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Oun A, Hoeksema E, Soliman A, Brouwer F, García-Reyes F, Pots H, Trombetta-Lima M, Kortholt A, Dolga AM. Characterization of Lipopolysaccharide Effects on LRRK2 Signaling in RAW Macrophages. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24021644. [PMID: 36675159 PMCID: PMC9865464 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24021644] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2022] [Revised: 01/08/2023] [Accepted: 01/10/2023] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Dysfunction of the immune system and mitochondrial metabolism has been associated with Parkinson's disease (PD) pathology. Mutations and increased kinase activity of leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) are linked to both idiopathic and familial PD. However, the function of LRRK2 in the immune cells under inflammatory conditions is contradictory. Our results showed that lipopolysaccharide (LPS) stimulation increased the kinase activity of LRRK2 in parental RAW 264.7 (WT) cells. In addition to this, LRRK2 deletion in LRRK2 KO RAW 264.7 (KO) cells altered cell morphology following LPS stimulation compared to the WT cells, as shown by an increase in the cell impedance as observed by the xCELLigence measurements. LPS stimulation caused an increase in the cellular reactive oxygen species (ROS) levels in both WT and KO cells. However, WT cells displayed a higher ROS level compared to the KO cells. Moreover, LRRK2 deletion led to a reduction in interleukin-6 (IL-6) inflammatory cytokine and cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) expression and an increase in lactate production after LPS stimulation compared to the WT cells. These data illustrate that LRRK2 has an effect on inflammatory processes in RAW macrophages upon LPS stimulation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Asmaa Oun
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy (GRIP), University of Groningen, 9713 AV Groningen, The Netherlands
- Department of Cell Biochemistry, Groningen Institute of Biomolecular Sciences & Biotechnology (GBB), University of Groningen, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
- Department of Biotechnology, Institute of Graduate Studies and Research, Alexandria University, Alexandria 21526, Egypt
| | - Emmy Hoeksema
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy (GRIP), University of Groningen, 9713 AV Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Ahmed Soliman
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy (GRIP), University of Groningen, 9713 AV Groningen, The Netherlands
- Department of Cell Biochemistry, Groningen Institute of Biomolecular Sciences & Biotechnology (GBB), University of Groningen, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Famke Brouwer
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy (GRIP), University of Groningen, 9713 AV Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Fabiola García-Reyes
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy (GRIP), University of Groningen, 9713 AV Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Henderikus Pots
- Department of Cell Biochemistry, Groningen Institute of Biomolecular Sciences & Biotechnology (GBB), University of Groningen, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Marina Trombetta-Lima
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy (GRIP), University of Groningen, 9713 AV Groningen, The Netherlands
| | - Arjan Kortholt
- Department of Cell Biochemistry, Groningen Institute of Biomolecular Sciences & Biotechnology (GBB), University of Groningen, 9747 AG Groningen, The Netherlands
- YETEM-Innovative Technologies Application and Research Centre, Suleyman Demirel University, 32260 Isparta, Turkey
- Correspondence: (A.K.); (A.M.D.); Tel.: +31-50363-4206 (A.K.); +31-50363-6372 (A.M.D.)
| | - Amalia M. Dolga
- Department of Molecular Pharmacology, Faculty of Science and Engineering, Groningen Research Institute of Pharmacy (GRIP), University of Groningen, 9713 AV Groningen, The Netherlands
- Correspondence: (A.K.); (A.M.D.); Tel.: +31-50363-4206 (A.K.); +31-50363-6372 (A.M.D.)
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Jayaraj R, Azimullah S, Parekh KA, Ojha SK, Beiram R. Effect of citronellol on oxidative stress, neuroinflammation and autophagy pathways in an in vivo model of Parkinson's disease. Heliyon 2022; 8:e11434. [DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2022.e11434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2021] [Revised: 02/23/2022] [Accepted: 10/31/2022] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
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Jayaraj RL, Beiram R, Azimullah S, M. F. NM, Ojha SK, Adem A, Jalal FY. Noscapine Prevents Rotenone-Induced Neurotoxicity: Involvement of Oxidative Stress, Neuroinflammation and Autophagy Pathways. Molecules 2021; 26:4627. [PMID: 34361780 PMCID: PMC8348109 DOI: 10.3390/molecules26154627] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/03/2021] [Revised: 07/23/2021] [Accepted: 07/26/2021] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease is characterized by the loss of dopaminergic neurons in substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) and the resultant loss of dopamine in the striatum. Various studies have shown that oxidative stress and neuroinflammation plays a major role in PD progression. In addition, the autophagy lysosome pathway (ALP) plays an important role in the degradation of aggregated proteins, abnormal cytoplasmic organelles and proteins for intracellular homeostasis. Dysfunction of ALP results in the accumulation of α-synuclein and the loss of dopaminergic neurons in PD. Thus, modulating ALP is becoming an appealing therapeutic intervention. In our current study, we wanted to evaluate the neuroprotective potency of noscapine in a rotenone-induced PD rat model. Rats were administered rotenone injections (2.5 mg/kg, i.p.,) daily followed by noscapine (10 mg/kg, i.p.,) for four weeks. Noscapine, an iso-qinulinin alkaloid found naturally in the Papaveraceae family, has traditionally been used in the treatment of cancer, stroke and fibrosis. However, the neuroprotective potency of noscapine has not been analyzed. Our study showed that administration of noscapine decreased the upregulation of pro-inflammatory factors, oxidative stress, and α-synuclein expression with a significant increase in antioxidant enzymes. In addition, noscapine prevented rotenone-induced activation of microglia and astrocytes. These neuroprotective mechanisms resulted in a decrease in dopaminergic neuron loss in SNpc and neuronal fibers in the striatum. Further, noscapine administration enhanced the mTOR-mediated p70S6K pathway as well as inhibited apoptosis. In addition to these mechanisms, noscapine prevented a rotenone-mediated increase in lysosomal degradation, resulting in a decrease in α-synuclein aggregation. However, further studies are needed to further develop noscapine as a potential therapeutic candidate for PD treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard L. Jayaraj
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain 17666, United Arab Emirates; (R.L.J.); (S.A.); (N.M.M.F.); (S.K.O.)
| | - Rami Beiram
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain 17666, United Arab Emirates; (R.L.J.); (S.A.); (N.M.M.F.); (S.K.O.)
| | - Sheikh Azimullah
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain 17666, United Arab Emirates; (R.L.J.); (S.A.); (N.M.M.F.); (S.K.O.)
| | - Nagoor Meeran M. F.
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain 17666, United Arab Emirates; (R.L.J.); (S.A.); (N.M.M.F.); (S.K.O.)
| | - Shreesh K. Ojha
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain 17666, United Arab Emirates; (R.L.J.); (S.A.); (N.M.M.F.); (S.K.O.)
| | - Abdu Adem
- College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Khalifa University, Abu Dhabi 127788, United Arab Emirates
| | - Fakhreya Yousuf Jalal
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain 17666, United Arab Emirates; (R.L.J.); (S.A.); (N.M.M.F.); (S.K.O.)
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Magnusen AF, Hatton SL, Rani R, Pandey MK. Genetic Defects and Pro-inflammatory Cytokines in Parkinson's Disease. Front Neurol 2021; 12:636139. [PMID: 34239490 PMCID: PMC8259624 DOI: 10.3389/fneur.2021.636139] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/30/2020] [Accepted: 05/06/2021] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is a movement disorder attributed to the loss of dopaminergic (DA) neurons mainly in the substantia nigra pars compacta. Motor symptoms include resting tremor, rigidity, and bradykinesias, while non-motor symptoms include autonomic dysfunction, anxiety, and sleeping problems. Genetic mutations in a number of genes (e.g., LRRK2, GBA, SNCA, PARK2, PARK6, and PARK7) and the resultant abnormal activation of microglial cells are assumed to be the main reasons for the loss of DA neurons in PD with genetic causes. Additionally, immune cell infiltration and their participation in major histocompatibility complex I (MHCI) and/or MHCII-mediated processing and presentation of cytosolic or mitochondrial antigens activate the microglial cells and cause the massive generation of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, which are all critical for the propagation of brain inflammation and the neurodegeneration in PD with genetic and idiopathic causes. Despite knowing the involvement of several of such immune devices that trigger neuroinflammation and neurodegeneration in PD, the exact disease mechanism or the innovative biomarker that could detect disease severity in PD linked to LRRK2, GBA, SNCA, PARK2, PARK6, and PARK7 defects is largely unknown. The current review has explored data from genetics, immunology, and in vivo and ex vivo functional studies that demonstrate that certain genetic defects might contribute to microglial cell activation and massive generation of a number of pro-inflammatory cytokines and chemokines, which ultimately drive the brain inflammation and lead to neurodegeneration in PD. Understanding the detailed involvement of a variety of immune mediators, their source, and the target could provide a better understanding of the disease process. This information might be helpful in clinical diagnosis, monitoring of disease progression, and early identification of affected individuals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Albert Frank Magnusen
- Division of Human Genetics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, United States
| | - Shelby Loraine Hatton
- Division of Human Genetics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, United States
| | - Reena Rani
- Division of Human Genetics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, United States
| | - Manoj Kumar Pandey
- Division of Human Genetics, Cincinnati Children's Hospital Medical Center, Cincinnati, OH, United States
- Department of Paediatrics of University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, OH, United States
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New Insights into Immune-Mediated Mechanisms in Parkinson's Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21239302. [PMID: 33291304 PMCID: PMC7730912 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21239302] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2020] [Revised: 12/03/2020] [Accepted: 12/03/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
The immune system has been increasingly recognized as a major contributor in the pathogenesis of Parkinson’s disease (PD). The double-edged nature of the immune system poses a problem in harnessing immunomodulatory therapies to prevent and slow the progression of this debilitating disease. To tackle this conundrum, understanding the mechanisms underlying immune-mediated neuronal death will aid in the identification of neuroprotective strategies to preserve dopaminergic neurons. Specific innate and adaptive immune mediators may directly or indirectly induce dopaminergic neuronal death. Genetic factors, the gut-brain axis and the recent identification of PD-specific T cells may provide novel mechanistic insights on PD pathogenesis. Future studies to address the gaps in the identification of autoantibodies, variability in immunophenotyping studies and the contribution of gut dysbiosis to PD may eventually provide new therapeutic targets for PD.
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Jayaraj RL, Beiram R, Azimullah S, MF NM, Ojha SK, Adem A, Jalal FY. Valeric Acid Protects Dopaminergic Neurons by Suppressing Oxidative Stress, Neuroinflammation and Modulating Autophagy Pathways. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:ijms21207670. [PMID: 33081327 PMCID: PMC7589299 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21207670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 36] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2020] [Revised: 09/14/2020] [Accepted: 09/15/2020] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease, the second common neurodegenerative disease is clinically characterized by degeneration of dopaminergic neurons in the substantia nigra pars compacta (SNpc) with upregulation of neuroinflammatory markers and oxidative stress. Autophagy lysosome pathway (ALP) plays a major role in degradation of damaged organelles and proteins for energy balance and intracellular homeostasis. However, dysfunction of ALP results in impairment of α-synuclein clearance which hastens dopaminergic neurons loss. In this study, we wanted to understand the neuroprotective efficacy of Val in rotenone induced PD rat model. Animals received intraperitoneal injections (2.5 mg/kg) of rotenone daily followed by Val (40 mg/kg, i.p) for four weeks. Valeric acid, a straight chain alkyl carboxylic acid found naturally in Valeriana officianilis have been used in the treatment of neurological disorders. However, their neuroprotective efficacy has not yet been studied. In our study, we found that Val prevented rotenone induced upregulation of pro-inflammatory cytokine oxidative stress, and α-synuclein expression with subsequent increase in vital antioxidant enzymes. Moreover, Val mitigated rotenone induced hyperactivation of microglia and astrocytes. These protective mechanisms prevented rotenone induced dopaminergic neuron loss in SNpc and neuronal fibers in the striatum. Additionally, Val treatment prevented rotenone blocked mTOR-mediated p70S6K pathway as well as apoptosis. Moreover, Val prevented rotenone mediated autophagic vacuole accumulation and increased lysosomal degradation. Hence, Val could be further developed as a potential therapeutic candidate for treatment of PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard L. Jayaraj
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain 17666, UAE; (R.L.J.); (S.A.); (N.M.M.); (S.K.O.); (F.Y.J.)
| | - Rami Beiram
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain 17666, UAE; (R.L.J.); (S.A.); (N.M.M.); (S.K.O.); (F.Y.J.)
- Correspondence: (R.B.); (A.A.); Tel.: +971-37137521 (R.B.); +971-504482894 (A.A.)
| | - Sheikh Azimullah
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain 17666, UAE; (R.L.J.); (S.A.); (N.M.M.); (S.K.O.); (F.Y.J.)
| | - Nagoor Meeran MF
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain 17666, UAE; (R.L.J.); (S.A.); (N.M.M.); (S.K.O.); (F.Y.J.)
| | - Shreesh K. Ojha
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain 17666, UAE; (R.L.J.); (S.A.); (N.M.M.); (S.K.O.); (F.Y.J.)
| | - Abdu Adem
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain 17666, UAE; (R.L.J.); (S.A.); (N.M.M.); (S.K.O.); (F.Y.J.)
- College of Medicine and Health Sciences, Khalifa University, Abu Dhabi 127788, UAE
- Correspondence: (R.B.); (A.A.); Tel.: +971-37137521 (R.B.); +971-504482894 (A.A.)
| | - Fakhreya Yousuf Jalal
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain 17666, UAE; (R.L.J.); (S.A.); (N.M.M.); (S.K.O.); (F.Y.J.)
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Kim C, Beilina A, Smith N, Li Y, Kim M, Kumaran R, Kaganovich A, Mamais A, Adame A, Iba M, Kwon S, Lee WJ, Shin SJ, Rissman RA, You S, Lee SJ, Singleton AB, Cookson MR, Masliah E. LRRK2 mediates microglial neurotoxicity via NFATc2 in rodent models of synucleinopathies. Sci Transl Med 2020; 12:eaay0399. [PMID: 33055242 PMCID: PMC8100991 DOI: 10.1126/scitranslmed.aay0399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2019] [Revised: 09/04/2019] [Accepted: 03/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/15/2022]
Abstract
Synucleinopathies are neurodegenerative disorders characterized by abnormal α-synuclein deposition that include Parkinson's disease, dementia with Lewy bodies, and multiple system atrophy. The pathology of these conditions also includes neuronal loss and neuroinflammation. Neuron-released α-synuclein has been shown to induce neurotoxic, proinflammatory microglial responses through Toll-like receptor 2, but the molecular mechanisms involved are poorly understood. Here, we show that leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) plays a critical role in the activation of microglia by extracellular α-synuclein. Exposure to α-synuclein was found to enhance LRRK2 phosphorylation and activity in mouse primary microglia. Furthermore, genetic and pharmacological inhibition of LRRK2 markedly diminished α-synuclein-mediated microglial neurotoxicity via lowering of tumor necrosis factor-α and interleukin-6 expression in mouse cultures. We determined that LRRK2 promoted a neuroinflammatory cascade by selectively phosphorylating and inducing nuclear translocation of the immune transcription factor nuclear factor of activated T cells, cytoplasmic 2 (NFATc2). NFATc2 activation was seen in patients with synucleinopathies and in a mouse model of synucleinopathy, where administration of an LRRK2 pharmacological inhibitor restored motor behavioral deficits. Our results suggest that modulation of LRRK2 and its downstream signaling mediator NFATc2 might be therapeutic targets for treating synucleinopathies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Changyoun Kim
- Molecular Neuropathology Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
| | - Alexandria Beilina
- Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Nathan Smith
- Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
- Department of Biochemistry and Redox Biology Center, University of Nebraska, Lincoln, NE 68588, USA
| | - Yan Li
- Protein/Peptide Sequencing Facility, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Minhyung Kim
- Departments of Surgery and Biomedical Sciences, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA 90048, USA
| | - Ravindran Kumaran
- Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Alice Kaganovich
- Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Adamantios Mamais
- Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Anthony Adame
- Department of Neurosciences, School of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Michiyo Iba
- Molecular Neuropathology Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Somin Kwon
- Molecular Neuropathology Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Won-Jae Lee
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Neuroscience Research Institute, and Department of Medicine, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, Korea
| | - Soo-Jean Shin
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Neuroscience Research Institute, and Department of Medicine, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, Korea
| | - Robert A Rissman
- Department of Neurosciences, School of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Sungyong You
- Departments of Surgery and Biomedical Sciences, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA 90048, USA
- Samuel Oschin Comprehensive Cancer Institute, Cedars-Sinai Medical Center, Los Angeles, CA 90048, USA
| | - Seung-Jae Lee
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, Neuroscience Research Institute, and Department of Medicine, Seoul National University College of Medicine, Seoul 03080, Korea
| | - Andrew B Singleton
- Molecular Genetics Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Mark R Cookson
- Cell Biology and Gene Expression Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA
| | - Eliezer Masliah
- Molecular Neuropathology Section, Laboratory of Neurogenetics, National Institute on Aging, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD 20892, USA.
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Kam TI, Hinkle JT, Dawson TM, Dawson VL. Microglia and astrocyte dysfunction in parkinson's disease. Neurobiol Dis 2020; 144:105028. [PMID: 32736085 PMCID: PMC7484088 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2020.105028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 175] [Impact Index Per Article: 43.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/23/2020] [Revised: 07/01/2020] [Accepted: 07/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
While glia are essential for regulating the homeostasis in the normal brain, their dysfunction contributes to neurodegeneration in many brain diseases, including Parkinson's disease (PD). Recent studies have identified that PD-associated genes are expressed in glial cells as well as neurons and have crucial roles in microglia and astrocytes. Here, we discuss the role of microglia and astrocytes dysfunction in relation to PD-linked mutations and their implications in PD pathogenesis. A better understanding of microglia and astrocyte functions in PD may provide insights into neurodegeneration and novel therapeutic approaches for PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tae-In Kam
- Neuroregeneration and Stem Cell Programs, Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA; Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Jared T Hinkle
- Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA
| | - Ted M Dawson
- Neuroregeneration and Stem Cell Programs, Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA; Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA; Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA; Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA.
| | - Valina L Dawson
- Neuroregeneration and Stem Cell Programs, Institute for Cell Engineering, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA; Department of Neurology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA; Solomon H. Snyder Department of Neuroscience, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA; Department of Physiology, Johns Hopkins University School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD 21205, USA.
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Keshavarzian A, Engen P, Bonvegna S, Cilia R. The gut microbiome in Parkinson's disease: A culprit or a bystander? PROGRESS IN BRAIN RESEARCH 2020; 252:357-450. [PMID: 32247371 DOI: 10.1016/bs.pbr.2020.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
In recent years, large-scale metagenomics projects such as the Human Microbiome Project placed the gut microbiota under the spotlight of research on its role in health and in the pathogenesis several diseases, as it can be a target for novel therapeutical approaches. The emerging concept of a microbiota modulation of the gut-brain axis in the pathogenesis of neurodegenerative disorders has been explored in several studies in animal models, as well as in human subjects. Particularly, research on changes in the composition of gut microbiota as a potential trigger for alpha-synuclein (α-syn) pathology in Parkinson's disease (PD) has gained increasing interest. In the present review, we first provide the basis to the understanding of the role of gut microbiota in healthy subjects and the molecular basis of the gut-brain interaction, focusing on metabolic and neuroinflammatory factors that could trigger the alpha-synuclein conformational changes and aggregation. Then, we critically explored preclinical and clinical studies reporting on the changes in gut microbiota in PD, as compared to healthy subjects. Furthermore, we examined the relationship between the gut microbiota and PD clinical features, discussing data consistently reported across studies, as well as the potential sources of inconsistencies. As a further step toward understanding the effects of gut microbiota on PD, we discussed the relationship between dysbiosis and response to dopamine replacement therapy, focusing on Levodopa metabolism. We conclude that further studies are needed to determine whether the gut microbiota changes observed so far in PD patients is the cause or, instead, it is merely a consequence of lifestyle changes associated with the disease. Regardless, studies so far strongly suggest that changes in microbiota appears to be impactful in pathogenesis of neuroinflammation. Thus, dysbiotic microbiota in PD could influence the disease course and response to medication, especially Levodopa. Future research will assess the impact of microbiota-directed therapeutic intervention in PD patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ali Keshavarzian
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Digestive Disease and Nutrition, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL, United States
| | - Phillip Engen
- Department of Internal Medicine, Division of Digestive Disease and Nutrition, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL, United States
| | | | - Roberto Cilia
- Fondazione IRCCS Istituto Neurologico Carlo Besta, Movement Disorders Unit, Milan, Italy.
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Berwick DC, Heaton GR, Azeggagh S, Harvey K. LRRK2 Biology from structure to dysfunction: research progresses, but the themes remain the same. Mol Neurodegener 2019; 14:49. [PMID: 31864390 PMCID: PMC6925518 DOI: 10.1186/s13024-019-0344-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 91] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/03/2019] [Accepted: 11/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Since the discovery of leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) as a protein that is likely central to the aetiology of Parkinson’s disease, a considerable amount of work has gone into uncovering its basic cellular function. This effort has led to the implication of LRRK2 in a bewildering range of cell biological processes and pathways, and probable roles in a number of seemingly unrelated medical conditions. In this review we summarise current knowledge of the basic biochemistry and cellular function of LRRK2. Topics covered include the identification of phosphorylation substrates of LRRK2 kinase activity, in particular Rab proteins, and advances in understanding the activation of LRRK2 kinase activity via dimerisation and association with membranes, especially via interaction with Rab29. We also discuss biochemical studies that shed light on the complex LRRK2 GTPase activity, evidence of roles for LRRK2 in a range of cell signalling pathways that are likely cell type specific, and studies linking LRRK2 to the cell biology of organelles. The latter includes the involvement of LRRK2 in autophagy, endocytosis, and processes at the trans-Golgi network, the endoplasmic reticulum and also key microtubule-based cellular structures. We further propose a mechanism linking LRRK2 dimerisation, GTPase function and membrane recruitment with LRRK2 kinase activation by Rab29. Together these data paint a picture of a research field that in many ways is moving forward with great momentum, but in other ways has not changed fundamentally. Many key advances have been made, but very often they seem to lead back to the same places.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel C Berwick
- School of Health, Life and Chemical Sciences, The Open University, Walton Hall, Milton Keynes, MK7 6AA, UK.
| | - George R Heaton
- Department of Pharmacology, UCL School of Pharmacy, University College London, 29-39 Brunswick Square, London, WC1N 1AX, UK
| | - Sonia Azeggagh
- School of Health, Life and Chemical Sciences, The Open University, Walton Hall, Milton Keynes, MK7 6AA, UK
| | - Kirsten Harvey
- Department of Pharmacology, UCL School of Pharmacy, University College London, 29-39 Brunswick Square, London, WC1N 1AX, UK.
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11
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González-Casacuberta I, Juárez-Flores DL, Morén C, Garrabou G. Bioenergetics and Autophagic Imbalance in Patients-Derived Cell Models of Parkinson Disease Supports Systemic Dysfunction in Neurodegeneration. Front Neurosci 2019; 13:894. [PMID: 31551675 PMCID: PMC6748355 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2019.00894] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2019] [Accepted: 08/09/2019] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson's disease (PD) is the second most prevalent neurodegenerative disorder worldwide affecting 2-3% of the population over 65 years. This prevalence is expected to rise as life expectancy increases and diagnostic and therapeutic protocols improve. PD encompasses a multitude of clinical, genetic, and molecular forms of the disease. Even though the mechanistic of the events leading to neurodegeneration remain largely unknown, some molecular hallmarks have been repeatedly reported in most patients and models of the disease. Neuroinflammation, protein misfolding, disrupted endoplasmic reticulum-mitochondria crosstalk, mitochondrial dysfunction and consequent bioenergetic failure, oxidative stress and autophagy deregulation, are amongst the most commonly described. Supporting these findings, numerous familial forms of PD are caused by mutations in genes that are crucial for mitochondrial and autophagy proper functioning. For instance, late and early onset PD associated to mutations in Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) and Parkin (PRKN) genes, responsible for the most frequent dominant and recessive inherited forms of PD, respectively, have emerged as promising examples of disease due to their established role in commanding bioenergetic and autophagic balance. Concomitantly, the development of animal and cell models to investigate the etiology of the disease, potential biomarkers and therapeutic approaches are being explored. One of the emerging approaches in this context is the use of patient's derived cells models, such as skin-derived fibroblasts that preserve the genetic background and some environmental cues of the patients. An increasing number of reports in these PD cell models postulate that deficient mitochondrial function and impaired autophagic flux may be determinant in PD accelerated nigral cell death in terms of limitation of cell energy supply and accumulation of obsolete and/or unfolded proteins or dysfunctional organelles. The reliance of neurons on mitochondrial oxidative metabolism and their post-mitotic nature, may explain their increased vulnerability to undergo degeneration upon mitochondrial challenges or autophagic insults. In this scenario, proper mitochondrial function and turnover through mitophagy, are gaining in strength as protective targets to prevent neurodegeneration, together with the use of patient-derived fibroblasts to further explore these events. These findings point out the presence of molecular damage beyond the central nervous system (CNS) and proffer patient-derived cell platforms to the clinical and scientific community, which enable the study of disease etiopathogenesis and therapeutic approaches focused on modifying the natural history of PD through, among others, the enhancement of mitochondrial function and autophagy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ingrid González-Casacuberta
- Muscle Research and Mitochondrial Function Laboratory, Cellex-IDIBAPS, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences-University of Barcelona, Internal Medicine Service-Hospital Clínic of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,CIBERER-U722, Madrid, Spain
| | - Diana Luz Juárez-Flores
- Muscle Research and Mitochondrial Function Laboratory, Cellex-IDIBAPS, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences-University of Barcelona, Internal Medicine Service-Hospital Clínic of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,CIBERER-U722, Madrid, Spain
| | - Constanza Morén
- Muscle Research and Mitochondrial Function Laboratory, Cellex-IDIBAPS, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences-University of Barcelona, Internal Medicine Service-Hospital Clínic of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,CIBERER-U722, Madrid, Spain
| | - Gloria Garrabou
- Muscle Research and Mitochondrial Function Laboratory, Cellex-IDIBAPS, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences-University of Barcelona, Internal Medicine Service-Hospital Clínic of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,CIBERER-U722, Madrid, Spain
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12
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13
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Lack of PINK1 alters glia innate immune responses and enhances inflammation-induced, nitric oxide-mediated neuron death. Sci Rep 2018; 8:383. [PMID: 29321620 PMCID: PMC5762685 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-017-18786-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 57] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2017] [Accepted: 12/15/2017] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Neuroinflammation is involved in the pathogenesis of Parkinson’s disease (PD) and other neurodegenerative disorders. We show that lack of PINK1- a mitochondrial kinase linked to recessive familial PD – leads to glia type-specific abnormalities of innate immunity. PINK1 loss enhances LPS/IFN-γ stimulated pro-inflammatory phenotypes of mixed astrocytes/microglia (increased iNOS, nitric oxide and COX-2, reduced IL-10) and pure astrocytes (increased iNOS, nitric oxide, TNF-α and IL-1β), while attenuating expression of both pro-inflammatory (TNF-α, IL-1β) and anti-inflammatory (IL-10) cytokines in microglia. These abnormalities are associated with increased inflammation-induced NF-κB signaling in astrocytes, and cause enhanced death of neurons co-cultured with inflamed PINK1−/− mixed glia and neuroblastoma cells exposed to conditioned medium from LPS/IFN-γ treated PINK1−/− mixed glia. Neuroblastoma cell death is prevented with an iNOS inhibitor, implicating increased nitric oxide production as the cause for enhanced death. Finally, we show for the first time that lack of a recessive PD gene (PINK1) increases α-Synuclein-induced nitric oxide production in all glia types (mixed glia, astrocytes and microglia). Our results describe a novel pathogenic mechanism in recessive PD, where PINK1 deficiency may increase neuron death via exacerbation of inflammatory stimuli-induced nitric oxide production and abnormal innate immune responses in glia cells.
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14
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The impact of murine LRRK2 G2019S transgene overexpression on acute responses to inflammatory challenge. Brain Behav Immun 2018; 67:246-256. [PMID: 28893563 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2017.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/27/2017] [Revised: 08/07/2017] [Accepted: 09/02/2017] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
The most common Parkinson's disease (PD) mutation is the gain-of-function LRRK2 G2019S variant, which has also been linked to inflammatory disease states. Yet, little is known of the role of G2019S in PD related complex behavioral or immune/hormonal processes in response to inflammatory/toxicant challenges. Hence, we characterized the behavioral, neuroendocrine-immune and central monoaminergic responses in G2019S overexpressing mutants following systemic interferon-gamma (IFN-γ) or lipopolysaccharide (LPS) administration. Although LPS markedly (and IFN-γ modestly in some cases) increased cytokine and corticosterone levels, while inducing pronounced sickness and home-cage activity deficits, the G2019S mutation had no effect on these parameters. No differences were observed with regards to brain microglia with the acute LPS injection, regardless of genotype. Nor did the G2019S mutation influence neurotransmitter levels within the medial prefrontal cortex or paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus. However, the LRRK2 G2019S transgenic mice did have altered monoamine levels within the striatum and hippocampus. Indeed, G2019S mice had altered basal levels and turnover of dopamine within the striatum, along with changes in hippocampal serotonin and norepinephrine activity in response to LPS and IFN-γ. The present findings suggest the importance of murine G2019S in hippocampal and striatal neurotransmission, but that the transgene didn't appear to be involved in functional behavioral and stress-like hormonal and cytokine changes provoked by inflammatory insults.
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15
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Lopez-Fabuel I, Martin-Martin L, Resch-Beusher M, Azkona G, Sanchez-Pernaute R, Bolaños JP. Mitochondrial respiratory chain disorganization in Parkinson's disease-relevant PINK1 and DJ1 mutants. Neurochem Int 2017; 109:101-105. [PMID: 28408307 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2017.03.023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2017] [Revised: 03/21/2017] [Accepted: 03/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
Brain mitochondrial complex I (CI) damage is associated with the loss of the dopaminergic neurons of the Substantia Nigra in Parkinson's Disease (PD) patients. However, whether CI inhibition is associated with any alteration of the mitochondrial respiratory chain (MRC) organization in PD patients is unknown. To address this issue, here we analyzed the MRC by blue native gel electrophoresis (BNGE) followed by western blotting, in mitochondria purified from fibroblasts of patients harboring PD-relevant Pink1 mutations. We found a decrease in free CI, and in free versus supercomplexes (SCs)-assembled CI in PD; however, free complex III (CIII) was only modestly affected, whereas its free versus SCs-assembled forms decreased. Interestingly, complex IV (CIV) was considerably lost in the PD samples. These results were largely confirmed in mitochondria isolated from cultured neurons from Pink1-/- mice, and in cultured neurons and forebrain samples from the PD-related Dj1-/- mice. Thus, besides CI damage, the MRC undergoes a profound structural remodeling in PD likely responsible for the energetic inefficiency and mitochondrial reactive oxygen species (mROS) over-production observed in this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Irene Lopez-Fabuel
- University of Salamanca, CIBERFES, Institute of Functional Biology and Genomics (IBFG), CSIC, 37007 Salamanca, Spain; Institute of Biomedical Research of Salamanca (IBSAL), University Hospital of Salamanca, 37007 Salamanca, Spain
| | - Lucia Martin-Martin
- University of Salamanca, CIBERFES, Institute of Functional Biology and Genomics (IBFG), CSIC, 37007 Salamanca, Spain; Institute of Biomedical Research of Salamanca (IBSAL), University Hospital of Salamanca, 37007 Salamanca, Spain
| | - Monica Resch-Beusher
- University of Salamanca, CIBERFES, Institute of Functional Biology and Genomics (IBFG), CSIC, 37007 Salamanca, Spain; Institute of Biomedical Research of Salamanca (IBSAL), University Hospital of Salamanca, 37007 Salamanca, Spain
| | - Garikoitz Azkona
- Animal Research Facility, Scientific and Technological Centers, University of Barcelona, 08007 Barcelona, Spain
| | | | - Juan P Bolaños
- University of Salamanca, CIBERFES, Institute of Functional Biology and Genomics (IBFG), CSIC, 37007 Salamanca, Spain; Institute of Biomedical Research of Salamanca (IBSAL), University Hospital of Salamanca, 37007 Salamanca, Spain.
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16
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Vaine CA, Shin D, Liu C, Hendriks WT, Dhakal J, Shin K, Sharma N, Bragg DC. X-linked Dystonia-Parkinsonism patient cells exhibit altered signaling via nuclear factor-kappa B. Neurobiol Dis 2016; 100:108-118. [PMID: 28017799 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2016.12.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/26/2016] [Revised: 11/17/2016] [Accepted: 12/18/2016] [Indexed: 10/20/2022] Open
Abstract
X-linked Dystonia-Parkinsonism (XDP) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease involving the loss of medium spiny neurons within the striatum. An XDP-specific haplotype has been identified, consisting of seven sequence variants which cluster around the human TAF1 gene, but a direct relationship between any of these variants and disease pathogenesis has not yet been demonstrated. Because the pathogenic gene lesion remains unclear, it has been difficult to predict cellular pathways which are affected in XDP cells. To address that issue, we assayed expression of defined gene sets in XDP vs. control fibroblasts to identify networks of functionally-related transcripts which may be dysregulated in XDP patient cells. That analysis derived a 51-gene signature distinguishing XDP vs. control fibroblasts which mapped strongly to nuclear factor-kappa B (NFκB), a transcription factor pathway also implicated in the pathogenesis of other neurodegenerative diseases, including Parkinson's (PD) and Huntington's disease (HD). Constitutive and TNFα-evoked NFκB signaling was further evaluated in XDP vs. control fibroblasts based on luciferase reporter activity, DNA binding of NFκB subunits, and endogenous target gene transcription. Compared to control cells, XDP fibroblasts exhibited decreased basal NFκB activity and decreased levels of the active NFκB p50 subunit, but increased target gene expression in response to TNFα. NFκB signaling was further examined in neural stem cells differentiated from XDP and control induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) lines, revealing a similar pattern of increased TNFα responses in the patient lines compared to controls. These data indicate that an NFκB signaling phenotype is present in both patient fibroblasts and neural stem cells, suggesting this pathway as a site of dysfunction in XDP.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine A Vaine
- The Collaborative Center for X-linked Dystonia Parkinsonism, Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA 02129, USA; Harvard Brain Science Initiative, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - David Shin
- The Collaborative Center for X-linked Dystonia Parkinsonism, Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA 02129, USA; Harvard Brain Science Initiative, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Christina Liu
- The Collaborative Center for X-linked Dystonia Parkinsonism, Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA 02129, USA; Harvard Brain Science Initiative, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - William T Hendriks
- The Collaborative Center for X-linked Dystonia Parkinsonism, Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA 02129, USA; Harvard Brain Science Initiative, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Jyotsna Dhakal
- The Collaborative Center for X-linked Dystonia Parkinsonism, Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA 02129, USA; Harvard Brain Science Initiative, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Kyle Shin
- The Collaborative Center for X-linked Dystonia Parkinsonism, Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA 02129, USA; Harvard Brain Science Initiative, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA
| | - Nutan Sharma
- The Collaborative Center for X-linked Dystonia Parkinsonism, Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA 02129, USA
| | - D Cristopher Bragg
- The Collaborative Center for X-linked Dystonia Parkinsonism, Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA 02129, USA; Harvard Brain Science Initiative, Harvard Medical School, Boston, MA 02114, USA.
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17
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Azkona G, López de Maturana R, Del Rio P, Sousa A, Vazquez N, Zubiarrain A, Jimenez-Blasco D, Bolaños JP, Morales B, Auburger G, Arbelo JM, Sánchez-Pernaute R. LRRK2 Expression Is Deregulated in Fibroblasts and Neurons from Parkinson Patients with Mutations in PINK1. Mol Neurobiol 2016; 55:506-516. [PMID: 27975167 PMCID: PMC5808058 DOI: 10.1007/s12035-016-0303-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2016] [Accepted: 11/16/2016] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Mutations in PINK1 (PARK6), a serine/threonine kinase involved in mitochondrial homeostasis, are associated with early onset Parkinson’s disease. Fibroblasts from Parkinson’s disease patients with compound heterozygous mutations in exon 7 (c.1488 + 1G > A; c.1252_1488del) showed no apparent signs of mitochondrial impairment. To elucidate changes primarily caused by lack of functional PINK1, we over-expressed wild-type PINK1, which induced a significant downregulation of LRRK2 (PARK8). Indeed, we found that LRRK2 protein basal levels were significantly higher in the mutant PINK1 fibroblasts. To examine the interaction between the two PARK genes in a disease-relevant cell context, we generated induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) lines from mutant, carrier and control fibroblasts by lentiviral-mediated re-programming. Efficiency of neural induction and dopamine differentiation using a floor-plate induction protocol was similar in all genotypes. As observed in fibroblasts, PINK1 mutant neurons showed increased LRRK2 expression both at the RNA and protein level and transient over-expression of wild-type PINK1 efficiently downregulated LRRK2 levels. Additionally, we confirmed a dysregulation of LRRK2 expression in fibroblasts from patients with a different homozygous mutation in PINK1 exon 4, c.926G > A (G309D). Thus, our results identify a novel role of PINK1 modulating the levels of LRRK2 in Parkinson’s disease fibroblasts and neurons, suggest a convergent pathway for these PARK genes, and broaden the role of LRRK2 in the pathogenesis of Parkinson’s disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Garikoitz Azkona
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neural Repair, Inbiomed, Paseo Mikeletegi, 81, 20009, San Sebastian, Spain.,Animal Model Unit, Inbiomed, San Sebastian, Spain.,Animal Research Facility, Scientific and Technological Centers, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Rakel López de Maturana
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neural Repair, Inbiomed, Paseo Mikeletegi, 81, 20009, San Sebastian, Spain
| | - Patricia Del Rio
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neural Repair, Inbiomed, Paseo Mikeletegi, 81, 20009, San Sebastian, Spain
| | - Amaya Sousa
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neural Repair, Inbiomed, Paseo Mikeletegi, 81, 20009, San Sebastian, Spain
| | - Nerea Vazquez
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neural Repair, Inbiomed, Paseo Mikeletegi, 81, 20009, San Sebastian, Spain
| | - Amaia Zubiarrain
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neural Repair, Inbiomed, Paseo Mikeletegi, 81, 20009, San Sebastian, Spain
| | - Daniel Jimenez-Blasco
- Institute of Functional Biology and Genomics (IBFG), University of Salamanca-CSIC, Salamanca, Spain.,Institute of Biomedical Research of Salamanca (IBSAL), University Hospital of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Juan P Bolaños
- Institute of Functional Biology and Genomics (IBFG), University of Salamanca-CSIC, Salamanca, Spain.,Institute of Biomedical Research of Salamanca (IBSAL), University Hospital of Salamanca, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Blas Morales
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital San Cecilio, Granada, Spain
| | - Georg Auburger
- Experimental Neurology, Goethe University Medical School, Frankfurt am Main, Germany
| | - José Matias Arbelo
- Parkinson's and Movement Disorders Unit, Department of Neurology, Hospital Universitario Insular de Gran Canaria, Las Palmas de Gran Canaria, Spain
| | - Rosario Sánchez-Pernaute
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neural Repair, Inbiomed, Paseo Mikeletegi, 81, 20009, San Sebastian, Spain. .,Andalusian Initiative for Advanced Therapies, Junta de Andalucia, Sevilla, Spain.
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18
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López de Maturana R, Lang V, Zubiarrain A, Sousa A, Vázquez N, Gorostidi A, Águila J, López de Munain A, Rodríguez M, Sánchez-Pernaute R. Mutations in LRRK2 impair NF-κB pathway in iPSC-derived neurons. J Neuroinflammation 2016; 13:295. [PMID: 27863501 PMCID: PMC5116223 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-016-0761-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2016] [Accepted: 11/09/2016] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Mutations in leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) contribute to both familial and idiopathic forms of Parkinson’s disease (PD). Neuroinflammation is a key event in neurodegeneration and aging, and there is mounting evidence of LRRK2 involvement in inflammatory pathways. In a previous study, we described an alteration of the inflammatory response in dermal fibroblasts from PD patients expressing the G2019S and R1441G mutations in LRRK2. Methods Taking advantage of cellular reprogramming, we generated induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) lines and neurons thereafter, harboring LRRK2G2019S and LRRK2R1441G mutations. We used gene silencing and functional reporter assays to characterize the effect of the mutations. We examined the temporal profile of TNFα-induced changes in proteins of the NF-κB pathway and optimized western blot analysis to capture α-synuclein dynamics. The effects of the mutations and interventions were analyzed by two-way ANOVA tests with respect to corresponding controls. Results LRRK2 silencing decreased α-synuclein protein levels in mutated neurons and modified NF-κB transcriptional targets, such as PTGS2 (COX-2) and TNFAIP3 (A20). We next tested whether NF-κB and α-synuclein pathways converged and found that TNFα modulated α-synuclein levels, although we could not detect an effect of LRRK2 mutations, partly because of the individual variability. Nevertheless, we confirmed NF-κB dysregulation in mutated neurons, as shown by a protracted recovery of IκBα and a clear impairment in p65 nuclear translocation in the LRRK2 mutants. Conclusions Altogether, our results show that LRRK2 mutations affect α-synuclein regulation and impair NF-κB canonical signaling in iPSC-derived neurons. TNFα modulated α-synuclein proteostasis but was not modified by the LRRK2 mutations in this paradigm. These results strengthen the link between LRRK2 and the innate immunity system underscoring the involvement of inflammatory pathways in the neurodegenerative process in PD. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12974-016-0761-x) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rakel López de Maturana
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neural Repair, Inbiomed, Paseo Mikeletegi, 81, E-20009, San Sebastian, Spain
| | - Valérie Lang
- Laboratory of Ubiquitylation and Cancer Molecular Biology, Inbiomed, San Sebastian, Spain
| | - Amaia Zubiarrain
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neural Repair, Inbiomed, Paseo Mikeletegi, 81, E-20009, San Sebastian, Spain
| | - Amaya Sousa
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neural Repair, Inbiomed, Paseo Mikeletegi, 81, E-20009, San Sebastian, Spain
| | - Nerea Vázquez
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neural Repair, Inbiomed, Paseo Mikeletegi, 81, E-20009, San Sebastian, Spain
| | - Ana Gorostidi
- Genomics Platform and Neuroscience Area, Biodonostia Research Institute, San Sebastian, Spain
| | - Julio Águila
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neural Repair, Inbiomed, Paseo Mikeletegi, 81, E-20009, San Sebastian, Spain
| | - Adolfo López de Munain
- Neurology Department, Donostia Universitary Hospital, Neuroscience Area, Instituto Biodonostia, San Sebastián, Spain.,Center for Biomedical Research Network in Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Institute Carlos III, Ministry of Economy and Competitiveness, Madrid, Spain.,Department of Neurosciences, University of the Basque Country, UPV/EHU, San Sebastian, Spain
| | - Manuel Rodríguez
- Laboratory of Ubiquitylation and Cancer Molecular Biology, Inbiomed, San Sebastian, Spain
| | - Rosario Sánchez-Pernaute
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neural Repair, Inbiomed, Paseo Mikeletegi, 81, E-20009, San Sebastian, Spain.
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Yamamoto Y, Arai J, Hisa T, Saito Y, Mukai T, Ohshima T, Maeda M, Yamamoto F. Isomeric iodinated analogs of nimesulide: Synthesis, physicochemical characterization, cyclooxygenase-2 inhibitory activity, and transport across Caco-2 cells. Bioorg Med Chem 2016; 24:3727-33. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2016.06.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/09/2016] [Revised: 06/06/2016] [Accepted: 06/06/2016] [Indexed: 01/16/2023]
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20
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Palomo-Garo C, Gómez-Gálvez Y, García C, Fernández-Ruiz J. Targeting the cannabinoid CB2 receptor to attenuate the progression of motor deficits in LRRK2-transgenic mice. Pharmacol Res 2016; 110:181-192. [PMID: 27063942 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2016.04.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2016] [Revised: 03/13/2016] [Accepted: 04/03/2016] [Indexed: 01/21/2023]
Abstract
Most of cases of Parkinson's disease (PD) have a sporadic origin, with their causes mostly unknown, although overexposure to some environmental factors has been found to occur in some cases. Other forms of parkinsonism are the consequence of dominant or recessive mutations in specific genes, e.g. α-synuclein, parkin and, more recently, leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2), whose G2019S mutation represents the most prevalent form of late-onset, autosomal dominant familial PD. A transgenic mouse model expressing the G2019S mutation of LRRK2 is already available and apparently may represent a valuable experimental model for investigating PD pathogenesis and novel treatments. We designed a long-term study with these animals aimed at: (i) elucidating the changes experienced by the endocannabinoid signaling system in the basal ganglia during the progression of the disease in these mice, paying emphasis in the CB2 receptor, which has emerged as a promising target in PD, and (ii) evaluating the potential of compounds selectively activating this CB2 receptor, as disease-modifying agents in these mice. Our results unequivocally demonstrate that LRRK2 transgenic mice develop motor impairment consisting of small anomalies in rotarod performance (presumably reflecting a deficit in motor coordination and dystonia) and a strong deficiency in the hanging-wire test (reflecting muscle weakness), rather than hypokinesia which was difficult to be demonstrated in the actimeter. These behavioral responses occurred in absence of any evidence of reactive gliosis and neuronal losses, as well as synaptic deterioration in the basal ganglia, except an apparent impairment in autophagy reflected by elevated LAMP-1 immunolabelling in the striatum and substantia nigra. Furthermore, there were no changes in the status of the CB2 receptor, as well as in other elements of the endocannabinoid signaling, in the basal ganglia, but, paradoxically, the selective activation of this receptor partially reversed the deficits in the hanging-wire test of LRRK2 transgenic mice. This was accompanied by normalization in LAMP-1 immunolabelling in the basal ganglia, although it is possible that other CNS structures, remaining to be identified, are involved in the behavioral improvement. In summary, our data support the interest of the CB2 receptor as a potential pharmacological target in LRRK2 transgenic mice, although the neuronal substrates underlying these benefits might be not completely related to the basal ganglia and to the presumed parkinsonian features of these mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cristina Palomo-Garo
- Instituto Universitario de Investigación en Neuroquímica, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas, Madrid, Spain; Instituto Ramón y Cajal de Investigación Sanitaria, Madrid, Spain
| | - Yolanda Gómez-Gálvez
- Instituto Universitario de Investigación en Neuroquímica, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas, Madrid, Spain; Instituto Ramón y Cajal de Investigación Sanitaria, Madrid, Spain
| | - Concepción García
- Instituto Universitario de Investigación en Neuroquímica, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas, Madrid, Spain; Instituto Ramón y Cajal de Investigación Sanitaria, Madrid, Spain.
| | - Javier Fernández-Ruiz
- Instituto Universitario de Investigación en Neuroquímica, Departamento de Bioquímica y Biología Molecular, Facultad de Medicina, Universidad Complutense, Madrid, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red sobre Enfermedades Neurodegenerativas, Madrid, Spain; Instituto Ramón y Cajal de Investigación Sanitaria, Madrid, Spain.
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21
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Dzamko N, Rowe DB, Halliday GM. Increased peripheral inflammation in asymptomatic leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 mutation carriers. Mov Disord 2016; 31:889-97. [PMID: 26917005 DOI: 10.1002/mds.26529] [Citation(s) in RCA: 63] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2015] [Revised: 11/13/2015] [Accepted: 12/13/2015] [Indexed: 12/21/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND We aimed to determine if peripheral or central inflammatory cytokines are altered in healthy subjects carrying a leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) G2019S mutation, and thus genetically at risk of Parkinson's disease (PD). We also aimed to identify differences in inflammatory cytokines between LRRK2 G2019S-associated and idiopathic PD once the disease manifests. METHODS Participants were genetically screened and phenotyped, and biological samples were collected and stored by the Michael J. Fox Foundation LRRK2 Cohort Consortium. Serum samples and matching clinical data were obtained from 71 asymptomatic LRRK2 G2019S mutation carriers (CSF n = 25), 75 neurologically normal controls (CSF n = 22), 75 idiopathic PD patients (CSF n = 29), and 76 PD patients with a LRRK2 G2019S mutation (CSF n = 20). Inflammatory cytokines were measured using multiplex enzyme-linked immunosorbent assays. RESULTS Serum levels of interleukin 1 beta could discriminate asymptomatic LRRK2 G2019S mutation carriers from controls, with a high inflammatory subgroup of carriers identified. This subgroup was significantly higher in a number of PD-implicated pro-inflammatory cytokines. Once PD had manifest, LRRK2 G2019S patients were discriminated from idiopathic PD by higher serum platelet-derived growth factor, and higher CSF vascular endothelial growth factor and interleukin 8. CONCLUSIONS The results suggest that peripheral inflammation is higher in a percentage of subjects carrying the LRRK2 G2019S mutation. Replication and longitudinal follow-up is required to determine whether the increased peripheral cytokines can predict clinical PD. Importantly, these biological changes were observed prior to the clinical manifestations thought to herald PD. © 2016 International Parkinson and Movement Disorder Society.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolas Dzamko
- School of Medical Sciences, University of NSW, Kensington, Australia.,Neuroscience Research Australia, Randwick, Australia
| | - Dominic B Rowe
- Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Macquarie University, Australia
| | - Glenda M Halliday
- School of Medical Sciences, University of NSW, Kensington, Australia.,Neuroscience Research Australia, Randwick, Australia
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22
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Lawand NB, Saadé NE, El-Agnaf OM, Safieh-Garabedian B. Targeting α-synuclein as a therapeutic strategy for Parkinson's disease. Expert Opin Ther Targets 2015; 19:1351-60. [PMID: 26135549 DOI: 10.1517/14728222.2015.1062877] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION α-Synuclein, a neuronal protein, plays a central role in the pathophysiology of Parkinson's disease (PD), the second most prevalent neurodegenerative disorder. Cases of PD have increased tremendously over the past decade necessitating the identification of new therapeutic targets to reduce patient morbidity and to improve PD patients' quality of life. AREAS COVERED The purpose of this article is to provide an update on the role of α-synuclein in fibrils formation and review its role as an effective immunotherapeutic target for PD. The rapidly expanding evidence for the contribution of α-synuclein to the pathogenesis of PD led to the development of antibodies against the C terminus of α-synuclein and other molecules involved in the inflammatory signaling pathways that were found to contribute significantly to initiation and progression of the disease. EXPERT OPINION The readers will obtain new insights on the mechanisms by which α-synuclein can trigger the development of PD and other related degenerative disorders along with the potential role of active and passive antibodies targeted against specific form of α-synuclein aggregates to clear neurotoxicity, stop the propagation of the prion-like behavior of these oligomers and reverse neuronal degeneration associated with PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nada B Lawand
- a 1 American University of Beirut, Department of Anatomy, Cell Biology and Physiology Sciences , Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Nayef E Saadé
- a 1 American University of Beirut, Department of Anatomy, Cell Biology and Physiology Sciences , Beirut, Lebanon
| | - Omar M El-Agnaf
- b 2 Hamad Ben Khalifa University, College of Science and Engineering, Education City, Qatar Foundation , Doha, Qatar
| | - Bared Safieh-Garabedian
- c 3 Qatar University, College of Medicine, Department of Biological and Environmental Sciences , Doha, Qatar
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23
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Dzamko N, Geczy CL, Halliday GM. Inflammation is genetically implicated in Parkinson's disease. Neuroscience 2014; 302:89-102. [PMID: 25450953 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2014.10.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 157] [Impact Index Per Article: 15.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2014] [Revised: 10/11/2014] [Accepted: 10/14/2014] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Inflammation has long been associated with the pathogenesis of Parkinson's disease (PD) but the extent to which it is a cause or consequence is sill debated. Over the past decade a number of genes have been implicated in PD. Relatively rare missense mutations in genes such as LRRK2, Parkin, SNCA and PINK1 are causative for familial PD whereas more common variation in genes, including LRRK2, SNCA and GBA, comprise risk factors for sporadic PD. Determining how the function of these genes and the proteins they encode are altered in PD has become a priority, as results will likely provide much needed insights into contributing causes. Accumulating evidence indicates that many of these genes function in pathways that regulate aspects of immunity, particularly inflammation, suggesting close associations between PD and immune homeostasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Dzamko
- School of Medical Sciences, University of NSW, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia; Neuroscience Research Australia, Randwick, NSW 2031, Australia.
| | - C L Geczy
- School of Medical Sciences, University of NSW, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia
| | - G M Halliday
- School of Medical Sciences, University of NSW, Sydney, NSW 2052, Australia; Neuroscience Research Australia, Randwick, NSW 2031, Australia.
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24
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RNA-Binding Proteins Associated Molecular Mechanisms of Motor Neuron Degeneration Pathogenesis. Mol Biotechnol 2014; 56:779-86. [DOI: 10.1007/s12033-014-9785-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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25
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Aguila JC, Blak A, van Arensbergen J, Sousa A, Vázquez N, Aduriz A, Gayosso M, Lopez Mato MP, Lopez de Maturana R, Hedlund E, Sonntag KC, Sanchez-Pernaute R. Selection Based on FOXA2 Expression Is Not Sufficient to Enrich for Dopamine Neurons From Human Pluripotent Stem Cells. Stem Cells Transl Med 2014; 3:1032-42. [PMID: 25024431 DOI: 10.5966/sctm.2014-0011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Human embryonic and induced pluripotent stem cells are potential cell sources for regenerative approaches in Parkinson disease. Inductive differentiation protocols can generate midbrain dopamine neurons but result in heterogeneous cell mixtures. Therefore, selection strategies are necessary to obtain uniform dopamine cell populations. Here, we developed a selection approach using lentivirus vectors to express green fluorescent protein under the promoter region of FOXA2, a transcription factor that is expressed in the floor plate domain that gives rise to dopamine neurons during embryogenesis. We first validated the specificity of the vectors in human cell lines against a promoterless construct. We then selected FOXA2-positive neural progenitors from several human pluripotent stem cell lines, which demonstrated a gene expression profile typical for the ventral domain of the midbrain and floor plate, but failed to enrich for dopamine neurons. To investigate whether this was due to the selection approach, we overexpressed FOXA2 in neural progenitors derived from human pluripotent stem cell lines. FOXA2 forced expression resulted in an increased expression of floor plate but not mature neuronal markers. Furthermore, selection of the FOXA2 overexpressing fraction also failed to enrich for dopamine neurons. Collectively, our results suggest that FOXA2 is not sufficient to induce a dopaminergic fate in this system. On the other hand, our study demonstrates that a combined approach of promoter activation and lentivirus vector technology can be used as a versatile tool for the selection of a defined cell population from a variety of human pluripotent stem cell lines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julio Cesar Aguila
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neural Repair and Cytometry and Advanced Optical Microscopy Facility, Inbiomed, San Sebastian, Spain; STEMCELL Technologies, Inc., Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada; Division of Gene Regulation, Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden; Department of Psychiatry, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Belmont, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Alexandra Blak
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neural Repair and Cytometry and Advanced Optical Microscopy Facility, Inbiomed, San Sebastian, Spain; STEMCELL Technologies, Inc., Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada; Division of Gene Regulation, Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden; Department of Psychiatry, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Belmont, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Joris van Arensbergen
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neural Repair and Cytometry and Advanced Optical Microscopy Facility, Inbiomed, San Sebastian, Spain; STEMCELL Technologies, Inc., Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada; Division of Gene Regulation, Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden; Department of Psychiatry, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Belmont, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Amaia Sousa
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neural Repair and Cytometry and Advanced Optical Microscopy Facility, Inbiomed, San Sebastian, Spain; STEMCELL Technologies, Inc., Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada; Division of Gene Regulation, Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden; Department of Psychiatry, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Belmont, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Nerea Vázquez
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neural Repair and Cytometry and Advanced Optical Microscopy Facility, Inbiomed, San Sebastian, Spain; STEMCELL Technologies, Inc., Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada; Division of Gene Regulation, Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden; Department of Psychiatry, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Belmont, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Ariane Aduriz
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neural Repair and Cytometry and Advanced Optical Microscopy Facility, Inbiomed, San Sebastian, Spain; STEMCELL Technologies, Inc., Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada; Division of Gene Regulation, Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden; Department of Psychiatry, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Belmont, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Mayela Gayosso
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neural Repair and Cytometry and Advanced Optical Microscopy Facility, Inbiomed, San Sebastian, Spain; STEMCELL Technologies, Inc., Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada; Division of Gene Regulation, Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden; Department of Psychiatry, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Belmont, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Maria Paz Lopez Mato
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neural Repair and Cytometry and Advanced Optical Microscopy Facility, Inbiomed, San Sebastian, Spain; STEMCELL Technologies, Inc., Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada; Division of Gene Regulation, Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden; Department of Psychiatry, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Belmont, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Rakel Lopez de Maturana
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neural Repair and Cytometry and Advanced Optical Microscopy Facility, Inbiomed, San Sebastian, Spain; STEMCELL Technologies, Inc., Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada; Division of Gene Regulation, Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden; Department of Psychiatry, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Belmont, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Eva Hedlund
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neural Repair and Cytometry and Advanced Optical Microscopy Facility, Inbiomed, San Sebastian, Spain; STEMCELL Technologies, Inc., Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada; Division of Gene Regulation, Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden; Department of Psychiatry, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Belmont, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Kai-Christian Sonntag
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neural Repair and Cytometry and Advanced Optical Microscopy Facility, Inbiomed, San Sebastian, Spain; STEMCELL Technologies, Inc., Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada; Division of Gene Regulation, Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden; Department of Psychiatry, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Belmont, Massachusetts, USA
| | - Rosario Sanchez-Pernaute
- Laboratory of Stem Cells and Neural Repair and Cytometry and Advanced Optical Microscopy Facility, Inbiomed, San Sebastian, Spain; STEMCELL Technologies, Inc., Vancouver, British Columbia, Canada; Division of Gene Regulation, Netherlands Cancer Institute, Amsterdam, The Netherlands; Department of Neuroscience, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden; Department of Psychiatry, McLean Hospital, Harvard Medical School, Belmont, Massachusetts, USA
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Esteves AR, Swerdlow RH, Cardoso SM. LRRK2, a puzzling protein: insights into Parkinson's disease pathogenesis. Exp Neurol 2014; 261:206-16. [PMID: 24907399 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2014.05.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 74] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/28/2014] [Accepted: 05/26/2014] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2) is a large, ubiquitous protein of unknown function. Mutations in the gene encoding LRRK2 have been linked to familial and sporadic Parkinson's disease (PD) cases. The LRRK2 protein is a single polypeptide that displays GTPase and kinase activity. Kinase and GTPase domains are involved in different cellular signaling pathways. Despite several experimental studies associating LRRK2 protein with various intracellular membranes and vesicular structures such as endosomal/lysosomal compartments, the mitochondrial outer membrane, lipid rafts, microtubule-associated vesicles, the golgi complex, and the endoplasmic reticulum its broader physiologic function(s) remain unidentified. Additionally, the cellular distribution of LRRK2 may indicate its role in several different pathways, such as the ubiquitin-proteasome system, the autophagic-lysosomal pathway, intracellular trafficking, and mitochondrial dysfunction. This review discusses potential mechanisms through which LRRK2 may mediate neurodegeneration and cause PD.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Raquel Esteves
- CNC - Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Portugal
| | - Russell H Swerdlow
- University of Kansas Alzheimer's Disease Center, University of Kansas Medical Center, Kansas City, KS, USA
| | - Sandra M Cardoso
- CNC - Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Portugal; Faculty of Medicine, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal.
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Immune responses in Parkinson's disease: interplay between central and peripheral immune systems. BIOMED RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2014; 2014:275178. [PMID: 24822191 PMCID: PMC4005076 DOI: 10.1155/2014/275178] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2014] [Accepted: 03/16/2014] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
The etiology of Parkinson's disease (PD) is complex and most likely involves numerous environmental and heritable risk factors. Recent studies establish that central and peripheral inflammation occurs in the prodromal stage of the disease and sustains disease progression. Aging, heritable risk factors, or environmental exposures may contribute to the initiation of central or peripheral inflammation. One emerging hypothesis is that inflammation plays a critical role in PD neuropathology. Increasing evidence suggest that activation of the peripheral immune system exacerbates the discordant central inflammatory response and synergistically drives neurodegeneration. We provide an overview of current knowledge on the temporal profile of central and peripheral immune responses in PD and discuss the potential synergistic effects of the central and peripheral inflammation in disease development. The understanding of the nature of the chronic inflammation in disease progression and the possible risk factors that contribute to altered central and peripheral immune responses will offer mechanistic insights into PD etiology and pathology and benefit the development of effective tailored therapeutics for human PD.
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28
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LRRK2 and neuroinflammation: partners in crime in Parkinson's disease? J Neuroinflammation 2014; 11:52. [PMID: 24655756 PMCID: PMC3994422 DOI: 10.1186/1742-2094-11-52] [Citation(s) in RCA: 121] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2013] [Accepted: 02/25/2014] [Indexed: 02/07/2023] Open
Abstract
It is now well established that chronic inflammation is a prominent feature of several neurodegenerative disorders including Parkinson’s disease (PD). Growing evidence indicates that neuroinflammation can contribute greatly to dopaminergic neuron degeneration and progression of the disease. Recent literature highlights that leucine-rich repeat kinase 2 (LRRK2), a kinase mutated in both autosomal-dominantly inherited and sporadic PD cases, modulates inflammation in response to different pathological stimuli. In this review, we outline the state of the art of LRRK2 functions in microglia cells and in neuroinflammation. Furthermore, we discuss the potential role of LRRK2 in cytoskeleton remodeling and vesicle trafficking in microglia cells under physiological and pathological conditions. We also hypothesize that LRRK2 mutations might sensitize microglia cells toward a pro-inflammatory state, which in turn results in exacerbated inflammation with consequent neurodegeneration.
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