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Vickers MH. Early life nutrition and neuroendocrine programming. Neuropharmacology 2021; 205:108921. [PMID: 34902348 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2021.108921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2021] [Revised: 12/06/2021] [Accepted: 12/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Alterations in the nutritional environment in early life can significantly increase the risk for obesity and a range of development of metabolic disorders in offspring in later life, effects that can be passed onto future generations. This process, termed development programming, provides the framework of the developmental origins of health and disease (DOHaD) paradigm. Early life nutritional compromise including undernutrition, overnutrition or specific macro/micronutrient deficiencies, results in a range of adverse health outcomes in offspring that can be further exacerbated by a poor postnatal nutritional environment. Although the mechanisms underlying programming remain poorly defined, a common feature across the phenotypes displayed in preclinical models is that of altered wiring of neuroendocrine circuits that regulate satiety and energy balance. As such, altered maternal nutritional exposures during critical early periods of developmental plasticity can result in aberrant hardwiring of these circuits with lasting adverse consequences for the offspring. There is also increasing evidence around the role of an altered epigenome and the gut-brain axis in mediating some of the central programming effects observed. Further, although such programming was once considered to result in a permanent change in developmental trajectory, there is evidence, at least from preclinical models, that programming can be reversed via targeted nutritional manipulations during early development. Further work is required at a mechanistic level to allow for identification for early markers of later disease risk, delineation of sex-specific effects and pathways to implementation of strategies aimed at breaking the transgenerational transmission of disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- M H Vickers
- Liggins Institute, University of Auckland, 85 Park Road, Grafton, Auckland, 1142, New Zealand.
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2
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Sominsky L, Younesi S, De Luca SN, Loone SM, Quinn KM, Spencer SJ. Ovarian follicles are resistant to monocyte perturbations-implications for ovarian health with immune disruption†. Biol Reprod 2021; 105:100-112. [PMID: 33709094 DOI: 10.1093/biolre/ioab049] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2020] [Revised: 11/12/2020] [Accepted: 03/10/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Monocytes and macrophages are the most abundant immune cell populations in the adult ovary, with well-known roles in ovulation and corpus luteum formation and regression. They are activated and proliferate in response to immune challenge and are suppressed by anti-inflammatory treatments. It is also likely they have a functional role in the healthy ovary in supporting the maturing follicle from the primordial through to the later stages; however, this role has been unexplored until now. Here, we utilized a Cx3cr1-Dtr transgenic Wistar rat model that allows a conditional depletion of circulating monocytes, to investigate their role in ovarian follicle health. Our findings show that circulating monocyte depletion leads to a significant depletion of ovarian monocytes and monocyte-derived macrophages. Depletion of monocytes was associated with a transient reduction in circulating anti-Müllerian hormone (AMH) at 5 days postdepletion. However, the 50-60% ovarian monocyte/macrophage depletion had no effect on ovarian follicle numbers, follicle atresia, or apoptosis, within 5-21 days postdepletion. These data reveal that the healthy adult ovary is remarkably resistant to perturbations of circulating and ovarian monocytes despite acute changes in AMH. These data suggest that short-term anti-inflammatory therapies that transiently impact on circulating monocytes are unlikely to disrupt ovarian follicle health, findings that have significant implications for fertility planning relative to the experience of an immune challenge or immunosuppression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luba Sominsky
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Simin Younesi
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Simone N De Luca
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Sophie M Loone
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Kylie M Quinn
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Sarah J Spencer
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia.,ARC Centre of Excellence for Nanoscale Biophotonics, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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Schumacher R, Rossetti MF, Lazzarino GP, Canesini G, García AP, Stoker C, Andreoli MF, Ramos JG. Temporary effects of neonatal overfeeding on homeostatic control of food intake involve alterations in POMC promoter methylation in male rats. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2021; 522:111123. [PMID: 33338550 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2020.111123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2020] [Revised: 11/18/2020] [Accepted: 12/09/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
A small litter (SL) model was used to determine how neonatal overfeeding affects the homeostatic control of food intake in male rats at weaning and postnatal day (PND) 90. At PND4, litters were reduced to small (4 pups/dam) or normal (10 pups/dam) litters. At weaning, SL rats showed higher body weight and characteristic features of the metabolic syndrome. Gene expression of pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC), cocaine and amphetamine regulated transcript, neuropeptide Y (NPY) and leptin and ghrelin (GHSR) receptors were increased and POMC promoter was hypomethylated in arcuate nucleus, indicating that the early development of obesity may involve the GHSR/NPY system and changes in POMC methylation state. At PND90, body weight, metabolic parameters and gene expression were restored; however, POMC methylation state remained altered. This work provides insight into the effects of neonatal overfeeding, showing the importance of developmental plasticity in restoring early changes in central pathways involved in metabolic programming.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rocio Schumacher
- Instituto de Salud y Ambiente del Litoral (ISAL), Facultad de Bioquímica y Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional del Litoral, Santa-CONICET, 3000, Santa Fe, Argentina.
| | - María Florencia Rossetti
- Instituto de Salud y Ambiente del Litoral (ISAL), Facultad de Bioquímica y Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional del Litoral, Santa-CONICET, 3000, Santa Fe, Argentina; Departamento de Bioquímica Clínica y Cuantitativa, Facultad de Bioquímica y Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional del Litoral, 3000, Santa Fe, Argentina.
| | - Gisela Paola Lazzarino
- Centro de Neurociencia Social y Afectiva, Departamento de Medicina Clínica y Experimental, Universidad de Linköping, 58x xx, Linköping, Suecia.
| | - Guillermina Canesini
- Instituto de Salud y Ambiente del Litoral (ISAL), Facultad de Bioquímica y Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional del Litoral, Santa-CONICET, 3000, Santa Fe, Argentina.
| | - Ana Paula García
- Instituto de Salud y Ambiente del Litoral (ISAL), Facultad de Bioquímica y Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional del Litoral, Santa-CONICET, 3000, Santa Fe, Argentina.
| | - Cora Stoker
- Instituto de Salud y Ambiente del Litoral (ISAL), Facultad de Bioquímica y Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional del Litoral, Santa-CONICET, 3000, Santa Fe, Argentina; Departamento de Bioquímica Clínica y Cuantitativa, Facultad de Bioquímica y Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional del Litoral, 3000, Santa Fe, Argentina.
| | - María Florencia Andreoli
- Instituto de Desarrollo e Investigaciones Pediátricas (IDIP), Hospital de niños de La Plata y Comisión de Investigaciones Científicas de la Provincia de Buenos Aires (CIC-PBA), 1900, La Plata, Argentina.
| | - Jorge Guillermo Ramos
- Instituto de Salud y Ambiente del Litoral (ISAL), Facultad de Bioquímica y Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional del Litoral, Santa-CONICET, 3000, Santa Fe, Argentina; Departamento de Bioquímica Clínica y Cuantitativa, Facultad de Bioquímica y Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional del Litoral, 3000, Santa Fe, Argentina.
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4
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Spann RA, Welch BA, Grayson BE. Ghrelin signalling is dysregulated in male but not female offspring in a rat model of maternal vertical sleeve gastrectomy. J Neuroendocrinol 2021; 33:e12913. [PMID: 33169872 PMCID: PMC7831688 DOI: 10.1111/jne.12913] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2020] [Revised: 10/12/2020] [Accepted: 10/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Bariatric surgery is the most effective and durable means of treating obesity and its comorbidities. Women make up 80% of those receiving weight loss surgery and they experience improvements in fertility. Unfortunately, bariatric surgery in the context of pregnancy is associated with complications, including growth restriction and small-for-gestational age offspring (SGA). SGA offspring have a greater risk for obesity in adulthood, although the mechanism for this SGA-induced obesity is unknown. In a rat model of vertical sleeve gastrectomy (VSG), we previously identified reductions during pregnancy in ghrelin, a stomach-derived hormone that increases appetite and induces growth hormone secretion. Here, we hypothesise that VSG offspring will have altered ghrelin signalling compared to offspring of Sham dams as a result of reduced in utero ghrelin. At postnatal day (PND)21, male and female offspring of dams that have previously received VSG have an increase in mRNA expression for the ghrelin receptor in the hypothalamus compared to Sham offspring, and the expression of GOAT is lower in females compared to males. Liver expression of endogenous ghrelin antagonist, LEAP2, is elevated at PND60 in VSG offspring. Expression of other genes in the growth hormone system (growth hormone-releasing hormone and growth hormone) were not altered. Plasma levels of total ghrelin at PND21 are also not different between VSG and Sham pups. In adult pups, 1-hour chow intake of male but not female VSG offspring given is less than Sham offspring when given 50 µg kg-1 of exogenous ghrelin by i.p. injection. These results indicate that maternal VSG surgery has an impact on ghrelin signalling in offspring and that, as adults, male VSG offspring may be functionally less responsive to ghrelin than controls.
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Affiliation(s)
- Redin A. Spann
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomical Sciences University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS 39216
| | - Bradley A. Welch
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomical Sciences University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS 39216
| | - Bernadette E. Grayson
- Department of Neurobiology and Anatomical Sciences University of Mississippi Medical Center, Jackson, MS 39216
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High Maternal Omega-3 Supplementation Dysregulates Body Weight and Leptin in Newborn Male and Female Rats: Implications for Hypothalamic Developmental Programming. Nutrients 2020; 13:nu13010089. [PMID: 33396616 PMCID: PMC7823471 DOI: 10.3390/nu13010089] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2020] [Revised: 12/22/2020] [Accepted: 12/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Maternal diet is critical for offspring development and long-term health. Here we investigated the effects of a poor maternal diet pre-conception and during pregnancy on metabolic outcomes and the developing hypothalamus in male and female offspring at birth. We hypothesised that offspring born to dams fed a diet high in fat and sugar (HFSD) peri-pregnancy will have disrupted metabolic outcomes. We also determined if these HFSD-related effects could be reversed by a shift to a healthier diet post-conception, in particular to a diet high in omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (ω3 PUFAs), since ω3 PUFAs are considered essential for normal neurodevelopment. Unexpectedly, our data show that there are minimal negative effects of maternal HFSD on newborn pups. On the other hand, consumption of an ω3-replete diet during pregnancy altered several developmental parameters. As such, pups born to high-ω3-fed dams weighed less for their length, had reduced circulating leptin, and also displayed sex-specific disruption in the expression of hypothalamic neuropeptides. Collectively, our study shows that maternal intake of a diet rich in ω3 PUFAs during pregnancy may be detrimental for some metabolic developmental outcomes in the offspring. These data indicate the importance of a balanced dietary intake in pregnancy and highlight the need for further research into the impact of maternal ω3 intake on offspring development and long-term health.
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6
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Soch A, Spencer SJ. Consequences of early life overfeeding for microglia - Perspectives from rodent models. Brain Behav Immun 2020; 88:256-261. [PMID: 32088312 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2020.02.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2020] [Revised: 02/13/2020] [Accepted: 02/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
The early life period is crucially important to how the individual develops, and environmental and lifestyle challenges during this time can lead to lasting programming effects on the brain and immune system. In particular, poor diet in early development can lead to long-term negative metabolic and cognitive outcomes, with those who over-eat in early development being at risk of obesity and poor learning and memory throughout their adult lives. Current research has identified a neuroinflammatory component to this metabolic and cognitive programming that can potentially be manipulated to restore a healthy phenotype. Thus, early life over-feeding in a rat model leads to microglial priming and an exacerbated microglial response to immune challenge when the rats reach adulthood. Microglial responses to a learning task are also impaired. To specifically investigate the role of microglia in these programming effects our group has developed a novel transgenic rat with a diphtheria toxin receptor insertion in the promoter region for the Cx3cr1 gene, expressed on microglia and monocytes; allowing us to conditionally ablate microglia throughout the brain. With this model we reveal that microglia have a direct role in regulating feeding behavior and modifying cognition, but are not likely to be the sole mechanism by which early life overfeeding confers lasting neuroimmune and cognitive effects. Additional work implicates changes to the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis in this. Together these data highlight the importance of dietary choices in early life and the potential for positive interventions targeting the neuroimmune and neuroendocrine stress systems to reverse such programming damage.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alita Soch
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Melbourne, Vic., Australia
| | - Sarah J Spencer
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Melbourne, Vic., Australia; ARC Centre of Excellence for Nanoscale Biophotonics, RMIT University, Melbourne, Vic., Australia.
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7
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8
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Soch A, Sominsky L, De Luca SN, Spencer SJ. Obesity after neonatal overfeeding is independent of hypothalamic microgliosis. J Neuroendocrinol 2019; 31:e12757. [PMID: 31233242 DOI: 10.1111/jne.12757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2019] [Revised: 05/30/2019] [Accepted: 06/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
The early-life environment is important in programming brain development, and metabolic disruptions at this time can have long-lasting effects. Previously, we have shown that rats overfed for the first 3 weeks of their neonatal life maintain obesity into adulthood. Neonatal overfeeding also leads to primed hypothalamic and hippocampal microglia that are hyper-responsive to an immune challenge in adulthood. However, whether this microglial priming contributes to the obese phenotype and whether it is possible to reverse either the obesity or the microglial priming are not clear. In the present study, we hypothesised that an intervention with minocycline during the juvenile period (postnatal day 21-42) would normalise both the microglial priming and obesity. To induce obesity in neonatal Wistar rats, we manipulated the litter sizes in which they were suckled, yielding litters of 12 (control-fed) or four (neonatally overfed). After weaning, we administered minocycline i.p. every second day for a 3-week period and examined body composition and microglial profiles 24 hours following an immune challenge with lipopolysaccharide. As demonstrated previously, neonatal overfeeding resulted in prolonged weight gain. However, minocycline failed to reverse this effect. Minocycline did reverse microglial priming in feeding-related regions of the hypothalamus, with minimal effects on pro-inflammatory cytokines and on microglial number and morphology in the hippocampus. Thus, the programming effect of neonatal overfeeding on microglial priming can be ameliorated by minocycline later in life. However, the persistent obesity seen after neonatal overfeeding is likely not driven by changes in hypothalamic inflammation and microglial activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alita Soch
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Luba Sominsky
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Simone N De Luca
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Sarah J Spencer
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
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9
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Perello M, Cabral A, Cornejo MP, De Francesco PN, Fernandez G, Uriarte M. Brain accessibility delineates the central effects of circulating ghrelin. J Neuroendocrinol 2019; 31:e12677. [PMID: 30582239 DOI: 10.1111/jne.12677] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/17/2018] [Revised: 12/04/2018] [Accepted: 12/04/2018] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
Abstract
Ghrelin is a hormone produced in the gastrointestinal tract that acts via the growth hormone secretagogue receptor. In the central nervous system, ghrelin signalling is able to recruit different neuronal targets that regulate the behavioural, neuroendocrine, metabolic and autonomic effects of the hormone. Notably, several studies using radioactive or fluorescent variants of ghrelin have found that the accessibility of circulating ghrelin into the mouse brain is both strikingly low and restricted to some specific brain areas. A variety of studies addressing central effects of systemically injected ghrelin in mice have also provided indirect evidence that the accessibility of plasma ghrelin into the brain is limited. Here, we review these previous observations and discuss the putative pathways that would allow plasma ghrelin to gain access into the brain together with their physiological implications. Additionally, we discuss some potential features regarding the accessibility of plasma ghrelin into the human brain based on the observations reported by studies that investigate the consequences of ghrelin administration to humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mario Perello
- Laboratorio de Neurofisiología del Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Celular, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas de Argentina, Universidad Nacional de La Plata y Comisión de Investigaciones Científicas-Provincia de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Agustina Cabral
- Laboratorio de Neurofisiología del Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Celular, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas de Argentina, Universidad Nacional de La Plata y Comisión de Investigaciones Científicas-Provincia de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - María P Cornejo
- Laboratorio de Neurofisiología del Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Celular, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas de Argentina, Universidad Nacional de La Plata y Comisión de Investigaciones Científicas-Provincia de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Pablo N De Francesco
- Laboratorio de Neurofisiología del Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Celular, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas de Argentina, Universidad Nacional de La Plata y Comisión de Investigaciones Científicas-Provincia de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Gimena Fernandez
- Laboratorio de Neurofisiología del Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Celular, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas de Argentina, Universidad Nacional de La Plata y Comisión de Investigaciones Científicas-Provincia de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Maia Uriarte
- Laboratorio de Neurofisiología del Instituto Multidisciplinario de Biología Celular, Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas de Argentina, Universidad Nacional de La Plata y Comisión de Investigaciones Científicas-Provincia de Buenos Aires, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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Li B, Lin Q, Guo H, Liu L, Li Y. Ghrelin regulates sepsis‑induced rat acute gastric injury. Mol Med Rep 2019; 19:5424-5432. [PMID: 31059095 PMCID: PMC6522907 DOI: 10.3892/mmr.2019.10208] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2018] [Accepted: 03/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Ghrelin, a peptide expressed in the gastric mucosa, has an essential role in sustaining the normal function of the digestive system. Sepsis is one of the primary causes of mortality in intensive care units and can lead to multiple organ dysfunction, especially in the gastrointestinal system. The aim of the present study was to explore the effect of ghrelin on gastric blood flow in a rat model of sepsis, as well as the effect of ghrelin on the expression of the apoptotic markers, B-cell lymphoma 2 (Bcl-2) and Bcl-2-associated X (Bax), in gastric tissues. The sepsis model was established using cecal ligation and puncture (CLP). The expression levels of apoptosis-related factors in gastric epithelial cell were determined by immunohistochemistry, reverse transcription quantitative-PCR and western blotting. Collectively, the present results suggested that ghrelin administration attenuated sepsis symptoms induced by CLP. Blood flow in the stomach greater curvature was significantly higher in the CLP-induced sepsis group rats (284.3±95.7 perfusion units) compared with the sham operation group (317.8±5.2 perfusion units; P<0.05), whereas there was no difference between the CLP group treated with ghrelin (377.8±99.0 perfusion units) and the sham rats. Ghrelin administration also reduced the secretion of pro-inflammatory cytokines compared with the CLP-induced sepsis group rats. In addition, CLP significantly reduced the expression of Bcl-2 and enhanced the expression of the pro-apoptotic proteins, Bax and cleaved caspase-3; whereas, ghrelin application reversed the effects of CLP on these apoptosis-associated proteins. In conclusion, the present study revealed that ghrelin has the ability to increase blood flow in the gastrointestinal tract in a sepsis model and can also regulate the expressions of apoptosis-associated factors in gastric tissues. These results suggest that ghrelin could be a novel treatment for sepsis-induced gastric injury.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bin Li
- Department of General Surgery, The Second Hospital of Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, Gansu 730000, P.R. China
| | - Qingling Lin
- Department of Intensive Medicine, The First Hospital of Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, Gansu 730000, P.R. China
| | - Hong Guo
- Department of Intensive Medicine, The First Hospital of Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, Gansu 730000, P.R. China
| | - Liping Liu
- Department of Intensive Medicine, The First Hospital of Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, Gansu 730000, P.R. China
| | - Yumin Li
- Department of General Surgery, The Second Hospital of Lanzhou University, Lanzhou, Gansu 730000, P.R. China
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SAĞKAN ÖZTÜRK A, ARPACI A. Obezite ve Ghrelin/Leptin İlişkisi. MUSTAFA KEMAL ÜNIVERSITESI TIP DERGISI 2018. [DOI: 10.17944/mkutfd.328412] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
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12
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Sominsky L, Jasoni CL, Twigg HR, Spencer SJ. Hormonal and nutritional regulation of postnatal hypothalamic development. J Endocrinol 2018; 237:R47-R64. [PMID: 29545398 DOI: 10.1530/joe-17-0722] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2018] [Accepted: 03/15/2018] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The hypothalamus is a key centre for regulation of vital physiological functions, such as appetite, stress responsiveness and reproduction. Development of the different hypothalamic nuclei and its major neuronal populations begins prenatally in both altricial and precocial species, with the fine tuning of neuronal connectivity and attainment of adult function established postnatally and maintained throughout adult life. The perinatal period is highly susceptible to environmental insults that, by disrupting critical developmental processes, can set the tone for the establishment of adult functionality. Here, we review the most recent knowledge regarding the major postnatal milestones in the development of metabolic, stress and reproductive hypothalamic circuitries, in the rodent, with a particular focus on perinatal programming of these circuitries by hormonal and nutritional influences. We also review the evidence for the continuous development of the hypothalamus in the adult brain, through changes in neurogenesis, synaptogenesis and epigenetic modifications. This degree of plasticity has encouraging implications for the ability of the hypothalamus to at least partially reverse the effects of perinatal mal-programming.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luba Sominsky
- School of Health and Biomedical SciencesRMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Christine L Jasoni
- School of Biomedical SciencesCentre for Neuroendocrinology, Department of Anatomy, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Hannah R Twigg
- School of Biomedical SciencesCentre for Neuroendocrinology, Department of Anatomy, University of Otago, Dunedin, New Zealand
| | - Sarah J Spencer
- School of Health and Biomedical SciencesRMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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Lalonde T, Shepherd TG, Dhanvantari S, Luyt LG. Stapled ghrelin peptides as fluorescent imaging probes. Pept Sci (Hoboken) 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/pep2.24055] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Tyler Lalonde
- Department of Chemistry; University of Western Ontario; London Ontario N6A 5B7 Canada
| | - Trevor G. Shepherd
- London Regional Cancer Program; London Ontario N6A 4L6 Canada
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology; University of Western Ontario; London Ontario N6A 5B7 Canada
| | - Savita Dhanvantari
- Imaging Program, Lawson Health Research Institute; London Ontario N6A 4V2 Canada
- Department of Medical Biophysics; University of Western Ontario; London Canada
- Department of Pathology; University of Western Ontario; London Canada
- Department of Laboratory Medicine; University of Western Ontario; London Canada
| | - Leonard G. Luyt
- Department of Chemistry; University of Western Ontario; London Ontario N6A 5B7 Canada
- London Regional Cancer Program; London Ontario N6A 4L6 Canada
- Department of Oncology; University of Western Ontario; London Ontario N6A 5B7 Canada
- Department of Medical Imaging; University of Western Ontario; London Ontario N6A 5B7 Canada
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14
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Sominsky L, Goularte JF, Andrews ZB, Spencer SJ. Acylated Ghrelin Supports the Ovarian Transcriptome and Follicles in the Mouse: Implications for Fertility. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2018; 9:815. [PMID: 30697193 PMCID: PMC6340924 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2018.00815] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/29/2018] [Accepted: 12/27/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Ghrelin, an orexigenic gut-derived peptide, is gaining increasing attention due to its multifaceted role in a number of physiological functions, including reproduction. Ghrelin exists in circulation primarily as des-acylated and acylated ghrelin. Des-acyl ghrelin, until recently considered to be an inactive form of ghrelin, is now known to have independent physiological functionality. However, the relative contribution of acyl and des-acyl ghrelin to reproductive development and function is currently unknown. Here we used ghrelin-O-acyltransferase (GOAT) knockout (KO) mice that have no measurable levels of endogenous acyl ghrelin and chronically high levels of des-acyl ghrelin, to characterize how the developmental and life-long absence of acyl ghrelin affects ovarian development and reproductive capacity. We combined the assessment of markers of reproductive maturity and the capacity to breed with measures of ovarian morphometry, as well as with ovarian RNA sequencing analysis. Our data show that while GOAT KO mice retain the capacity to breed in young adulthood, there is a diminished number of ovarian follicles (per mm3) in the juvenile and adult ovaries, due to a significant reduction in the number of small follicles, particularly the primordial follicles. We also show pronounced specific changes in the ovarian transcriptome in the juvenile GOAT KO ovary, indicative of a potential for premature ovarian development. Collectively, these findings indicate that an absence of acyl ghrelin does not prevent reproductive success but that appropriate levels of acyl and des-acyl ghrelin may be necessary for optimal ovarian maturation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luba Sominsky
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- *Correspondence: Luba Sominsky
| | - Jeferson F. Goularte
- Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Physiology, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Zane B. Andrews
- Monash Biomedicine Discovery Institute and Department of Physiology, Monash University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Sarah J. Spencer
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
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15
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Yam KY, Ruigrok SR, Ziko I, De Luca SN, Lucassen PJ, Spencer SJ, Korosi A. Ghrelin and hypothalamic NPY/AgRP expression in mice are affected by chronic early-life stress exposure in a sex-specific manner. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2017; 86:73-77. [PMID: 28917185 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2017.09.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/30/2017] [Revised: 08/26/2017] [Accepted: 09/03/2017] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
Abstract
Early-life stress (ES) is a risk factor for metabolic disorders (e.g. obesity) with a notoriously higher prevalence in women compared to men. However, mechanisms underlying these effects remain elusive. The development of the hypothalamic feeding and metabolic regulatory circuits occurs mostly in the early sensitive postnatal phase in rodents and is tightly regulated by the metabolic hormones leptin and ghrelin. We have previously demonstrated that chronic ES reduces circulating leptin and alters adipose tissue metabolism early and later in life similarly in both sexes. However, it is unknown whether chronic ES might also affect developmental ghrelin and insulin levels, and if it induces changes in hypothalamic feeding circuits, possibly in a sex-dependent manner. We here show that chronic ES, in the form of exposure to limited nesting and bedding material from postnatal day (P)2 to P9 in mice, affects ghrelin levels differently, depending on the form of ghrelin (acylated vs desacylated), on age (P9 vs P14) and on sex, while insulin levels were similarly increased in both sexes after ES at P9. Even though ghrelin levels were more strongly affected in ES-exposed females, hypothalamic neuropeptide Y (NPY) and agouti-related peptide (AgRP) fiber density at P14 were similarly altered in both sexes by ES. In the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus, both NPY and AgRP fiber density were increased, while in the arcuate nucleus of the hypothalamus, NPY was increased and AgRP unaltered. Additionally, the hypothalamic mRNA expression of ghrelin's receptor (i.e. growth hormone secretagogue receptor) was not affected by ES. Taken together, the specific alterations found in these important regulatory circuits after ES might contribute to an altered energy balance and feeding behavior in adulthood and thereby to an increased vulnerability to develop metabolic disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Y Yam
- Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, Centre for Neuroscience, University of Amsterdam, Science Park 904, 1098 XH, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - S R Ruigrok
- Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, Centre for Neuroscience, University of Amsterdam, Science Park 904, 1098 XH, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - I Ziko
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - S N De Luca
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - P J Lucassen
- Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, Centre for Neuroscience, University of Amsterdam, Science Park 904, 1098 XH, Amsterdam, The Netherlands
| | - S J Spencer
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - A Korosi
- Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, Centre for Neuroscience, University of Amsterdam, Science Park 904, 1098 XH, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
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16
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De Luca SN, Ziko I, Dhuna K, Sominsky L, Tolcos M, Stokes L, Spencer SJ. Neonatal overfeeding by small-litter rearing sensitises hippocampal microglial responses to immune challenge: Reversal with neonatal repeated injections of saline or minocycline. J Neuroendocrinol 2017; 29. [PMID: 28983991 DOI: 10.1111/jne.12540] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2017] [Revised: 08/22/2017] [Accepted: 10/01/2017] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
The early-life period is extremely vulnerable to programming effects from the environment, many of which persist into adulthood. We have previously demonstrated that adult rats overfed as neonates have hypothalamic microglia that are hyper-responsive to an immune challenge, as well as hippocampal microglia that respond less efficiently to learning. We therefore hypothesised that neonatal overfeeding would alter the ability of hippocampal microglia to respond to an immune challenge with lipopolysaccharide (LPS) and that concomitant minocycline, a tetracycline antibiotic that suppresses microglial activity, could restore these responses. We induced neonatal overfeeding by manipulating the litter sizes in which Wistar rat pups were raised, so the pups were suckled in litters of four (neonatally overfed) or 12 (control-fed). We then examined the hippocampal microglial profiles 24 hour after an immune challenge with LPS and found that the neonatally overfed rats had dramatically increased microglial numbers in the hippocampus after immune challenge compared to control-fed rats. Attempts to reverse these effects with minocycline revealed repeated that neonatal injections, whether with minocycline or with saline, markedly suppressed microglial number and density throughout the hippocampus and abolished the difference between the groups in their responses to LPS. These data suggest that neonatal overfeeding not only can have lasting effects on hippocampal immune responses, but also that neonatal exposure to a protocol of repeated injections, irrespective of treatment, has a pronounced long-term impact, highlighting the importance of considering these effects when interpreting experimental data.
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Affiliation(s)
- S N De Luca
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - I Ziko
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - K Dhuna
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - L Sominsky
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - M Tolcos
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - L Stokes
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- School of Pharmacy, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich, UK
| | - S J Spencer
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences, RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
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17
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Sominsky L, Ziko I, Nguyen TX, Quach J, Spencer SJ. Hypothalamic effects of neonatal diet: reversible and only partially leptin dependent. J Endocrinol 2017; 234:41-56. [PMID: 28455431 DOI: 10.1530/joe-16-0631] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/26/2017] [Accepted: 04/28/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Early life diet influences metabolic programming, increasing the risk for long-lasting metabolic ill health. Neonatally overfed rats have an early increase in leptin that is maintained long term and is associated with a corresponding elevation in body weight. However, the immediate and long-term effects of neonatal overfeeding on hypothalamic anorexigenic pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) and orexigenic agouti-related peptide (AgRP)/neuropeptide Y (NPY) circuitry, and if these are directly mediated by leptin, have not yet been examined. Here, we examined the effects of neonatal overfeeding on leptin-mediated development of hypothalamic POMC and AgRP/NPY neurons and whether these effects can be normalised by neonatal leptin antagonism in male Wistar rats. Neonatal overfeeding led to an acute (neonatal) resistance of hypothalamic neurons to exogenous leptin, but this leptin resistance was resolved by adulthood. While there were no effects of neonatal overfeeding on POMC immunoreactivity in neonates or adults, the neonatal overfeeding-induced early increase in arcuate nucleus (ARC) AgRP/NPY fibres was reversed by adulthood so that neonatally overfed adults had reduced NPY immunoreactivity in the ARC compared with controls, with no further differences in AgRP immunoreactivity. Short-term neonatal leptin antagonism did not reverse the excess body weight or hyperleptinaemia in the neonatally overfed, suggesting factors other than leptin may also contribute to the phenotype. Our findings show that changes in the availability of leptin during early life period influence the development of hypothalamic connectivity short term, but this is partly resolved by adulthood indicating an adaptation to the metabolic mal-programming effects of neonatal overfeeding.
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Affiliation(s)
- Luba Sominsky
- School of Health and Biomedical SciencesRMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Ilvana Ziko
- School of Health and Biomedical SciencesRMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Thai-Xinh Nguyen
- School of Health and Biomedical SciencesRMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Julie Quach
- School of Health and Biomedical SciencesRMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
| | - Sarah J Spencer
- School of Health and Biomedical SciencesRMIT University, Melbourne, Victoria, Australia
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18
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Neonatal overfeeding disrupts pituitary ghrelin signalling in female rats long-term; Implications for the stress response. PLoS One 2017; 12:e0173498. [PMID: 28282447 PMCID: PMC5345806 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0173498] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2017] [Accepted: 02/21/2017] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
The hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis responses to psychological stress are exacerbated in adult female but not male rats made obese due to overfeeding in early life. Ghrelin, traditionally known for its role in energy homeostasis, has been recently recognised for its role in coordinating the HPA responses to stress, particularly by acting directly at the anterior pituitary where the growth hormone secretagogue receptor (GHSR), the receptor for acyl ghrelin, is abundantly expressed. We therefore hypothesised that neonatal overfeeding in female rats would compromise pituitary responsiveness to ghrelin, contributing to a hyperactive central stress responsiveness. Unlike in males where hypothalamic ghrelin signalling is compromised by neonatal overfeeding, there was no effect of early life diet on circulating ghrelin or hypothalamic ghrelin signalling in females, indicating hypothalamic feeding and metabolic ghrelin circuitry remains intact. However, neonatal overfeeding did lead to long-term alterations in the pituitary ghrelin system. The neonatally overfed females had increased neonatal and reduced adult expression of GHSR and ghrelin-O-acyl transferase (GOAT) in the pituitary as well as reduced pituitary responsiveness to exogenous acyl ghrelin-induced adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) release in vitro. These data suggest that neonatal overfeeding dysregulates pituitary ghrelin signalling long-term in females, potentially accounting for the hyper-responsive HPA axis in these animals. These findings have implications for how females may respond to stress throughout life, suggesting the way ghrelin modifies the stress response at the level of the pituitary may be less efficient in the neonatally overfed.
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19
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McGovern-Gooch KR, Mahajani NS, Garagozzo A, Schramm AJ, Hannah LG, Sieburg MA, Chisholm JD, Hougland JL. Synthetic Triterpenoid Inhibition of Human Ghrelin O-Acyltransferase: The Involvement of a Functionally Required Cysteine Provides Mechanistic Insight into Ghrelin Acylation. Biochemistry 2017; 56:919-931. [PMID: 28134508 DOI: 10.1021/acs.biochem.6b01008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
The peptide hormone ghrelin plays a key role in regulating hunger and energy balance within the body. Ghrelin signaling presents a promising and unexploited target for development of small molecule therapeutics for treatment of obesity, diabetes, and other health conditions. Inhibition of ghrelin O-acyltransferase (GOAT), which catalyzes an essential octanoylation step in ghrelin maturation, offers a potential avenue for controlling ghrelin signaling. Through screening a small molecule library, we have identified a class of synthetic triterpenoids that efficiently inhibit ghrelin acylation by the human isoform of GOAT (hGOAT). These compounds function as covalent reversible inhibitors of hGOAT, providing the first evidence of the involvement of a nucleophilic cysteine residue in substrate acylation by a MBOAT family acyltransferase. Surprisingly, the mouse form of GOAT does not exhibit susceptibility to cysteine-modifying electrophiles, revealing an important distinction in the activity and behavior between these closely related GOAT isoforms. This study establishes these compounds as potent small molecule inhibitors of ghrelin acylation and provides a foundation for the development of novel hGOAT inhibitors as therapeutics targeting diabetes and obesity.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Nivedita S Mahajani
- Department of Chemistry, Syracuse University , Syracuse, New York 13244, United States
| | - Ariana Garagozzo
- Department of Chemistry, Syracuse University , Syracuse, New York 13244, United States
| | - Anthony J Schramm
- Department of Chemistry, Syracuse University , Syracuse, New York 13244, United States
| | - Lauren G Hannah
- Department of Chemistry, Syracuse University , Syracuse, New York 13244, United States
| | - Michelle A Sieburg
- Department of Chemistry, Syracuse University , Syracuse, New York 13244, United States
| | - John D Chisholm
- Department of Chemistry, Syracuse University , Syracuse, New York 13244, United States
| | - James L Hougland
- Department of Chemistry, Syracuse University , Syracuse, New York 13244, United States
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20
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Reynolds CM, Segovia SA, Vickers MH. Experimental Models of Maternal Obesity and Neuroendocrine Programming of Metabolic Disorders in Offspring. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2017; 8:245. [PMID: 28993758 PMCID: PMC5622157 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2017.00245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2017] [Accepted: 09/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Evidence from epidemiological, clinical, and experimental studies have clearly shown that disease risk in later life is increased following a poor early life environment, a process preferentially termed developmental programming. In particular, this work clearly highlights the importance of the nutritional environment during early development with alterations in maternal nutrition, including both under- and overnutrition, increasing the risk for a range of cardiometabolic and neurobehavioral disorders in adult offspring characterized by both adipokine resistance and obesity. Although the mechanistic basis for such developmental programming is not yet fully defined, a common feature derived from experimental animal models is that of alterations in the wiring of the neuroendocrine pathways that control energy balance and appetite regulation during early stages of developmental plasticity. The adipokine leptin has also received significant attention with clear experimental evidence that normal regulation of leptin levels during the early life period is critical for the normal development of tissues and related signaling pathways that are involved in metabolic and cardiovascular homeostasis. There is also increasing evidence that alterations in the epigenome and other underlying mechanisms including an altered gut-brain axis may contribute to lasting cardiometabolic dysfunction in offspring. Ongoing studies that further define the mechanisms between these associations will allow for identification of early risk markers and implementation of strategies around interventions that will have obvious beneficial implications in breaking a programmed transgenerational cycle of metabolic disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Mark H. Vickers
- Liggins Institute, University of Auckland, Auckland, New Zealand
- *Correspondence: Mark H. Vickers,
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21
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Ziko I, Sominsky L, Nguyen TX, Yam KY, De Luca S, Korosi A, Spencer SJ. Hyperleptinemia in Neonatally Overfed Female Rats Does Not Dysregulate Feeding Circuitry. Front Endocrinol (Lausanne) 2017; 8:287. [PMID: 29123503 PMCID: PMC5662871 DOI: 10.3389/fendo.2017.00287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/14/2017] [Accepted: 10/11/2017] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Neonatal overfeeding during the first weeks of life in male rats is associated with a disruption in the peripheral and central leptin systems. Neonatally overfed male rats have increased circulating leptin in the first 2 weeks of life, which corresponds to an increase in body weight compared to normally fed counterparts. These effects are associated with a short-term disruption in the connectivity of neuropeptide Y (NPY), agouti-related peptide (AgRP), and pro-opiomelanocortin (POMC) neurons within the regions of the hypothalamus responsible for control of energy balance and food intake. Female rats that are overfed during the first weeks of their life experience similar changes in circulating leptin levels as well as in their body weight. However, it has not yet been studied whether these metabolic changes are associated with the same central effects as observed in males. Here, we hypothesized that hyperleptinemia associated with neonatal overfeeding would lead to changes in central feeding circuitry in females as it does in males. We assessed hypothalamic NPY, AgRP, and POMC gene expression and immunoreactivity at 7, 12, or 14 days of age, as well as neuronal activation in response to exogenous leptin in neonatally overfed and control female rats. Neonatally overfed female rats were hyperleptinemic and were heavier than controls. However, these metabolic changes were not mirrored centrally by changes in hypothalamic NPY, AGRP, and POMC fiber density. These findings are suggestive of sex differences in the effects of neonatal overfeeding and of differences in the ability of the female and male central systems to respond to changes in the early life nutritional environment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilvana Ziko
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Luba Sominsky
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Thai-Xinh Nguyen
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Kit-Yi Yam
- Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, Center for Neuroscience, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Simone De Luca
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
| | - Aniko Korosi
- Swammerdam Institute for Life Sciences, Center for Neuroscience, University of Amsterdam, Amsterdam, Netherlands
| | - Sarah J. Spencer
- School of Health and Biomedical Sciences RMIT University, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- *Correspondence: Sarah J. Spencer,
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