Interleukin-1 alpha and beta, TNF-alpha and HTTLPR gene variants study on alcohol toxicity and detoxification outcome

Ethanol drinking sex-dependently alters cortical IL-1β synaptic signaling and cognitive behavior in mice

Individuals with alcohol use disorder (AUD) struggle with inhibitory control, decision making, and emotional processing. These cognitive symptoms reduce treatment adherence, worsen clinical outcomes, and promote relapse. Neuroimmune activation is a key factor in the pathophysiology of AUD, and targeting this modulatory system is less likely to produce unwanted side effects compared to directly targeting neurotransmitter dysfunction. Notably, the cytokine interleukin-1β (IL-1β) has been broadly associated with the cognitive symptoms of AUD, though the underlying mechanisms are not well understood. Here we investigated how chronic intermittent 24-hour access two bottle choice ethanol drinking affects medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC)-related cognitive function and IL-1 synaptic signaling in male and female C57BL/6J mice. In both sexes, ethanol drinking decreased reference memory and increased mPFC IL-1 receptor 1 (IL-1R1) mRNA levels. In neurons, IL-1β can activate either pro-inflammatory or neuroprotective intracellular pathways depending on the isoform of the accessory protein (IL-1RAcP) recruited to the IL-1R1 complex. Moreover, ethanol drinking sex-dependently shifted mPFC IL-1RAcP isoform gene expression and IL-1β regulation of mPFC GABA synapses, both of which may contribute to female mPFC resiliency and male mPFC susceptibility. This type of signaling bias has become a recent focus of rational drug development. Therefore, in addition to increasing our understanding of how IL-1β sex-dependently contributes to mPFC dysfunction in AUD, our current findings also support the development of a new class of pharmacotherapeutics based on biased IL-1 signaling.

Chronic ethanol induces a pro-inflammatory switch in interleukin-1β regulation of GABAergic signaling in the medial prefrontal cortex of male mice

Neuroimmune pathways regulate brain function to influence complex behavior and play a role in several neuropsychiatric diseases, including alcohol use disorder (AUD). In particular, the interleukin-1 (IL-1) system has emerged as a key regulator of the brain's response to ethanol (alcohol). Here we investigated the mechanisms underlying ethanol-induced neuroadaptation of IL-1β signaling at GABAergic synapses in the prelimbic region of the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), an area responsible for integrating contextual information to mediate conflicting motivational drives. We exposed C57BL/6J male mice to the chronic intermittent ethanol vapor-2 bottle choice paradigm (CIE-2BC) to induce ethanol dependence, and conducted ex vivo electrophysiology and molecular analyses. We found that the IL-1 system regulates basal mPFC function through its actions at inhibitory synapses on prelimbic layer 2/3 pyramidal neurons. IL-1β can selectively recruit either neuroprotective (PI3K/Akt) or pro-inflammatory (MyD88/p38 MAPK) mechanisms to produce opposing synaptic effects. In ethanol naïve conditions, there was a strong PI3K/Akt bias leading to a disinhibition of pyramidal neurons. Ethanol dependence produced opposite IL-1 effects - enhanced local inhibition via a switch in IL-1β signaling to the canonical pro-inflammatory MyD88 pathway. Ethanol dependence also increased cellular IL-1β in the mPFC, while decreasing expression of downstream effectors (Akt, p38 MAPK). Thus, IL-1β may represent a key neural substrate in ethanol-induced cortical dysfunction. As the IL-1 receptor antagonist (kineret) is already FDA-approved for other diseases, this work underscores the high therapeutic potential of IL-1 signaling/neuroimmune-based treatments for AUD.

Peripheral TNFα elevations in abstinent alcoholics are associated with hepatitis C infection

Substantial evidence supports the view that inflammatory processes contribute to brain alterations in HIV infection. Mechanisms recently proposed to underlie neuropathology in Alcohol Use Disorder (AUD) include elevations in peripheral cytokines that sensitize the brain to the damaging effects of alcohol. This study included 4 groups: healthy controls, individuals with AUD (abstinent from alcohol at examination), those infected with HIV, and those comorbid for HIV and AUD. The aim was to determine whether inflammatory cytokines are elevated in AUD as they are in HIV infection. Cytokines showing group differences included interferon gamma-induced protein 10 (IP-10) and tumor necrosis factor α (TNFα). Follow-up t-tests revealed that TNFα and IP-10 were higher in AUD than controls but only in AUD patients who were seropositive for Hepatitis C virus (HCV). Specificity of TNFα and IP-10 elevations to HCV infection status was provided by correlations between cytokine levels and HCV viral load and indices of liver integrity including albumin/globulin ratio, fibrosis scores, and AST/platelet count ratio. Because TNFα levels were mediated by HCV infection, this study provides no evidence for elevations in peripheral cytokines in "uncomplicated", abstinent alcoholics, independent of liver disease or HCV infection. Nonetheless, these results corroborate evidence for elevations in IP-10 and TNFα in HIV and for IP-10 levels in HIV+HCV co-infection.

Tumor Necrosis Factor-α T-857C (rs1799724) Polymorphism and Risk of Cancers: A Meta-Analysis

Objectives. To investigate the potential association of tumor necrosis factor-α T-857C polymorphism with susceptibility to the five common malignant tumors. Materials and Methods. A comprehensive search of PubMed/Medline, Embase, and Web of Science databases was performed up to November 2015. Pooled odds ratios (ORs) and 95% confidence intervals (95% CIs) were calculated to assess the strength of the association. Subgroup analysis, heterogeneity analyses, and publication bias were also texted in the meta-analysis. Results. A total of twenty-two publications involving 5215 cases and 6755 controls were recruited. Overall, the meta-analysis revealed an increased risk between the TNF-α T-857C polymorphism and gastric cancer susceptibility in T versus C model, heterozygote genetic model, and dominant genetic model. An increased risk between the TNF-α T-857C polymorphism and hepatocellular cancer susceptibility in homozygote genetic model and recessive genetic model was also found. No significant association was found between the TNF-α T-857C polymorphism and colorectal cancer, cervical cancer, and prostate cancer. Conclusions. Our meta-analyses suggest that TNF-α T-857C polymorphism may be associated with increased risk of gastric cancer and hepatocellular cancer development. Therefore, the TNF-α T-857C polymorphism could be considered as one possible risk factor of gastric cancer and hepatocellular cancer according to our study.

Protection of Gastrointestinal Mucosa from Acute Heavy Alcohol Consumption: The Effect of Berberine and Its Correlation with TLR2, 4/IL1β-TNFα Signaling

The purpose of the present study is to confirm the protective effect of berberine (BBR) on gastrointestinal injury caused by acute heavy alcohol exposure, an effect that has not been reported previously. Our research details how BBR protects against gastrointestinal injuries from acute alcohol exposure using both in vivo and in vitro experiments. Acute high alcohol concentrations lead to obvious damage to the gastrointestinal mucosa, resulting in necrosis of the intestinal mucosa. Oral administration of BBR was able to significantly reduce this alcohol-induced damage, inhibit increases of alcohol-induced TNFα and IL-1β expression in gastrointestinal mucosa as well as their upstream signals TLR2 and TLR4, and regulate cytokines that modulate tight junctions. Alcohol consumption is a popular human social behavior worldwide, and the present study reports a comprehensive mechanism by which BBR protects against gastrointestinal injuries from alcohol stress, providing people with a novel application of BBR.

Polymorphisms of the IL-1 gene complex are associated with alcohol dependence in Spanish Caucasians: data from an association study

BACKGROUND

There is growing evidence for involvement of pro-inflammatory cytokines in alcohol dependence. The aim of this study was to investigate whether 4 functionally relevant polymorphisms of the interleukin-1 (IL-1) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha genes were associated with alcohol dependence and with measures of clinical severity and treatment outcome.

METHODS

Two hundred alcohol-dependent (AD) patients and 420 healthy controls from the same Spanish Caucasian population were genotyped using standard methods. Baseline and 6-month assessments included alcohol intake, addiction severity, and biomarkers of alcohol intake.

RESULTS

Alcohol-dependent patients showed an excess of IL-1alpha-889 C/T [50.8% vs. 39.3%, chi(2) (df) = 7.30 (2), uncorrected p = 0.026, corrected p = 0.104] and IL-1RA (86 bp)(n) A1/A1 genotypes [64.8% vs. 50.8%, chi(2) (df) = 12.65 (3), corrected p = 0.020]. The A1/A1 excess was associated with alcohol dependence only in men [69.9% vs. 49.5%, chi(2) (df) = 15.72 (2), corrected p < 0.001]. Six-month clinical and hematological outcome measures did not vary by genotype of the 4 polymorphisms. Haplotype analysis revealed an excess of the IL-1alpha-889 C/IL-1beta +3953 C/IL-1RA A2 haplotype in the control group compared with AD patients [20.0% vs. 14.1%, chi(2) (df) = 7.25 (1), p = 0.007; odds ratio (OR) = 0.64, 95% confidence interval (CI) = 0.46-0.89] and in the abstainers after 6 months of treatment compared with nonabstinent patients [14.7% vs. 6.2%, chi(2) (df) = 5.65 (1), p = 0.017; OR = 2.56, 95% CI = 1.15-5.62].

CONCLUSIONS

Our findings provide further tentative evidence of the role of IL-1 in alcohol dependence as well as evidence that the nature of the associations may be direct, gender-specific, or involve haplotype effects. However, findings from single association studies constitute tentative knowledge and must be interpreted carefully and precise replication is required.

Epistasis between IL1A, IL1B, TNF, HTR2A, 5-HTTLPR and TPH2 variations does not impact alcohol dependence disorder features

We assessed a set of biological (HDL, LDL, SGOT, SGPT, GGT, HTc, Hb and T levels) and psychometric variables (investigated through HAM-D, HAM-A, GAS, Liebowitz Social Anxiety Scale, Mark & Mathews Scale, Leyton scale, and Pilowski scale) in a sample of 64 alcohol dependent patients, at baseline and after a detoxification treatment. Moreover, we recruited 47 non-consanguineous relatives who did not suffer alcohol related disorders and underwent the same tests. In both groups we genotyped 11 genetic variations (rs1800587; rs3087258; rs1799724; 5-HTTLPR; rs1386493; rs1386494; rs1487275; rs1843809; rs4570625; rs2129575; rs6313) located in genes whose impact on alcohol related behaviors and disorders has been hypothesized (IL1A, IL1B, TNF, 5-HTTLPR, TPH2 and HTR2A). We analyzed the epistasis of these genetic variations upon the biological and psychological dimensions in the cases and their relatives. Further on, we analyzed the effects of the combined genetic variations on the short - term detoxification treatment efficacy. Finally, being the only not yet investigated variation within this sample, we analyzed the impact of the rs6313 alone on baseline assessment and treatment efficacy. We detected the following results: the couple rs6313 + rs2129575 affected the Leyton -Trait at admission (p = 0.01) (obsessive-compulsive trait), whilst rs1800587 + 5-HTTLPR impacted the Pilowski test at admission (p = 0.01) (hypochondriac symptoms). These results did not survive Bonferroni correction (p < or = 0.004). This lack of association may depend on the incomplete gene coverage or on the small sample size which limited the power of the study. On the other hand, it may reflect a substantial absence of relevance of the genotype variants toward the alcohol related investigated dimensions. Nonetheless, the marginal significance we detected could witness an informative correlation worth investigating in larger samples.

TPH2 gene variants and anxiety during alcohol detoxification outcome

Clinical outcome of alcoholism may be partly under genetic control. The serotonergic system is involved in alcohol intake, and it has been widely investigated in alcohol dependence. Recently, attention has been focused on the neuronal tryptophan hydroxylase 2 gene (TPH2). TPH2 variants have been consistently associated with anxiety-related traits; since anxiety is critical for alcohol dependence treatment, in the present paper we investigated 9 SNPs within the THP2 gene in anxiety symptoms during the detoxification procedure. The sample comprised 68 alcohol-dependent patients who where evaluated with the Hamilton Rating Scale for Anxiety, before and after the detoxification procedure. Other psychopathological indicators of outcome, such as depression and anxiety sub-features were also investigated. We did not observe a role for TPH2 variants in the efficacy of treatment in relieving anxiety and other psychopathological symptoms. However, a haplotype that included the promoter rs4570625 polymorphism (associated with anxiety-related traits in previous studies) showed an association with the severity of anxiety symptoms on admission. This preliminary finding, although obtained on a small sample, may provide further support for a role of the TPH2 gene in emotional behaviors. Furthermore, the present study suggests the possible functional significance of the promoter rs4570625 polymorphism. The present preliminary results are of interest in alcoholism, given that comorbidity with anxiety represents a critical problem in treatment settings and response to detoxification.

Depression and social phobia secondary to alcohol dependence

BACKGROUND

According to the self-medication hypothesis, individuals with depression and anxiety disorders use alcohol to control their symptoms and subsequently become dependent. Conversely, alcohol dependence disorder (ADD) can cause or exacerbate psychiatric disorders. This study analyzed the characteristics of depression and social phobia secondary to ADD. (1) What is their functional impact? (2) Are they independent or associated conditions? (3) Do they completely remit in abstinent individuals? (4) Is the remission of one disorder associated with the remission of the other disorder?

METHODS

Sixty-four inpatients with ADD were evaluated with depression and anxiety disorder scales upon admission to hospital and after 5 weeks of detoxification.

RESULTS

Baseline comparisons differentiated patients with a Hamilton Rating Scale for Depression (HDRS) score > 35 (n = 50; 78%) from those with an HDRS score < or = 35 by higher levels of generalized anxiety and lower global functioning. Patients with generalized social phobia [Leibowitz Social Anxiety Scale (LSAS) score > 60: n = 20; 31.2%] were not distinguishable from those with an LSAS score < or = 60 by depressive and anxiety disorder symptoms. In postdetoxification assessment, patients who remitted from depression (HDRS score < 7: n = 35; 54.6%) had a lower generalized anxiety and marginally higher levels of hypochondriasis compared to nonremitter subjects (HDRS score > or = 7). Patients who remitted from social phobia (LSAS score < 30: n = 32; 50%) did not significantly differ from nonremitter subjects in depressive and anxiety disorder symptoms. Generalized anxiety (Hamilton Rating Scale for Anxiety) and hypochondriasis (Whiteley Index) were the significant predictors of global functioning (Global Assessment Scale).

CONCLUSIONS

Depression and social phobia secondary to ADD are independent conditions that do not completely remit after cessation of drinking. Specific treatments are needed to reduce residual depressive and anxiety symptoms in abstinent alcoholics.

Vitamin B12 and hepatic enzyme serum levels correlate with interleukin-6 in alcohol-dependent individuals without liver disease

Alcohol abuse is a major cause of liver cirrhosis as well as chronic liver disease. The aim of the present study was to investigate the possible correlation, between liver dysfunction biological markers and vitamin B12, with interleukin-6, in the serum of alcohol-dependent individuals without liver disease (AWLD). In a sample of 43 alcohol abusing/dependent subjects (33 males and 10 females) treated on an inpatient basis according to a standard detoxification protocol, the serum activities of the hepatic enzymes (ASAT, ALAT, gamma-GT), as well as the concentration of B12 and IL-6, were determined on admission. A strong positive correlation has been observed between IL-6 and B12, ASAT, ALAT, and gamma-GT at the beginning of the detoxification period. The results confirmed that in alcohol-dependent individuals, the median serum concentration of IL-6, before the beginning of the treatment, had a significant positive correlation with the liver dysfunction biological markers and B12. In conclusion, IL-6 might be used as an additional diagnostic marker for the degree of liver dysfunction in alcohol dependent individuals.