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Bernardino PN, Luo AS, Andrew PM, Unkel CM, Gonzalez MI, Gelli A, Lein PJ. Evidence Implicating Blood-Brain Barrier Impairment in the Pathogenesis of Acquired Epilepsy following Acute Organophosphate Intoxication. J Pharmacol Exp Ther 2024; 388:301-312. [PMID: 37827702 PMCID: PMC10801776 DOI: 10.1124/jpet.123.001836] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2023] [Revised: 09/14/2023] [Accepted: 09/18/2023] [Indexed: 10/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Organophosphate (OP) poisoning can trigger cholinergic crisis, a life-threatening toxidrome that includes seizures and status epilepticus. These acute toxic responses are associated with persistent neuroinflammation and spontaneous recurrent seizures (SRS), also known as acquired epilepsy. Blood-brain barrier (BBB) impairment has recently been proposed as a pathogenic mechanism linking acute OP intoxication to chronic adverse neurologic outcomes. In this review, we briefly describe the cellular and molecular components of the BBB, review evidence of altered BBB integrity following acute OP intoxication, and discuss potential mechanisms by which acute OP intoxication may promote BBB dysfunction. We highlight the complex interplay between neuroinflammation and BBB dysfunction that suggests a positive feedforward interaction. Lastly, we examine research from diverse models and disease states that suggest mechanisms by which loss of BBB integrity may contribute to epileptogenic processes. Collectively, the literature identifies BBB impairment as a convergent mechanism of neurologic disease and justifies further mechanistic research into how acute OP intoxication causes BBB impairment and its role in the pathogenesis of SRS and potentially other long-term neurologic sequelae. Such research is critical for evaluating BBB stabilization as a neuroprotective strategy for mitigating OP-induced epilepsy and possibly seizure disorders of other etiologies. SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT: Clinical and preclinical studies support a link between blood-brain barrier (BBB) dysfunction and epileptogenesis; however, a causal relationship has been difficult to prove. Mechanistic studies to delineate relationships between BBB dysfunction and epilepsy may provide novel insights into BBB stabilization as a neuroprotective strategy for mitigating epilepsy resulting from acute organophosphate (OP) intoxication and non-OP causes and potentially other adverse neurological conditions associated with acute OP intoxication, such as cognitive impairment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pedro N Bernardino
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of California, Davis, School of Veterinary Medicine, Davis, California (P.N.B., A.S.L., P.M.A., C.M.U., P.J.L.); Department of Neurology, University of California, Davis, School of Medicine, Sacramento, California (M.I.G.); and Department of Pharmacology, University of California, Davis, School of Medicine, Davis, California (A.G.)
| | - Audrey S Luo
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of California, Davis, School of Veterinary Medicine, Davis, California (P.N.B., A.S.L., P.M.A., C.M.U., P.J.L.); Department of Neurology, University of California, Davis, School of Medicine, Sacramento, California (M.I.G.); and Department of Pharmacology, University of California, Davis, School of Medicine, Davis, California (A.G.)
| | - Peter M Andrew
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of California, Davis, School of Veterinary Medicine, Davis, California (P.N.B., A.S.L., P.M.A., C.M.U., P.J.L.); Department of Neurology, University of California, Davis, School of Medicine, Sacramento, California (M.I.G.); and Department of Pharmacology, University of California, Davis, School of Medicine, Davis, California (A.G.)
| | - Chelsea M Unkel
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of California, Davis, School of Veterinary Medicine, Davis, California (P.N.B., A.S.L., P.M.A., C.M.U., P.J.L.); Department of Neurology, University of California, Davis, School of Medicine, Sacramento, California (M.I.G.); and Department of Pharmacology, University of California, Davis, School of Medicine, Davis, California (A.G.)
| | - Marco I Gonzalez
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of California, Davis, School of Veterinary Medicine, Davis, California (P.N.B., A.S.L., P.M.A., C.M.U., P.J.L.); Department of Neurology, University of California, Davis, School of Medicine, Sacramento, California (M.I.G.); and Department of Pharmacology, University of California, Davis, School of Medicine, Davis, California (A.G.)
| | - Angie Gelli
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of California, Davis, School of Veterinary Medicine, Davis, California (P.N.B., A.S.L., P.M.A., C.M.U., P.J.L.); Department of Neurology, University of California, Davis, School of Medicine, Sacramento, California (M.I.G.); and Department of Pharmacology, University of California, Davis, School of Medicine, Davis, California (A.G.)
| | - Pamela J Lein
- Department of Molecular Biosciences, University of California, Davis, School of Veterinary Medicine, Davis, California (P.N.B., A.S.L., P.M.A., C.M.U., P.J.L.); Department of Neurology, University of California, Davis, School of Medicine, Sacramento, California (M.I.G.); and Department of Pharmacology, University of California, Davis, School of Medicine, Davis, California (A.G.)
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Soltani A, Ramezanitaghartapeh M, Javan MB, Baei MT, Lup ANK, Mahon PJ, Aghaei M. Influence of the adsorption of toxic agents on the optical and electronic properties of B 12N 12 fullerene in the presence and absence of an external electric field. NEW J CHEM 2020. [DOI: 10.1039/d0nj01868f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The interaction energies and optoelectronic properties of sarin (SF) and chlorosarin (SC) on the B12N12 with and without the presence of an electric field have been studied using density functional theory (DFT) calculations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alireza Soltani
- Golestan Rheumatology Research Center
- Golestan University of Medical Science
- Gorgan
- Iran
| | | | | | - Mohammad T. Baei
- Department of Chemistry
- Azadshahr Branch
- Islamic Azad University
- Azadshahr
- Islamic Republic of Iran
| | - Andrew Ng Kay Lup
- School of Energy and Chemical Engineering
- Xiamen University Malaysia
- 43900 Sepang
- Malaysia
| | - Peter J. Mahon
- Department of Chemistry and Biotechnology
- Swinburne University of Technology
- Hawthorn
- Australia
| | - Mehrdad Aghaei
- Golestan Rheumatology Research Center
- Golestan University of Medical Science
- Gorgan
- Iran
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3
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Ude CC, Miskon A, Idrus RBH, Abu Bakar MB. Application of stem cells in tissue engineering for defense medicine. Mil Med Res 2018; 5:7. [PMID: 29502528 PMCID: PMC6389246 DOI: 10.1186/s40779-018-0154-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2017] [Accepted: 02/07/2018] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
The dynamic nature of modern warfare, including threats and injuries faced by soldiers, necessitates the development of countermeasures that address a wide variety of injuries. Tissue engineering has emerged as a field with the potential to provide contemporary solutions. In this review, discussions focus on the applications of stem cells in tissue engineering to address health risks frequently faced by combatants at war. Human development depends intimately on stem cells, the mysterious precursor to every kind of cell in the body that, with proper instruction, can grow and differentiate into any new tissue or organ. Recent reports have suggested the greater therapeutic effects of the anti-inflammatory, trophic, paracrine and immune-modulatory functions associated with these cells, which induce them to restore normal healing and tissue regeneration by modulating immune reactions, regulating inflammation, and suppressing fibrosis. Therefore, the use of stem cells holds significant promise for the treatment of many battlefield injuries and their complications. These applications include the treatment of injuries to the skin, sensory organs, nervous system tissues, the musculoskeletal system, circulatory/pulmonary tissues and genitals/testicles and of acute radiation syndrome and the development of novel biosensors. The new research developments in these areas suggest that solutions are being developed to reduce critical consequences of wounds and exposures suffered in warfare. Current military applications of stem cell-based therapies are already saving the lives of soldiers who would have died in previous conflicts. Injuries that would have resulted in deaths previously now result in wounds today; similarly, today's permanent wounds may be reduced to tomorrow's bad memories with further advances in stem cell-based therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chinedu Cletus Ude
- Bio-artifical Organ and Regenerative Medicine Unit, National Defence University of Malaysia, Sungai Besi Camp, 57000, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Azizi Miskon
- Bio-artifical Organ and Regenerative Medicine Unit, National Defence University of Malaysia, Sungai Besi Camp, 57000, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
| | - Ruszymah Bt Hj Idrus
- Department of Physiology, Pre-clinical Block, National University of Malaysia Medical Centre, Jalan Yaacob Latif, Bandar Tun Razak, 56000, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Muhamad Bin Abu Bakar
- Bio-artifical Organ and Regenerative Medicine Unit, National Defence University of Malaysia, Sungai Besi Camp, 57000, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
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Hall CA, Lydon HL, Dalton CH, Chipman JK, Graham JS, Chilcott RP. Development of haemostatic decontaminants for the treatment of wounds contaminated with chemical warfare agents. 1: Evaluation ofin vitroclotting efficacy in the presence of certain contaminants. J Appl Toxicol 2014; 35:536-42. [DOI: 10.1002/jat.3019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2014] [Revised: 03/21/2014] [Accepted: 03/22/2014] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Charlotte A. Hall
- CBRN & Chemical Toxicological Research Group, Centre for Radiation; Chemical and Environmental Hazards, Health Protection Agency; Chilton UK
- School of Biosciences; University of Birmingham; Birmingham UK
| | - Helen L. Lydon
- CBRN & Chemical Toxicological Research Group, Centre for Radiation; Chemical and Environmental Hazards, Health Protection Agency; Chilton UK
- School of Biosciences; University of Birmingham; Birmingham UK
| | - Christopher H. Dalton
- School of Biosciences; University of Birmingham; Birmingham UK
- Biomedical Sciences; Dstl Porton Down; Salisbury UK
| | - J. K. Chipman
- School of Biosciences; University of Birmingham; Birmingham UK
| | - John S. Graham
- Medical Toxicology Branch Analytical Toxicology Division; US Army Medical Research Institute of Chemical Defense; Aberdeen Proving Ground MD 21010 USA
| | - Robert P. Chilcott
- CBRN & Chemical Toxicological Research Group, Centre for Radiation; Chemical and Environmental Hazards, Health Protection Agency; Chilton UK
- Department of Pharmacy; University of Hertfordshire; Hatfield UK
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Abstract
There are many similarities between health issues affecting military and civilian patient populations, with the exception of the relatively small but vital segment of active soldiers who experience high-energy blast injuries during combat. A rising incidence of major injuries from explosive devices in recent campaigns has further complicated treatment and recovery, highlighting the need for tissue regenerative options and intensifying interest in the possible role of stem cells for military medicine. In this review we outline the array of tissue-specific injuries typically seen in modern combat - as well as address a few complications unique to soldiers - and discuss the state of current stem cell research in addressing each area. Embryonic, induced-pluripotent and adult stem cell sources are defined, along with advantages and disadvantages unique to each cell type. More detailed stem cell sources are described in the context of each tissue of interest, including neural, cardiopulmonary, musculoskeletal and sensory tissues, with brief discussion of their potential role in regenerative medicine moving forward. Additional commentary is given to military stem cell applications aside from regenerative medicine, such as blood pharming, immunomodulation and drug screening, with an overview of stem cell banking and the unique opportunity provided by the military and civilian overlap of stem cell research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregory T Christopherson
- The National Institutes of Health, The National Institute of Arthritis and Musculoskeletal and Skin Diseases, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
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Collombet JM. Nerve agent intoxication: Recent neuropathophysiological findings and subsequent impact on medical management prospects. Toxicol Appl Pharmacol 2011; 255:229-41. [DOI: 10.1016/j.taap.2011.07.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 52] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/14/2011] [Revised: 07/07/2011] [Accepted: 07/08/2011] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
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Collombet JM, Béracochéa D, Liscia P, Piérard C, Lallement G, Filliat P. Long-term effects of cytokine treatment on cognitive behavioral recovery and neuronal regeneration in soman-poisoned mice. Behav Brain Res 2011; 221:261-70. [PMID: 21396966 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2011.03.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2010] [Revised: 03/01/2011] [Accepted: 03/03/2011] [Indexed: 01/19/2023]
Abstract
Increasing numbers of reports have substantiated to date, a beneficial influence of cytokine treatment on neurogenesis processes in damaged rodent brains. Most of these investigations further revealed that cytokine treatment induces either partial or full recovery of cognitive behavior impaired by cerebral lesions. Hence, we investigated the effects of a cytokine treatment on neuronal regeneration and cognitive behavior in mice subjected to nerve agent exposure. Subcutaneous injection of a mixture of 40 μg/kg fibroblast growth factor-2 (FGF-2) and epidermal growth factor (EGF) was administered daily over 8 days to soman-poisoned mice (1.2 LD50 soman). Memory performances (T-maze and Morris water maze) and emotional behavior (elevated plus maze; auditory and contextual response in a fear conditioning task) were assessed on post-soman days 30 and 90. Brains were collected on post-soman days 9, 30 and 90 so as to perform NeuN-immunohistochemistry in the hippocampus and amygdala (neuronal regeneration quantification). Following soman-induced brain lesions, a spontaneous neuronal regeneration occurred in both the hippocampus and amygdala. Cytokine treatment enhanced neuronal regeneration in the hippocampus however not in the amygdala. Soman poisoning fostered altogether memory impairments as well as anxiety or fear-like behavioral disturbances in mice. A spontaneous recovery of standard emotional behavior occurred overtime. Such a recovery displayed significantly enhanced speed under cytokine treatment. Unfortunately, no memory performance recovery was evidenced in soman-intoxicated mice whether treated or not with cytokines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Marc Collombet
- Département Soutien Médico-Chirurgical des Forces, IRBA, BP 73, 91223 Brétigny sur Orge Cedex, France.
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Collombet JM, Piérard C, Béracochéa D, Coubard S, Burckhart MF, Four E, Masqueliez C, Baubichon D, Lallement G. Long-term consequences of soman poisoning in mice. Behav Brain Res 2008; 191:88-94. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2008.02.043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2008] [Accepted: 02/28/2008] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
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Long-term consequences of soman poisoning in mice: part 2. Emotional behavior. Behav Brain Res 2008; 191:95-103. [PMID: 18457884 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2008.03.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/05/2008] [Revised: 03/14/2008] [Accepted: 03/16/2008] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
The organophosphorus compound soman produces long-lasting epileptic seizure activity which is associated to brain damage, more particularly in the hippocampus and the amygdala. The companion paper (see part 1 in the same journal issue) describes the neuropathology in the amygdala of soman-poisoned mice. The present paper examines the long-term effects of soman poisoning on emotional reactivity in mice, 30 or 90 days after intoxication using behavioral tasks involving amygdala function. The emotional behavior was estimated in animal tests of unconditioned fear (light/dark boxes, elevated plus-maze) and conditioned fear (auditory and contextual response). In the light/dark boxes and elevated plus-maze, mice intoxicated with soman (110 microg/kg, 1.2 LD(50)) showed an anxiety-like behavior profile at post-poisoning days 30 and 90. In conditioned fear, results showed that both auditory and contextual conditioned responses are increased on post-soman day 30 but no longer on post-soman day 90, evidencing behavioral recovery overtime. This latter behavioral result is in accordance with the delayed neuronal regeneration patterns described in the companion paper (part 1).
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Collombet JM, Four E, Fauquette W, Burckhart MF, Masqueliez C, Bernabé D, Baubichon D, Lallement G. Soman poisoning induces delayed astrogliotic scar and angiogenesis in damaged mouse brain areas. Neurotoxicology 2006; 28:38-48. [PMID: 16949671 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2006.07.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2006] [Revised: 07/08/2006] [Accepted: 07/13/2006] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Gliotic scar formation and angiogenesis are two biological events involved in the tissue reparative process generally occurring in the brain after mechanically induced injury, ischemia or cerebral tumor development. For the first time, in this study, neo-vascularization and glial scar formation were investigated in the brain of soman-poisoned mice over a 3-month period after nerve agent exposure (1.2 LD50 of soman). Using anti-claudin-5 and anti-vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF) immunostaining techniques on brain sections, blood vessels were quantified and VEGF expression was verified to appraise the level of neo-angiogenesis induced in damaged brain areas. Furthermore, glial scar formation and neuropathology were estimated over time in the same injured brain regions by anti-glial fibrillary acidic protein (GFAP) immunohistochemistry and hemalun-phloxin (H&P) dye staining, respectively. VEGF over-expression was noticed on post-soman day 3 in lesioned areas such as the hippocampal CA1 field and amygdala. This was followed by an increase in the quantity of mature blood vessels, 3 months after soman poisoning, in the same brain areas. On the other hand, massive astroglial cell activation was demonstrated on post-soman day 8. Reactive astroglial cells were located only in damaged cerebral regions where H&P-stained eosinophilic neurons were found. For longer experimental times, astroglial response slowly decreased overtime but remained detectable on post-soman day 90 in some discrete brain regions (i.e. CA1 field and amygdala) evidencing the formation of a glial scar. In this study, we discuss the key role of VEGF in the angiogenic process and in the glial or neuronal response induced by soman poisoning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Marc Collombet
- Département de Toxicologie, CRSSA, 24 avenue des Maquis du Grésivaudan, B.P. 87, 38702 LA TRONCHE Cedex, France.
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Collombet JM, Carpentier P, Baille V, Four E, Bernabé D, Burckhart MF, Masqueliez C, Baubichon D, Lallement G. Neuronal regeneration partially compensates the delayed neuronal cell death observed in the hippocampal CA1 field of soman-poisoned mice. Neurotoxicology 2005; 27:201-9. [PMID: 16309744 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2005.10.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2005] [Revised: 10/10/2005] [Accepted: 10/10/2005] [Indexed: 10/25/2022]
Abstract
Soman poisoning induces long-term neuropathology characterized by the presence of damaged neurons up to 2 months after exposure in various central brain areas, especially the hippocampal CA1 layer. Rapid depletion of this layer could therefore be expected. Surprisingly, the CA1 layer remained consistently visible, suggesting delayed death of these damaged neurons, potentially accompanied by neuronal regeneration. To address this issue, mice were exposed to a convulsive dose of soman (110 microg/kg followed by 5.0mg/kg of atropine methyl nitrate (MNA) 1 min later) and brains were collected from day 1 to day 90 post-exposure. Damaged and residual healthy neurons were quantified on brain sections using hemalun-phloxin and fluorojade staining or neuronal nuclei antigen (NeuN) immunohistochemistry. On post-soman day 1, a moderate neuronal cell death was noticed in the hippocampal CA1 layer. In this area, an important and steady quantity of damaged neurons (about 48% of the whole pyramidal neurons) was detected from post-soman day 1 to day 30. Thus, throughout this period, damaged neurons seemed to survive, as confirmed by the unmodified depth of the hippocampal CA1 layer. The dramatic disappearance of the damaged neurons occurred only later during the experiment and was almost complete at day 90 after soman exposure. Interestingly, between day 30 and day 90 following poisoning, an increase in the number of residual healthy pyramidal neurons was observed. These different kinetic patterns related to the density of total, damaged and residual healthy neurons after soman poisoning demonstrate that neuronal regeneration is delayed in the hippocampal CA1 layer and is concomitant to the death of damaged neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Marc Collombet
- Département de Toxicologie, Centre de Recherches du Service de Santé des Armées (CRSSA), 24, avenue des Maquis du Grésivaudan, B.P. 87, 38702 LA TRONCHE cedex, France.
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Collombet JM, Four E, Burckhart MF, Masqueliez C, Bernabé D, Baubichon D, Hérodin F, Lallement G. Effect of cytokine treatment on the neurogenesis process in the brain of soman-poisoned mice. Toxicology 2005; 210:9-23. [PMID: 15804454 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2005.01.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2004] [Revised: 01/10/2005] [Accepted: 01/11/2005] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
We previously described that enhanced proliferation of neural progenitors occurred in the subgranular zone (SGZ) of the dentate gyrus and in the subventricular zone (SVZ) of the mouse brain following soman poisoning. Then, a discrete number of these cells seemed to migrate and engraft into the main damaged brain regions (hippocampus; septum and amygdala) and subsequently differentiate into neurons. In the present study, the effect of a cytokine treatment on the neurogenesis process was evaluated. For this purpose, subcutaneous injection of a cocktail of 40 microg/kg epidermal growth factor (EGF) and basic fibroblast growth factor (bFGF) was administered daily to soman-poisoned mice (110 microg/kg soman and 5.0 mg/kg methyl nitrate atropine), from post-soman days 1 to 8. To label replicating neural progenitors, 200 mg/kg bromodeoxyuridine (BrdU) was injected twice a day between post-soman days 6 and 8. Mice were sacrificed on post-soman day 9 or 34. On post-soman day 9, the cytokine treatment had no effect on the proliferation of neural progenitors in the SVZ and SGZ, as assessed by BrdU immunochemistry. However, this treatment seemed to promote the migration of neural precursor cells from the proliferative areas towards damaged brain regions. Indeed, in the CA1 hippocampal layer of soman-poisoned mice, on post-soman day 34, the cytokine treatment increased the number of healthy pyramidal neurons stained by hemalun-eosin dye. The cytokine treatment also augmented the number of BrdU-labeled cells in the CA1 hippocampal layer and amygdala. Interestingly, the administration of cytokines resulted in the differentiation of BrdU-positive cells into new neurons in the CA1 hippocampal layer, whereas astrocytic differentiation was preferentially observed in the amygdala.
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Collombet JM, Four E, Bernabé D, Masqueliez C, Burckhart MF, Baille V, Baubichon D, Lallement G. Soman poisoning increases neural progenitor proliferation and induces long-term glial activation in mouse brain. Toxicology 2005; 208:319-34. [PMID: 15695018 DOI: 10.1016/j.tox.2004.11.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2004] [Revised: 11/16/2004] [Accepted: 11/16/2004] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
To date, only short-term glial reaction has been extensively studied following soman or other warfare neurotoxicant poisoning. In a context of cell therapy by neural progenitor engraftment to repair brain damage, the long-term effect of soman on glial reaction and neural progenitor division was analyzed in the present study. The effect of soman poisoning was estimated in mouse brains at various times ranging from 1 to 90 days post-poisoning. Using immunochemistry and dye staining techniques (hemalun-eosin staining), the number of degenerating neurons, the number of dividing neural progenitors, and microglial, astroglial or oligodendroglial cell activation were studied. Soman poisoning led to rapid and massive (post-soman day 1) death of mature neurons as assessed by hemalun-eosin staining. Following this acute poisoning phase, a weak toxicity effect on mature neurons was still observed for a period of 1 month after poisoning. A massive short-termed microgliosis peaked on day 3 post-poisoning. Delayed astrogliosis was observed from 3 to 90 days after soman poisoning, contributing to glial scar formation. On the other hand, oligodendroglial cells or their precursors were practically unaffected by soman poisoning. Interestingly, neural progenitors located in the subgranular zone of the dentate gyrus (SGZ) or in the subventricular zone (SVZ) of the brain survived soman poisoning. Furthermore, soman poisoning significantly increased neural progenitor proliferation in both SGZ and SVZ brain areas on post-soman day 3 or day 8, respectively. This increased proliferation rate was detected up to 1 month after poisoning.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jean-Marc Collombet
- Département de Toxicologie, C.R.S.S.A., B.P. 87, 24 Avenue des Maquis du Grésivaudan, 38702 La Tronche Cedex, France.
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