present applications of methodology employed for analysis of specific sterols and comment on the relative merits of the methods employed. Finally, the importance of future in-depth "sterolomic" investigations of brain is highlighted.
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Affiliation(s)
- William J Griffiths
- Institute of Mass Spectrometry, School of Medicine, Swansea University, Singleton Park, Swansea SA2 8PP, UK.
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