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Garcia KE, Wang X, Santiago SE, Bakshi S, Barnes AP, Kroenke CD. Longitudinal MRI of the developing ferret brain reveals regional variations in timing and rate of growth. Cereb Cortex 2024; 34:bhae172. [PMID: 38679479 PMCID: PMC11056283 DOI: 10.1093/cercor/bhae172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/11/2023] [Revised: 03/22/2024] [Accepted: 04/04/2024] [Indexed: 05/01/2024] Open
Abstract
Normative ferret brain development was characterized using magnetic resonance imaging. Brain growth was longitudinally monitored in 10 ferrets (equal numbers of males and females) from postnatal day 8 (P8) through P38 in 6-d increments. Template T2-weighted images were constructed at each age, and these were manually segmented into 12 to 14 brain regions. A logistic growth model was used to fit data from whole brain volumes and 8 of the individual regions in both males and females. More protracted growth was found in males, which results in larger brains; however, sex differences were not apparent when results were corrected for body weight. Additionally, surface models of the developing cortical plate were registered to one another using the anatomically-constrained Multimodal Surface Matching algorithm. This, in turn, enabled local logistic growth parameters to be mapped across the cortical surface. A close similarity was observed between surface area expansion timing and previous reports of the transverse neurogenic gradient in ferrets. Regional variation in the extent of surface area expansion and the maximum expansion rate was also revealed. This characterization of normative brain growth over the period of cerebral cortex folding may serve as a reference for ferret studies of brain development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kara E Garcia
- Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Indiana University School of Medicine, Evansville, IN 47715, United States
- Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, Washington University in St. Louis, St. Louis, MO 63130, United States
| | - Xiaojie Wang
- Division of Neuroscience, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006, United States
| | - Sarah E Santiago
- Knight Cardiovascular Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239, United States
| | - Stuti Bakshi
- Division of Neuroscience, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006, United States
| | - Anthony P Barnes
- Knight Cardiovascular Institute, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239, United States
| | - Christopher D Kroenke
- Division of Neuroscience, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006, United States
- Oregon Health and Science Advanced Imaging Research Center, Portland, OR 97239, United States
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2
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Pan MT, Zhang H, Li XJ, Guo XY. Genetically modified non-human primate models for research on neurodegenerative diseases. Zool Res 2024; 45:263-274. [PMID: 38287907 PMCID: PMC11017080 DOI: 10.24272/j.issn.2095-8137.2023.197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/25/2023] [Accepted: 01/25/2024] [Indexed: 01/31/2024] Open
Abstract
Neurodegenerative diseases (NDs) are a group of debilitating neurological disorders that primarily affect elderly populations and include Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), Huntington's disease (HD), and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Currently, there are no therapies available that can delay, stop, or reverse the pathological progression of NDs in clinical settings. As the population ages, NDs are imposing a huge burden on public health systems and affected families. Animal models are important tools for preclinical investigations to understand disease pathogenesis and test potential treatments. While numerous rodent models of NDs have been developed to enhance our understanding of disease mechanisms, the limited success of translating findings from animal models to clinical practice suggests that there is still a need to bridge this translation gap. Old World non-human primates (NHPs), such as rhesus, cynomolgus, and vervet monkeys, are phylogenetically, physiologically, biochemically, and behaviorally most relevant to humans. This is particularly evident in the similarity of the structure and function of their central nervous systems, rendering such species uniquely valuable for neuroscience research. Recently, the development of several genetically modified NHP models of NDs has successfully recapitulated key pathologies and revealed novel mechanisms. This review focuses on the efficacy of NHPs in modeling NDs and the novel pathological insights gained, as well as the challenges associated with the generation of such models and the complexities involved in their subsequent analysis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ming-Tian Pan
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Non-human Primate Research, Guangdong-Hongkong-Macau Institute of CNS Regeneration, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510632, China
| | - Han Zhang
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Non-human Primate Research, Guangdong-Hongkong-Macau Institute of CNS Regeneration, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510632, China
| | - Xiao-Jiang Li
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Non-human Primate Research, Guangdong-Hongkong-Macau Institute of CNS Regeneration, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510632, China
| | - Xiang-Yu Guo
- Guangdong Key Laboratory of Non-human Primate Research, Guangdong-Hongkong-Macau Institute of CNS Regeneration, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong 510632, China. E-mail:
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3
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Ryan KS, Karpf JA, Chan CN, Hagen OL, McFarland TJ, Urian JW, Wang X, Boniface ER, Hakar MH, Terrobias JJD, Graham JA, Passmore S, Grant KA, Sullivan EL, Grafe MR, Saugstad JA, Kroenke CD, Lo JO. Prenatal delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol exposure alters fetal neurodevelopment in rhesus macaques. Sci Rep 2024; 14:5808. [PMID: 38461359 PMCID: PMC10924959 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-56386-7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2023] [Accepted: 03/05/2024] [Indexed: 03/11/2024] Open
Abstract
Prenatal cannabis use is associated with adverse offspring neurodevelopmental outcomes, however the underlying mechanisms are relatively unknown. We sought to determine the impact of chronic delta-9-tetrahydrocannabinol (THC) exposure on fetal neurodevelopment in a rhesus macaque model using advanced imaging combined with molecular and tissue studies. Animals were divided into two groups, control (n = 5) and THC-exposed (n = 5), which received a daily THC edible pre-conception and throughout pregnancy. Fetal T2-weighted MRI was performed at gestational days 85 (G85), G110, G135 and G155 to assess volumetric brain development. At G155, animals underwent cesarean delivery with collection of fetal cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) for microRNA (miRNA) studies and fetal tissue for histologic analysis. THC exposure was associated with significant age by sex interactions in brain growth, and differences in fetal brain histology suggestive of brain dysregulation. Two extracellular vesicle associated-miRNAs were identified in THC-exposed fetal CSF; pathway analysis suggests that these miRNAs are associated with dysregulated axonal guidance and netrin signaling. This data is indicative of subtle molecular changes consistent with the observed histological data, suggesting a potential role for fetal miRNA regulation by THC. Further studies are needed to determine whether these adverse findings correlate with long-term offspring neurodevelopmental health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kimberly S Ryan
- Division of Maternal-Fetal Medicine, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Oregon Health and Science University, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Road, Mail Code L458, Portland, OR, 97239, USA
| | - Joshua A Karpf
- Division of Neuroscience, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, OR, USA
| | - Chi Ngai Chan
- Tissue Technologies Unit, Center for Virology and Vaccine Research, Beth Israel Deaconess Medical Center, Boston, MA, USA
| | - Olivia L Hagen
- Division of Reproductive and Developmental Sciences, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, OR, USA
| | - Trevor J McFarland
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, USA
| | - J Wes Urian
- Division of Maternal-Fetal Medicine, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Oregon Health and Science University, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Road, Mail Code L458, Portland, OR, 97239, USA
| | - Xiaojie Wang
- Division of Neuroscience, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, OR, USA
| | - Emily R Boniface
- Division of Maternal-Fetal Medicine, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Oregon Health and Science University, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Road, Mail Code L458, Portland, OR, 97239, USA
| | - Melanie H Hakar
- Department of Pathology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, USA
| | - Jose Juanito D Terrobias
- Division of Reproductive and Developmental Sciences, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, OR, USA
| | - Jason A Graham
- Division of Neuroscience, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, OR, USA
- Division of Reproductive and Developmental Sciences, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, OR, USA
| | - Scarlet Passmore
- Integrated Pathology Core, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, OR, USA
| | - Kathleen A Grant
- Division of Neuroscience, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, OR, USA
| | - Elinor L Sullivan
- Division of Neuroscience, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, OR, USA
- Department of Psychiatry, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, USA
| | - Marjorie R Grafe
- Department of Pathology, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, USA
| | - Julie A Saugstad
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative Medicine, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, USA
| | - Christopher D Kroenke
- Division of Neuroscience, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, OR, USA
| | - Jamie O Lo
- Division of Maternal-Fetal Medicine, Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Oregon Health and Science University, 3181 SW Sam Jackson Park Road, Mail Code L458, Portland, OR, 97239, USA.
- Division of Reproductive and Developmental Sciences, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health and Science University, Beaverton, OR, USA.
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4
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Namburete AIL, Papież BW, Fernandes M, Wyburd MK, Hesse LS, Moser FA, Ismail LC, Gunier RB, Squier W, Ohuma EO, Carvalho M, Jaffer Y, Gravett M, Wu Q, Lambert A, Winsey A, Restrepo-Méndez MC, Bertino E, Purwar M, Barros FC, Stein A, Noble JA, Molnár Z, Jenkinson M, Bhutta ZA, Papageorghiou AT, Villar J, Kennedy SH. Normative spatiotemporal fetal brain maturation with satisfactory development at 2 years. Nature 2023; 623:106-114. [PMID: 37880365 PMCID: PMC10620088 DOI: 10.1038/s41586-023-06630-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2022] [Accepted: 09/08/2023] [Indexed: 10/27/2023]
Abstract
Maturation of the human fetal brain should follow precisely scheduled structural growth and folding of the cerebral cortex for optimal postnatal function1. We present a normative digital atlas of fetal brain maturation based on a prospective international cohort of healthy pregnant women2, selected using World Health Organization recommendations for growth standards3. Their fetuses were accurately dated in the first trimester, with satisfactory growth and neurodevelopment from early pregnancy to 2 years of age4,5. The atlas was produced using 1,059 optimal quality, three-dimensional ultrasound brain volumes from 899 of the fetuses and an automated analysis pipeline6-8. The atlas corresponds structurally to published magnetic resonance images9, but with finer anatomical details in deep grey matter. The between-study site variability represented less than 8.0% of the total variance of all brain measures, supporting pooling data from the eight study sites to produce patterns of normative maturation. We have thereby generated an average representation of each cerebral hemisphere between 14 and 31 weeks' gestation with quantification of intracranial volume variability and growth patterns. Emergent asymmetries were detectable from as early as 14 weeks, with peak asymmetries in regions associated with language development and functional lateralization between 20 and 26 weeks' gestation. These patterns were validated in 1,487 three-dimensional brain volumes from 1,295 different fetuses in the same cohort. We provide a unique spatiotemporal benchmark of fetal brain maturation from a large cohort with normative postnatal growth and neurodevelopment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana I L Namburete
- Oxford Machine Learning in Neuroimaging Laboratory, Department of Computer Science, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Neuroimaging, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
- Department of Engineering Science, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK.
| | - Bartłomiej W Papież
- Big Data Institute, Li Ka Shing Centre for Health Information and Discovery, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Michelle Fernandes
- Nuffield Department of Women's and Reproductive Health, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- MRC Lifecourse Epidemiology Centre, Human Development and Health Academic Unit, Faculty of Medicine, University of Southampton, Southampton, UK
- Oxford Maternal and Perinatal Health Institute, Green Templeton College, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Madeleine K Wyburd
- Oxford Machine Learning in Neuroimaging Laboratory, Department of Computer Science, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Linde S Hesse
- Oxford Machine Learning in Neuroimaging Laboratory, Department of Computer Science, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- Department of Engineering Science, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Felipe A Moser
- Oxford Machine Learning in Neuroimaging Laboratory, Department of Computer Science, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Leila Cheikh Ismail
- Department of Clinical Nutrition and Dietetics, College of Health Sciences, University of Sharjah, Sharjah, United Arab Emirates
| | - Robert B Gunier
- Center for Environmental Research and Children's Health, School of Public Health, University of California, Berkeley, CA, USA
| | - Waney Squier
- Department of Neuropathology, John Radcliffe Hospital, Oxford, UK
| | - Eric O Ohuma
- Nuffield Department of Women's and Reproductive Health, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- Maternal, Adolescent, Reproductive and Child Health Centre, London School of Hygiene and Tropical Medicine, London, UK
| | - Maria Carvalho
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynaecology, Faculty of Health Sciences, Aga Khan University Hospital, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Yasmin Jaffer
- Department of Family and Community Health, Ministry of Health, Muscat, Sultanate of Oman
| | - Michael Gravett
- Departments of Obstetrics and Gynecology and of Global Health, University of Washington, Seattle, WA, USA
| | - Qingqing Wu
- School of Public Health, Peking University, Beijing, China
| | - Ann Lambert
- Nuffield Department of Women's and Reproductive Health, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- Oxford Maternal and Perinatal Health Institute, Green Templeton College, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Adele Winsey
- Nuffield Department of Women's and Reproductive Health, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | | | - Enrico Bertino
- Dipartimento di Scienze Pediatriche e dell' Adolescenza, SCDU Neonatologia, Universita di Torino, Turin, Italy
| | - Manorama Purwar
- Nagpur INTERGROWTH-21st Research Centre, Ketkar Hospital, Nagpur, India
| | - Fernando C Barros
- Programa de Pós-Graduação em Saúde e Comportamento, Universidade Católica de Pelotas, Pelotas, Brazil
| | - Alan Stein
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- African Health Research Institute, KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa
- MRC/Wits Rural Public Health and Health Transitions Research Unit (Agincourt), School of Public Health, Faculty of Health Sciences, University of Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - J Alison Noble
- Department of Engineering Science, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Zoltán Molnár
- Department of Physiology, Anatomy and Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Mark Jenkinson
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Neuroimaging, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- Australian Institute for Machine Learning, Department of Computer Science, University of Adelaide, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
- South Australian Health and Medical Research Institute, Adelaide, South Australia, Australia
| | - Zulfiqar A Bhutta
- Center for Global Child Health, Hospital for Sick Children, Toronto, Ontario, Canada
| | - Aris T Papageorghiou
- Nuffield Department of Women's and Reproductive Health, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- Oxford Maternal and Perinatal Health Institute, Green Templeton College, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - José Villar
- Nuffield Department of Women's and Reproductive Health, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- Oxford Maternal and Perinatal Health Institute, Green Templeton College, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Stephen H Kennedy
- Nuffield Department of Women's and Reproductive Health, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
- Oxford Maternal and Perinatal Health Institute, Green Templeton College, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
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Otridge J, Meyer JS, Dettmer AM. Amniotic fluid cortisol predicts neonatal and infant development in non-stressed rhesus monkeys: Implications for prenatal stress. Neurotoxicol Teratol 2023; 100:107308. [PMID: 37890675 PMCID: PMC10872548 DOI: 10.1016/j.ntt.2023.107308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2023] [Revised: 10/20/2023] [Accepted: 10/24/2023] [Indexed: 10/29/2023]
Abstract
Prenatal stress adversely affects offspring development, with fetal cortisol (CORT) exposure being a primary hypothesized mechanism for stress-induced developmental deficits. Fetal CORT exposure can be assessed via measurements in amniotic fluid. However, in humans, amniocentesis is typically only performed for clinical reasons such as karyotyping; thus, amniotic fluid CORT cannot be obtained from a random sample. To test the hypothesis that fetal CORT exposure predicts neonatal and infant development in healthy primates, we measured amniotic fluid CORT in N = 18 healthy rhesus macaque (Macaca mulatta) dams (50:50 female:male infants) between 80 and 124 days gestation (mean ± SEM = 98.3 ± 2.9 days out of 165 days gestational length; i.e., second trimester). Maternal hair cortisol concentrations (HCCs) were assessed throughout pregnancy and lactation. Offspring were assessed for physical growth, neurological development, cognitive development, and HCCs across postnatal days 30-180. Controlling for gestational age at amniocentesis, higher amniotic fluid CORT significantly predicted slower infant growth rate (g/day) in the first 30 days (β = -0.19; R2 = 0.71, p = .008), poorer sensorimotor scores on the day 30 neonatal assessment (β = -0.28; R2 = 0.76, p = .015), and longer time to complete training (β = 0.48; R2 = 0.54, p = .026), but better performance (β = 0.91; R2 = 0.60, p = .011) on a discrimination cognitive task at 120-180 days. Amniotic fluid CORT was not associated with maternal or infant HCCs. Although these results are correlative, they raise the intriguing possibility that fetal CORT exposure in non-stress-exposed primates, as measured by amniotic fluid CORT, programs multiple aspects of neonatal and infant development. On the other hand, amniotic fluid CORT may not relate to chronic CORT levels in either mothers or infants when assessed by hair sampling.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Jerrold S Meyer
- Department of Psychological & Brain Sciences, University of Massachusetts Amherst, Amherst, MA, USA
| | - Amanda M Dettmer
- Yale Child Study Center, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, CT, USA.
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6
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Van Essen DC. Biomechanical models and mechanisms of cellular morphogenesis and cerebral cortical expansion and folding. Semin Cell Dev Biol 2023; 140:90-104. [PMID: 35840524 PMCID: PMC9942585 DOI: 10.1016/j.semcdb.2022.06.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2022] [Revised: 05/31/2022] [Accepted: 06/16/2022] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
Abstract
Morphogenesis of the nervous system involves a highly complex spatio-temporal pattern of physical forces (mainly tension and pressure) acting on cells and tissues that are pliable but have an intricately organized cytoskeletal infrastructure. This review begins by covering basic principles of biomechanics and the core cytoskeletal toolkit used to regulate the shapes of cells and tissues during embryogenesis and neural development. It illustrates how the principle of 'tensegrity' provides a useful conceptual framework for understanding how cells dynamically respond to forces that are generated internally or applied externally. The latter part of the review builds on this foundation in considering the development of mammalian cerebral cortex. The main focus is on cortical expansion and folding - processes that take place over an extended period of prenatal and postnatal development. Cortical expansion and folding are likely to involve many complementary mechanisms, some related to regulating cell proliferation and migration and others related to specific types and patterns of mechanical tension and pressure. Three distinct multi-mechanism models are evaluated in relation to a set of 18 key experimental observations and findings. The Composite Tension Plus (CT+) model is introduced as an updated version of a previous multi-component Differential Expansion Sandwich Plus (DES+) model (Van Essen, 2020); the new CT+ model includes 10 distinct mechanisms and has the greatest explanatory power among published models to date. Much needs to be done in order to validate specific mechanistic components and to assess their relative importance in different species, and important directions for future research are suggested.
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7
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Zhang X. Magnetic resonance imaging of the monkey fetal brain in utero. INVESTIGATIVE MAGNETIC RESONANCE IMAGING 2022; 26:177-190. [PMID: 36937817 PMCID: PMC10019598 DOI: 10.13104/imri.2022.26.4.177] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Non-human primates (NHPs) are the closest living relatives of the human and play a critical role in investigating the effects of maternal viral infection and consumption of medicines, drugs, and alcohol on fetal development. With the advance of contemporary fast MRI techniques with parallel imaging, fetal MRI is becoming a robust tool increasingly used in clinical practice and preclinical studies to examine congenital abnormalities including placental dysfunction, congenital heart disease (CHD), and brain abnormalities non-invasively. Because NHPs are usually scanned under anesthesia, the motion artifact is reduced substantially, allowing multi-parameter MRI techniques to be used intensively to examine the fetal development in a single scanning session or longitudinal studies. In this paper, the MRI techniques for scanning monkey fetal brains in utero in biomedical research are summarized. Also, a fast imaging protocol including T2-weighted imaging, diffusion MRI, resting-state functional MRI (rsfMRI) to examine rhesus monkey fetal brains in utero on a clinical 3T scanner is introduced.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaodong Zhang
- EPC Imaging Center and Division of Neuropharmacology and Neurologic Diseases, Emory National Primate Research Center, Emory University, Atlanta, Georgia, 30329, USA
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8
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Damianidou E, Mouratidou L, Kyrousi C. Research models of neurodevelopmental disorders: The right model in the right place. Front Neurosci 2022; 16:1031075. [PMID: 36340790 PMCID: PMC9630472 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2022.1031075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2022] [Accepted: 10/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Neurodevelopmental disorders (NDDs) are a heterogeneous group of impairments that affect the development of the central nervous system leading to abnormal brain function. NDDs affect a great percentage of the population worldwide, imposing a high societal and economic burden and thus, interest in this field has widely grown in recent years. Nevertheless, the complexity of human brain development and function as well as the limitations regarding human tissue usage make their modeling challenging. Animal models play a central role in the investigation of the implicated molecular and cellular mechanisms, however many of them display key differences regarding human phenotype and in many cases, they partially or completely fail to recapitulate them. Although in vitro two-dimensional (2D) human-specific models have been highly used to address some of these limitations, they lack crucial features such as complexity and heterogeneity. In this review, we will discuss the advantages, limitations and future applications of in vivo and in vitro models that are used today to model NDDs. Additionally, we will describe the recent development of 3-dimensional brain (3D) organoids which offer a promising approach as human-specific in vitro models to decipher these complex disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eleni Damianidou
- University Mental Health, Neurosciences and Precision Medicine Research Institute “Costas Stefanis”, Athens, Greece
| | - Lidia Mouratidou
- University Mental Health, Neurosciences and Precision Medicine Research Institute “Costas Stefanis”, Athens, Greece
- First Department of Psychiatry, Medical School, Eginition Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
| | - Christina Kyrousi
- University Mental Health, Neurosciences and Precision Medicine Research Institute “Costas Stefanis”, Athens, Greece
- First Department of Psychiatry, Medical School, Eginition Hospital, National and Kapodistrian University of Athens, Athens, Greece
- *Correspondence: Christina Kyrousi,
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9
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Charvet CJ, Ofori K, Baucum C, Sun J, Modrell MS, Hekmatyar K, Edlow BL, van der Kouwe AJ. Tracing Modification to Cortical Circuits in Human and Nonhuman Primates from High-Resolution Tractography, Transcription, and Temporal Dimensions. J Neurosci 2022; 42:3749-3767. [PMID: 35332086 PMCID: PMC9087811 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1506-21.2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2021] [Revised: 03/11/2022] [Accepted: 03/15/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
The neural circuits that support human cognition are a topic of enduring interest. Yet, there are limited tools available to map brain circuits in the human and nonhuman primate brain. We harnessed high-resolution diffusion MR tractography, anatomic, and transcriptomic data from individuals of either sex to investigate the evolution and development of frontal cortex circuitry. We applied machine learning to RNA sequencing data to find corresponding ages between humans and macaques and to compare the development of circuits across species. We transcriptionally defined neural circuits by testing for associations between gene expression and white matter maturation. We then considered transcriptional and structural growth to test whether frontal cortex circuit maturation is unusually extended in humans relative to other species. We also considered gene expression and high-resolution diffusion MR tractography of adult brains to test for cross-species variation in frontal cortex circuits. We found that frontal cortex circuitry development is extended in primates, and concomitant with an expansion in corticocortical pathways compared with mice in adulthood. Importantly, we found that these parameters varied relatively little across humans and studied primates. These data identify a surprising collection of conserved features in frontal cortex circuits across humans and Old World monkeys. Our work demonstrates that integrating transcriptional and structural data across temporal dimensions is a robust approach to trace the evolution of brain pathways in primates.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Diffusion MR tractography is an exciting method to explore pathways, but there are uncertainties in the accuracy of reconstructed tracts. We broaden the repertoire of toolkits to enhance our ability to trace human brain pathways from diffusion MR tractography. Our integrative approach finds corresponding ages across species and transcriptionally defines neural circuits. We used this information to test for variation in circuit maturation across species and found a surprising constellation of similar features in frontal cortex neural circuits across humans and primates. Integrating across scales of biological organization expands the repertoire of tools available to study pathways in primates, which opens new avenues to study pathways in health and diseases of the human brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christine J Charvet
- Department of Anatomy, Physiology and Pharmacology, College of Veterinary Medicine, Auburn University, Auburn, Alabama 36849-5518
- Delaware Center for Neuroscience, Delaware State University, Dover, Delaware 19901
| | - Kwadwo Ofori
- PhD Program in Neuroscience, Department in Biology, Delaware State University, Dover, Delaware 19901
| | - Christine Baucum
- Department of Biology, Bath Spa University, Bath BA2 9BN, United Kingdom
| | - Jianli Sun
- Delaware Center for Neuroscience, Delaware State University, Dover, Delaware 19901
| | - Melinda S Modrell
- Delaware Center for Neuroscience, Delaware State University, Dover, Delaware 19901
| | - Khan Hekmatyar
- Center for Biomedical and Brain Imaging Center, University of Delaware, Wilmington, Delaware 19716
| | - Brian L Edlow
- Center for Neurotechnology and Neurorecovery, Department of Neurology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, Massachusetts 02114
- Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, Massachusetts 02129
| | - Andre J van der Kouwe
- Athinoula A. Martinos Center for Biomedical Imaging, Department of Radiology, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, Massachusetts 02129
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10
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Yang Y, Zhang Q, Ren J, Zhu Q, Wang L, Geng Z. In vivo symmetric multi-contrast MRI brain templates and atlas for spontaneously hypertensive rats. Brain Struct Funct 2022; 227:1789-1801. [PMID: 35318503 DOI: 10.1007/s00429-022-02472-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2021] [Accepted: 02/07/2022] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Spontaneously hypertensive rats (SHRs) are a valuable animal model of essential hypertension. The increasing use of SHRs in neuroimaging has generated an urgent demand for a template set that provides a reference for advanced data analysis. Structural T2-weighted magnetic resonance imaging (MRI), diffusion tensor imaging (DTI) and functional MRI scans that were used to build the template set were obtained from 8 SHRs longitudinally scanned in vivo at 10, 24 and 52 weeks of age. These symmetric multi-contrast templates were constructed by iterative registration and averaging. The cortical atlas was derived from the Tohoku atlas, and the subcortical regions were manually delineated based on the templates. A set of SHR brain images named the Hebei Medical University rat brain template set (HRT) comprised 3D symmetric T2WI, raw T2-weighted signal with no added diffusion weighting (B0), fractional anisotropy (FA), mean diffusivity (MD) and blood oxygen level-dependent (BOLD) templates; tissue probability maps (TPMs) of gray matter (GM), white matter (WM) and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF); and a whole-brain atlas with 163 labels. We quantitatively validated the template and characterized the longitudinal changes in brain morphology in different brain tissues as SHRs aged. To our knowledge, the HRT is the first MRI template set for SHRs. We believe that the HRT can serve as a beneficial tool for precise analysis of the SHR brain using structural and functional MRI, which can promote neuroimaging studies on essential hypertension.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yingying Yang
- Graduate School, Hebei Medical University, Hebei, 050000, China.,Department of Imaging, The First Hospital of Qinhuangdao, Hebei, 066000, China
| | - Quan Zhang
- Department of Radiology and Tianjin Key Laboratory of Functional Imaging, Tianjin Medical University General Hospital, Tianjin, 300052, China
| | | | - Qingfeng Zhu
- Department of Medical Imaging, The Second Hospital of Hebei Medical University, No. 215 Heping West Road, Xinhua District, Shijiazhuang City, 050000, Hebei Province, China
| | - Lixin Wang
- Department of Medical Imaging, The Second Hospital of Hebei Medical University, No. 215 Heping West Road, Xinhua District, Shijiazhuang City, 050000, Hebei Province, China
| | - Zuojun Geng
- Department of Medical Imaging, The Second Hospital of Hebei Medical University, No. 215 Heping West Road, Xinhua District, Shijiazhuang City, 050000, Hebei Province, China.
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11
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Garcia KE, Wang X, Kroenke CD. A model of tension-induced fiber growth predicts white matter organization during brain folding. Nat Commun 2021; 12:6681. [PMID: 34795256 PMCID: PMC8602459 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-021-26971-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2020] [Accepted: 10/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
The past decade has experienced renewed interest in the physical processes that fold the developing cerebral cortex. Biomechanical models and experiments suggest that growth of the cortex, outpacing growth of underlying subcortical tissue (prospective white matter), is sufficient to induce folding. However, current models do not explain the well-established links between white matter organization and fold morphology, nor do they consider subcortical remodeling that occurs during the period of folding. Here we propose a framework by which cortical folding may induce subcortical fiber growth and organization. Simulations incorporating stress-induced fiber elongation indicate that subcortical stresses resulting from folding are sufficient to induce stereotyped fiber organization beneath gyri and sulci. Model predictions are supported by high-resolution ex vivo diffusion tensor imaging of the developing rhesus macaque brain. Together, results provide support for the theory of cortical growth-induced folding and indicate that mechanical feedback plays a significant role in brain connectivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kara E Garcia
- Indiana University School of Medicine, Department of Radiology and Imaging Sciences, Evansville, IN, 47715, USA.
- Washington University in St. Louis, Department of Mechanical Engineering and Materials Science, St. Louis, MO, 63130, USA.
| | - Xiaojie Wang
- Oregon Health and Science University, Division of Neuroscience, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Beaverton, OR, 97006, USA
- Advanced Imaging Research Center, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, 97239, USA
| | - Christopher D Kroenke
- Oregon Health and Science University, Division of Neuroscience, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Beaverton, OR, 97006, USA
- Advanced Imaging Research Center, Oregon Health and Science University, Portland, OR, 97239, USA
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12
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Olutoye OA, Style C, Menchaca A. Neurocognitive Effects of Fetal Exposure to Anesthesia. Anesthesiol Clin 2021; 39:851-869. [PMID: 34776113 DOI: 10.1016/j.anclin.2021.08.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Surgery during pregnancy occurs when maternal or fetal needs outweigh the status quo, yet much uncertainty remains regarding the effects of anesthesia and surgery on fetal neurodevelopment. This article will review common maternal and fetal indications for invasive procedures, along with contemporary research on fetal neurodevelopment following anesthesia and surgery, focusing on future areas of investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olutoyin A Olutoye
- Department of Anesthesiology, Perioperative and Pain Medicine, Texas Children's Hospital, Baylor College of Medicine, 6621 Fannin Street, Suite A-3300, Houston, TX 77030, USA.
| | - Candace Style
- Abigail Wexner Research Institute, Center for Regenerative Medicine, Nationwide Children's Hospital, 575 Children's Crossroad, Columbus, OH 43205, USA
| | - Alicia Menchaca
- Abigail Wexner Research Institute, Center for Regenerative Medicine, Nationwide Children's Hospital, 575 Children's Crossroad, Columbus, OH 43205, USA
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13
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Song X, García-Saldivar P, Kindred N, Wang Y, Merchant H, Meguerditchian A, Yang Y, Stein EA, Bradberry CW, Ben Hamed S, Jedema HP, Poirier C. Strengths and challenges of longitudinal non-human primate neuroimaging. Neuroimage 2021; 236:118009. [PMID: 33794361 PMCID: PMC8270888 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroimage.2021.118009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2020] [Revised: 03/16/2021] [Accepted: 03/23/2021] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Longitudinal non-human primate neuroimaging has the potential to greatly enhance our understanding of primate brain structure and function. Here we describe its specific strengths, compared to both cross-sectional non-human primate neuroimaging and longitudinal human neuroimaging, but also its associated challenges. We elaborate on factors guiding the use of different analytical tools, subject-specific versus age-specific templates for analyses, and issues related to statistical power.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaowei Song
- Preclinical Pharmacology Section, Intramural Research Program, NIDA, NIH, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Pamela García-Saldivar
- Instituto de Neurobiología, UNAM, Campus Juriquilla. Boulevard Juriquilla No. 3001 Querétaro, Qro. 76230, México
| | - Nathan Kindred
- Biosciences Institute & Centre for Behaviour and Evolution, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, United Kingdom
| | - Yujiang Wang
- CNNP Lab (www.cnnp-lab.com), Interdisciplinary Complex Systems Group, School of Computing, Newcastle University, United Kingdom
| | - Hugo Merchant
- Instituto de Neurobiología, UNAM, Campus Juriquilla. Boulevard Juriquilla No. 3001 Querétaro, Qro. 76230, México
| | - Adrien Meguerditchian
- Laboratoire de Psychologie Cognitive, UMR7290, Université Aix-Marseille/CNRS, Institut Language, Communication and the Brain 13331 Marseille, France
| | - Yihong Yang
- Neuroimaging Research Branch, Intramural Research Program, NIDA, NIH, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Elliot A Stein
- Neuroimaging Research Branch, Intramural Research Program, NIDA, NIH, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Charles W Bradberry
- Preclinical Pharmacology Section, Intramural Research Program, NIDA, NIH, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Suliann Ben Hamed
- Institut des Sciences Cognitives Marc Jeannerod, UMR 5229, Université de Lyon - CNRS, France
| | - Hank P Jedema
- Preclinical Pharmacology Section, Intramural Research Program, NIDA, NIH, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA.
| | - Colline Poirier
- Biosciences Institute & Centre for Behaviour and Evolution, Faculty of Medical Sciences, Newcastle University, United Kingdom.
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14
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Abstract
Brain structures change shape dramatically during development. Elucidating the mechanisms of morphogenesis provides insights relevant to understanding brain function in health and disease. The tension-based morphogenesis (TBM) hypothesis posits that mechanical tension along axons, dendrites, and glial processes contributes to many aspects of central nervous system morphogenesis. Since TBM was proposed in 1997, extensive evidence supports a role for tension in diverse cellular phenomena, but tension’s role in cortical folding has been controversial. An extensively revised version of the TBM model for cerebral cortex addresses limitations of the original model, incorporates new features, and can be tested by many experimental approaches. For cerebellar cortex, a revised model accounts for many aspects of its development and adult architecture. Mechanical tension along the length of axons, dendrites, and glial processes has been proposed as a major contributor to morphogenesis throughout the nervous system [D. C. Van Essen, Nature 385, 313–318 (1997)]. Tension-based morphogenesis (TBM) is a conceptually simple and general hypothesis based on physical forces that help shape all living things. Moreover, if each axon and dendrite strive to shorten while preserving connectivity, aggregate wiring length would remain low. TBM can explain key aspects of how the cerebral and cerebellar cortices remain thin, expand in surface area, and acquire their distinctive folds. This article reviews progress since 1997 relevant to TBM and other candidate morphogenetic mechanisms. At a cellular level, studies of diverse cell types in vitro and in vivo demonstrate that tension plays a major role in many developmental events. At a tissue level, I propose a differential expansion sandwich plus (DES+) revision to the original TBM model for cerebral cortical expansion and folding. It invokes tangential tension and “sulcal zipping” forces along the outer cortical margin as well as tension in the white matter core, together competing against radially biased tension in the cortical gray matter. Evidence for and against the DES+ model is discussed, and experiments are proposed to address key tenets of the DES+ model. For cerebellar cortex, a cerebellar multilayer sandwich (CMS) model is proposed that can account for many distinctive features, including its unique, accordion-like folding in the adult, and experiments are proposed to address its specific tenets.
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15
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Chang SJ, Santamaria AJ, Sanchez FJ, Villamil LM, Pinheiro Saraiva P, Rodriguez J, Nunez-Gomez Y, Opris I, Solano JP, Guest JD, Noga BR. In vivo Population Averaged Stereotaxic T2w MRI Brain Template for the Adult Yucatan Micropig. Front Neuroanat 2020; 14:599701. [PMID: 33281567 PMCID: PMC7691581 DOI: 10.3389/fnana.2020.599701] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2020] [Accepted: 10/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Population averaged brain templates are an essential tool for imaging-based neuroscience research, providing investigators with information about the expected size and morphology of brain structures and the spatial relationships between them, within a demographic cross-section. This allows for a standardized comparison of neuroimaging data between subjects and provides neuroimaging software with a probabilistic framework upon which further processing and analysis can be based. Many different templates have been created to represent specific study populations and made publicly available for human and animal research. An increasingly studied animal model in the neurosciences that still lacks appropriate brain templates is the adult Yucatan micropig. In particular, T2-weighted templates are absent in this species as a whole. To address this need and provide a tool for neuroscientists wishing to pursue neuroimaging research in the adult micropig, we present the construction of population averaged (n = 16) T2-weighted MRI brain template for the adult Yucatan micropig. Additionally, we present initial analysis of T1-weighted (n = 3), and diffusion-weighted (n = 3) images through multimodal registration of these contrasts to our T2 template. The strategies used here may also be generalized to create similar templates for other study populations or species in need of template construction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephano J. Chang
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
- The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
- Division of Neurosurgery, Department of Surgery, University of British Columbia, Vancouver, BC, Canada
| | - Andrea J. Santamaria
- The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Francisco J. Sanchez
- The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Luz M. Villamil
- The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Pedro Pinheiro Saraiva
- The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Jose Rodriguez
- Interdisciplinary Stem Cell Institute, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Yohjans Nunez-Gomez
- Department of Pediatric Critical Care, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Ioan Opris
- The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Juan P. Solano
- Department of Pediatric Critical Care, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
| | - James D. Guest
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
- The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
| | - Brian R. Noga
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
- The Miami Project to Cure Paralysis, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
- Department of Neurological Surgery, University of Miami Miller School of Medicine, Miami, FL, United States
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16
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Wang X, Cuzon Carlson VC, Studholme C, Newman N, Ford MM, Grant KA, Kroenke CD. In utero MRI identifies consequences of early-gestation alcohol drinking on fetal brain development in rhesus macaques. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2020; 117:10035-10044. [PMID: 32312804 PMCID: PMC7211988 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1919048117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/08/2023] Open
Abstract
One factor that contributes to the high prevalence of fetal alcohol spectrum disorder (FASD) is binge-like consumption of alcohol before pregnancy awareness. It is known that treatments are more effective with early recognition of FASD. Recent advances in retrospective motion correction for the reconstruction of three-dimensional (3D) fetal brain MRI have led to significant improvements in the quality and resolution of anatomical and diffusion MRI of the fetal brain. Here, a rhesus macaque model of FASD, involving oral self-administration of 1.5 g/kg ethanol per day beginning prior to pregnancy and extending through the first 60 d of a 168-d gestational term, was utilized to determine whether fetal MRI could detect alcohol-induced abnormalities in brain development. This approach revealed differences between ethanol-exposed and control fetuses at gestation day 135 (G135), but not G110 or G85. At G135, ethanol-exposed fetuses had reduced brainstem and cerebellum volume and water diffusion anisotropy in several white matter tracts, compared to controls. Ex vivo electrophysiological recordings performed on fetal brain tissue obtained immediately following MRI demonstrated that the structural abnormalities observed at G135 are of functional significance. Specifically, spontaneous excitatory postsynaptic current amplitudes measured from individual neurons in the primary somatosensory cortex and putamen strongly correlated with diffusion anisotropy in the white matter tracts that connect these structures. These findings demonstrate that exposure to ethanol early in gestation perturbs development of brain regions associated with motor control in a manner that is detectable with fetal MRI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xiaojie Wang
- Division of Neuroscience, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006
- Advanced Imaging Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97214
| | - Verginia C Cuzon Carlson
- Division of Neuroscience, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006
- Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239
| | - Colin Studholme
- Biomedical Image Computing Group, Department of Pediatrics, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98105
- Department of Bioengineering, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98105
- Department of Radiology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98105
| | - Natali Newman
- Division of Neuroscience, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006
| | - Matthew M Ford
- Division of Neuroscience, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006
| | - Kathleen A Grant
- Division of Neuroscience, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006
- Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239
| | - Christopher D Kroenke
- Division of Neuroscience, Oregon National Primate Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Beaverton, OR 97006;
- Advanced Imaging Research Center, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97214
- Department of Behavioral Neuroscience, Oregon Health & Science University, Portland, OR 97239
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