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Bukowski L, Strøm ME, Andersen JL, Maesen JB, Tian L, Sinning S. 5-HT_FAsTR: a versatile, label-free, high-throughput, fluorescence-based microplate assay to quantify serotonin transport and release. Sci Rep 2024; 14:6541. [PMID: 38504103 PMCID: PMC10951269 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-024-56712-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2023] [Accepted: 03/09/2024] [Indexed: 03/21/2024] Open
Abstract
The neurotransmitter serotonin plays a pivotal role in mood and depression. It also acts as a vasoconstrictor within blood vessels and is the main neurotransmitter in the gastrointestinal system. In neurotransmission, released serotonin is taken up by serotonin transporters, which are principal targets of antidepressants and the psychostimulant, ecstasy. The investigation of serotonin transporters have relied almost exclusively on the use of radiolabeled serotonin in heterogenous end-point assays. Here we adapt the genetically encoded fluorescent biosensor, iSeroSnFR, to establish and validate the Serotonin (5-HT) Fluorescence Assay for Transport and Release (5-HT_FAsTR) for functional and pharmacological studies of serotonin transport and release. We demonstrate the applicability of the method for the study of a neuronal, high-affinity, low-capacity serotonin transporter (SERT) as well as an extraneuronal low-affinity, high-capacity organic cation transporter and mutants thereof. 5HT_FAsTR offers an accessible, versatile and reliable semi-homogenous assay format that only relies on a fluorescence plate reader for repeated, real-time measurements of serotonin influx and efflux. 5HT_FAsTR accelerates and democratizes functional characterization and pharmacological studies of serotonin transporters and genetic variants thereof in disease states such as depression, anxiety and ADHD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lina Bukowski
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Aarhus University, Palle Juul-Jensens Boulevard 99, 8200, Aarhus N, Denmark
| | - Markus Emanuel Strøm
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Aarhus University, Palle Juul-Jensens Boulevard 99, 8200, Aarhus N, Denmark
| | - Jens Lindengren Andersen
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Aarhus University, Palle Juul-Jensens Boulevard 99, 8200, Aarhus N, Denmark
| | - Jannick Bang Maesen
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Aarhus University, Palle Juul-Jensens Boulevard 99, 8200, Aarhus N, Denmark
| | - Lin Tian
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Medicine, University of California, Davis, CA, 95616-8635, USA
- Max Planck Florida Institute for Neuroscience, Jupiter, FL, 33458, USA
| | - Steffen Sinning
- Department of Forensic Medicine, Aarhus University, Palle Juul-Jensens Boulevard 99, 8200, Aarhus N, Denmark.
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2
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Karabulut S, Kaur H, Gauld JW. Uncovering Structure-Activity Relationships of Phenethylamines: Paving the Way for Innovative Mental Health Treatments. ACS Chem Neurosci 2024; 15:972-982. [PMID: 38381069 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.3c00677] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/22/2024] Open
Abstract
The rapidly evolving psychedelic industry has garnered considerable attention due to 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine-assisted psychotherapy's ground-breaking success in treating moderate-to-severe Post-traumatic Stress Disorder in two Phase 3 clinical trials. This has opened Pandora's box for the development of innovative therapeutic modalities. Of particular interest are the phenethylamines and their ability to inhibit monoamine transporters. In this study, we employed the quantitative structure-activity relationship methodology to develop three vigorous models for the reuptake of serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine through monoamine transporters. These models were thoroughly validated using various criteria, including fitting (R2DAT = 0.869, R2SERT = 0.828, and R2NET = 0.887), internal (Q2looDAT = 0.795, Q2looSERT = 0.784, and Q2looNET = 0.820), and external (RMSEextDAT = 0.373, R2extDAT = 0.831, RMSEextSERT = 0.200, R2extSERT = 0.955, RMSEextNET = 0.318, and R2extNET = 0.711) criteria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sedat Karabulut
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Windsor, Windsor, Ontario N9B 3P4, Canada
| | - Harpreet Kaur
- Pharmala Biotech, 82 Richmond Street E, Toronto, Ontario M5C 1P1, Canada
| | - James W Gauld
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, University of Windsor, Windsor, Ontario N9B 3P4, Canada
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3
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Nguyen VT, Harris AC, Eltit JM. Structural and functional perspectives on interactions between synthetic cathinones and monoamine transporters. ADVANCES IN PHARMACOLOGY (SAN DIEGO, CALIF.) 2023; 99:83-124. [PMID: 38467490 DOI: 10.1016/bs.apha.2023.09.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/13/2024]
Abstract
Synthetic cathinone derivatives comprise a family of psychoactive compounds structurally related to amphetamine. Over the last decade, clandestine chemists have synthesized a consistent stream of innovative cathinone derivatives to outpace governmental regulatory restrictions. Many of these unregulated substances are produced and distributed as designer drugs. Two of the principal chemical scaffolds exploited to expand the synthetic cathinone family are methcathinone and α-pyrrolidinopentiophenone (or α-pyrrolidinovalerophenone, α-PVP). These compounds' main physiological targets are monoamine transporters, where they promote addiction by potentiating dopaminergic neurotransmission. This chapter describes techniques used to study the pharmacodynamic properties of cathinones at monoamine transporters in vitro. Biochemical techniques described include uptake inhibition and release assays in rat brain synaptosomes and in mammalian expression systems. Electrophysiological techniques include current measurements using the voltage clamp technique. We describe a Ca2+ mobilization assay wherein voltage-gated Ca2+ channels function as reporters to study the action of synthetic cathinones at monoamine transporters. We discuss results from systematic structure-activity relationship studies on simple and complex cathinones at monoamine transporters with an emphasis on identifying structural moieties that modulate potency and selectivity at these transporters. Moreover, different profiles of selectivity at monoamine transporters directly predict compounds associated with behavioral and subjective effects within animals and humans. In conclusion, clarification of the structural aspects of compounds which modulate potency and selectivity at monoamine transporters is critical to identify and predict potential addictive drugs. This knowledge may allow prompt allocation of resources toward drugs that represent the greatest threats after drugs are identified by forensic laboratories.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vy T Nguyen
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, School of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, United States
| | - Alan C Harris
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, School of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, United States
| | - Jose M Eltit
- Department of Physiology and Biophysics, School of Medicine, Virginia Commonwealth University, Richmond, VA, United States.
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4
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Schifano F, Vento A, Scherbaum N, Guirguis A. Stimulant and hallucinogenic novel psychoactive substances; an update. Expert Rev Clin Pharmacol 2023; 16:1109-1123. [PMID: 37968919 DOI: 10.1080/17512433.2023.2279192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/06/2023] [Accepted: 10/31/2023] [Indexed: 11/17/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION The renewed interest in considering a range of stimulants, psychedelics and dissociatives as therapeutics emphasizes the need to draft an updated overview of these drugs' clinical and pharmacological issues. AREAS COVERED The focus here was on: stimulants (e.g. amphetamines, methamphetamine, and pseudoephedrine; phenethylamines; synthetic cathinones; benzofurans; piperazines; aminoindanes; aminorex derivatives; phenmetrazine derivatives; phenidates); classical (e.g. ergolines; tryptamines; psychedelic phenethylamines), and atypical (e.g. PCP/ketamine-like dissociatives) psychedelics.Stimulant and psychedelics are associated with: a) increased central DA levels (psychedelic phenethylamines, synthetic cathinones and stimulants); b) 5-HT receptor subtypes' activation (psychedelic phenethylamines; recent tryptamine and lysergamide derivatives); and c) antagonist activity at NMDA receptors, (phencyclidine-like dissociatives). EXPERT OPINION Clinicians should be regularly informed about the range of NPS and their medical, psychobiological and psychopathological risks both in the acute and long term. Future research should focus on an integrative model in which pro-drug websites' analyses are combined with advanced research approaches, including computational chemistry studies so that in vitro and in vivo preclinical studies of index novel psychoactives can be organized. The future of psychedelic research should focus on identifying robust study designs to convincingly assess the potential therapeutic benefits of psychedelics, molecules likely to present with limited dependence liability levels.
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Affiliation(s)
- F Schifano
- Psychopharmacology Drug Misuse and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, Herts (UK)
| | - A Vento
- Mental Health Department, Addiction Observatory (Osservatorio sulle dipendenze)- NonProfit Association - Rome, Rome, Italy
| | - N Scherbaum
- LVR-University Hospital, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Medical Faculty, University of Duisburg-Essen, Essen, Germany
| | - A Guirguis
- Psychopharmacology Drug Misuse and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield, Herts (UK)
- Pharmacy, Swansea University Medical School, Faculty of Medicine, Health and Life Science, Swansea University, Wales, UK
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5
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Mayer FP, Niello M, Cintulova D, Sideromenos S, Maier J, Li Y, Bulling S, Kudlacek O, Schicker K, Iwamoto H, Deng F, Wan J, Holy M, Katamish R, Sandtner W, Li Y, Pollak DD, Blakely RD, Mihovilovic MD, Baumann MH, Sitte HH. Serotonin-releasing agents with reduced off-target effects. Mol Psychiatry 2023; 28:722-732. [PMID: 36352123 PMCID: PMC9645344 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-022-01843-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2022] [Revised: 10/06/2022] [Accepted: 10/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Increasing extracellular levels of serotonin (5-HT) in the brain ameliorates symptoms of depression and anxiety-related disorders, e.g., social phobias and post-traumatic stress disorder. Recent evidence from preclinical and clinical studies established the therapeutic potential of drugs inducing the release of 5-HT via the 5-HT-transporter. Nevertheless, current 5-HT releasing compounds under clinical investigation carry the risk for abuse and deleterious side effects. Here, we demonstrate that S-enantiomers of certain ring-substituted cathinones show preference for the release of 5-HT ex vivo and in vivo, and exert 5-HT-associated effects in preclinical behavioral models. Importantly, the lead cathinone compounds (1) do not induce substantial dopamine release and (2) display reduced off-target activity at vesicular monoamine transporters and 5-HT2B-receptors, indicative of low abuse-liability and low potential for adverse events. Taken together, our findings identify these agents as lead compounds that may prove useful for the treatment of disorders where elevation of 5-HT has proven beneficial.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felix P. Mayer
- grid.22937.3d0000 0000 9259 8492Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringer Strasse 13a, 1090 Vienna, Austria ,grid.255951.fDepartment of Biomedical Science, Charles E. Schmidt College of Medicine, Florida Atlantic University, Jupiter, FL 33458 USA
| | - Marco Niello
- grid.22937.3d0000 0000 9259 8492Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringer Strasse 13a, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Daniela Cintulova
- grid.5329.d0000 0001 2348 4034Institute of Applied Synthetic Chemistry, TU Wien, Vienna, Austria
| | - Spyridon Sideromenos
- grid.22937.3d0000 0000 9259 8492Department of Neurophysiology and Neuropharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Julian Maier
- grid.22937.3d0000 0000 9259 8492Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringer Strasse 13a, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Yang Li
- grid.22937.3d0000 0000 9259 8492Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringer Strasse 13a, 1090 Vienna, Austria ,grid.8547.e0000 0001 0125 2443Present Address: Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032 China
| | - Simon Bulling
- grid.22937.3d0000 0000 9259 8492Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringer Strasse 13a, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Oliver Kudlacek
- grid.22937.3d0000 0000 9259 8492Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringer Strasse 13a, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Klaus Schicker
- grid.22937.3d0000 0000 9259 8492Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringer Strasse 13a, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Hideki Iwamoto
- grid.255951.fStiles-Nicholson Brain Institute and Department of Biomedical Science, Charles E. Schmidt College of Medicine, Florida Atlantic University, Jupiter, FL 33458 USA
| | - Fei Deng
- grid.11135.370000 0001 2256 9319IDG McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Peking University, 100871 Beijing, China
| | - Jinxia Wan
- grid.11135.370000 0001 2256 9319IDG McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Peking University, 100871 Beijing, China
| | - Marion Holy
- grid.22937.3d0000 0000 9259 8492Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringer Strasse 13a, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Rania Katamish
- grid.255951.fDepartment of Biomedical Science, Charles E. Schmidt College of Medicine, Florida Atlantic University, Jupiter, FL 33458 USA
| | - Walter Sandtner
- grid.22937.3d0000 0000 9259 8492Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringer Strasse 13a, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Yulong Li
- grid.11135.370000 0001 2256 9319IDG McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Peking University, 100871 Beijing, China
| | - Daniela D. Pollak
- grid.22937.3d0000 0000 9259 8492Department of Neurophysiology and Neuropharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Randy D. Blakely
- grid.255951.fDepartment of Biomedical Science, Charles E. Schmidt College of Medicine, Florida Atlantic University, Jupiter, FL 33458 USA ,grid.255951.fStiles-Nicholson Brain Institute and Department of Biomedical Science, Charles E. Schmidt College of Medicine, Florida Atlantic University, Jupiter, FL 33458 USA
| | - Marko D. Mihovilovic
- grid.5329.d0000 0001 2348 4034Institute of Applied Synthetic Chemistry, TU Wien, Vienna, Austria
| | - Michael H. Baumann
- grid.94365.3d0000 0001 2297 5165Designer Drug Research Unit, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224 USA
| | - Harald H. Sitte
- grid.22937.3d0000 0000 9259 8492Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringer Strasse 13a, 1090 Vienna, Austria ,grid.22937.3d0000 0000 9259 8492AddRess, Center for Addiction Research and Science, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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6
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Jiroušková E, Čabala R, Sokolová R. Voltammetric study of new psychoactive substance 3‐fluorophenmetrazine. ELECTROCHEMICAL SCIENCE ADVANCES 2022. [DOI: 10.1002/elsa.202100223] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/07/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Eliška Jiroušková
- Department of Electrochemistry J. Heyrovský Institute of Physical Chemistry of the CAS Prague Czech Republic
- Department of Analytical Chemistry Faculty of Science Charles University Prague Czech Republic
| | - Radomír Čabala
- Department of Analytical Chemistry Faculty of Science Charles University Prague Czech Republic
- 1st Faculty of Medicine Charles University Prague Czech Republic
| | - Romana Sokolová
- Department of Electrochemistry J. Heyrovský Institute of Physical Chemistry of the CAS Prague Czech Republic
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7
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López-Arnau R, Camarasa J, Carbó ML, Nadal-Gratacós N, Puigseslloses P, Espinosa-Velasco M, Urquizu E, Escubedo E, Pubill D. 3,4-Methylenedioxy methamphetamine, synthetic cathinones and psychedelics: From recreational to novel psychotherapeutic drugs. Front Psychiatry 2022; 13:990405. [PMID: 36262632 PMCID: PMC9574023 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2022.990405] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2022] [Accepted: 09/05/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The utility of classical drugs used to treat psychiatric disorders (e.g., antidepressants, anxiolytics) is often limited by issues of lack of efficacy, delayed onset of action or side effects. Psychoactive substances have a long history of being used as tools to alter consciousness and as a gateway to approach the unknown and the divinities. These substances were initially obtained from plants and animals and more recently by chemical synthesis, and its consumption evolved toward a more recreational use, leading to drug abuse-related disorders, trafficking, and subsequent banning by the authorities. However, these substances, by modulation of certain neurochemical pathways, have been proven to have a beneficial effect on some psychiatric disorders. This evidence obtained under medically controlled conditions and often associated with psychotherapy, makes these substances an alternative to conventional medicines, to which in many cases the patient does not respond properly. Such disorders include post-traumatic stress disease and treatment-resistant depression, for which classical drugs such as MDMA, ketamine, psilocybin and LSD, among others, have already been clinically tested, reporting successful outcomes. The irruption of new psychoactive substances (NPS), especially during the last decade and despite their recreational and illicit uses, has enlarged the library of substances with potential utility on these disorders. In fact, many of them were synthetized with therapeutic purposes and were withdrawn for concrete reasons (e.g., adverse effects, improper pharmacological profile). In this review we focus on the basis, existing evidence and possible use of synthetic cathinones and psychedelics (specially tryptamines) for the treatment of mental illnesses and the properties that should be found in NPS to obtain new therapeutic compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raúl López-Arnau
- Pharmacology Section, Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Facultat de Farmàcia i Ciències de l'Alimentació, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Institut de Biomedicina de la Universitat de Barcelona (IBUB), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Jordi Camarasa
- Pharmacology Section, Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Facultat de Farmàcia i Ciències de l'Alimentació, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Institut de Biomedicina de la Universitat de Barcelona (IBUB), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Marcel Lí Carbó
- Pharmacology Section, Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Facultat de Farmàcia i Ciències de l'Alimentació, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Núria Nadal-Gratacós
- Pharmacology Section, Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Facultat de Farmàcia i Ciències de l'Alimentació, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Pharmaceutical Chemistry Group (GQF), IQS School of Engineering, Universitat Ramon Llull, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Pol Puigseslloses
- Pharmacology Section, Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Facultat de Farmàcia i Ciències de l'Alimentació, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - María Espinosa-Velasco
- Pharmacology Section, Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Facultat de Farmàcia i Ciències de l'Alimentació, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Institut de Biomedicina de la Universitat de Barcelona (IBUB), Barcelona, Spain
| | - Edurne Urquizu
- Pharmacology Section, Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Facultat de Farmàcia i Ciències de l'Alimentació, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Elena Escubedo
- Pharmacology Section, Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Facultat de Farmàcia i Ciències de l'Alimentació, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Institut de Biomedicina de la Universitat de Barcelona (IBUB), Barcelona, Spain
| | - David Pubill
- Pharmacology Section, Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Therapeutic Chemistry, Facultat de Farmàcia i Ciències de l'Alimentació, Universitat de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.,Institut de Biomedicina de la Universitat de Barcelona (IBUB), Barcelona, Spain
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8
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Gavai AK, Bouzembrak Y, van den Bulk LM, Liu N, van Overbeeke LF, van den Heuvel LJ, Mol H, Marvin HJ. Artificial intelligence to detect unknown stimulants from scientific literature and media reports. Food Control 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.foodcont.2021.108360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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9
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Sahai M, Opacka-Juffry J. Molecular mechanisms of action of stimulant novel psychoactive substances that target the high-affinity transporter for dopamine. Neuronal Signal 2021; 5:NS20210006. [PMID: 34888062 PMCID: PMC8630395 DOI: 10.1042/ns20210006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2021] [Revised: 10/28/2021] [Accepted: 11/01/2021] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Drug misuse is a significant social and public health problem worldwide. Misused substances exert their neurobehavioural effects through changing neural signalling within the brain, many of them leading to substance dependence and addiction in the longer term. Among drugs with addictive liability, there are illicit classical stimulants such as cocaine and amphetamine, and their more recently available counterparts known as novel psychoactive substances (NPS). Stimulants normally increase dopamine availability in the brain, including the pathway implicated in reward-related behaviour. This pattern is observed in both animal and human brain. The main biological target of stimulants, both classical and NPS, is the dopamine transporter (DAT) implicated in the dopamine-enhancing effects of these drugs. This article aims at reviewing research on the molecular mechanisms underpinning the interactions between stimulant NPS, such as benzofurans, cathinones or piperidine derivatives and DAT, to achieve a greater understanding of the core phenomena that decide about the addictive potential of stimulant NPS. As the methodology is essential in the process of experimental research in this area, we review the applications of in vitro, in vivo and in silico approaches. The latter, including molecular dynamics, attracts the focus of the present review as the method of choice in molecular and atomistic investigations of the mechanisms of addiction of stimulant NPS. Research of this kind is of interest to not only scientists but also health professionals as updated knowledge of NPS, their modes of action and health risks, is needed to tackle the challenges posed by NPS misuse.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle A. Sahai
- School of Life and Health Sciences, University of Roehampton, London SW15 4JD, U.K
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10
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Richeval C, Gish A, Hakim F, Nachon-Phanithavong M, Wiart JF, Humbert L, Allorge D, Gaulier JM. Prevalence of New Psychoactive Substances in Oral Fluid Samples from French Drivers: A Longitudinal Survey (2016-2020). J Anal Toxicol 2021; 45:e20-e21. [PMID: 33978145 DOI: 10.1093/jat/bkab045] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2021] [Revised: 04/26/2021] [Accepted: 05/11/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Camille Richeval
- CHU Lille, Unité Fonctionnelle de Toxicologie, Lille 59037, France.,EA 4483-IMPECS-IMPact de l'Environnement Chimique sur la Santé humaine, University of Lille, Lille 59045, France
| | - Alexandr Gish
- CHU Lille, Unité Fonctionnelle de Toxicologie, Lille 59037, France
| | - Florian Hakim
- CHU Lille, Unité Fonctionnelle de Toxicologie, Lille 59037, France.,EA 4483-IMPECS-IMPact de l'Environnement Chimique sur la Santé humaine, University of Lille, Lille 59045, France
| | | | | | - Luc Humbert
- CHU Lille, Unité Fonctionnelle de Toxicologie, Lille 59037, France
| | - Delphine Allorge
- CHU Lille, Unité Fonctionnelle de Toxicologie, Lille 59037, France.,EA 4483-IMPECS-IMPact de l'Environnement Chimique sur la Santé humaine, University of Lille, Lille 59045, France
| | - Jean-Michel Gaulier
- CHU Lille, Unité Fonctionnelle de Toxicologie, Lille 59037, France.,EA 4483-IMPECS-IMPact de l'Environnement Chimique sur la Santé humaine, University of Lille, Lille 59045, France
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11
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Keegan BM, Dreitzler AL, Sexton T, Beveridge TJR, Smith HR, Miller MD, Blough BE, Porrino LJ, Childers SR, Howlett AC. Chronic phenmetrazine treatment promotes D 2 dopaminergic and α2-adrenergic receptor desensitization and alters phosphorylation of signaling proteins and local cerebral glucose metabolism in the rat brain. Brain Res 2021; 1761:147387. [PMID: 33631209 PMCID: PMC8552242 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2021.147387] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2020] [Revised: 02/15/2021] [Accepted: 02/16/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Phenmetrazine (PHEN) is a putative treatment for cocaine and psychostimulant recidivism; however, neurochemical changes underlying its activity have not been fully elucidated. We sought to characterize brain homeostatic adaptations to chronic PHEN, specifically on functional brain activity (local cerebral glucose utilization), G-Protein Coupled Receptor-stimulated G-protein activation, and phosphorylation of ERK1/2Thr202/Tyr204, GSK3βTyr216, and DARPP-32Thr34. Male Sprague-Dawley rats were implanted with sub-cutaneous minipumps delivering either saline (vehicle), acute (2-day) or chronic (14-day) low dose (25 mg/kg/day) or high dose (50 mg/kg/day) PHEN. Acute administration of high dose PHEN increased local cerebral glucose utilization measured by 2-[14C]-deoxyglucose uptake in basal ganglia and motor-related regions of the rat brain. However, chronically treated animals developed tolerance to these effects. To identify the neurochemical changes associated with PHEN's activity, we performed [35S]GTPγS binding assays on unfixed and immunohistochemistry on fixed coronal brain sections. Chronic PHEN treatment dose-dependently attenuated D2 dopamine and α2-adrenergic, but not 5-HT1A, receptor-mediated G-protein activation. Two distinct patterns of effects on pERK1/2 and pDARPP-32 were observed: 1) chronic low dose PHEN decreased pERK1/2, and also significantly increased pDARPP-32 levels in some regions; 2) acute and chronic PHEN increased pERK1/2, but chronic high dose PHEN treatment tended to decrease pDARPP-32. Chronic low dose, but not high dose, PHEN significantly reduced pGSK3β levels in several regions. Our study provides definitive evidence that extended length PHEN dosage schedules elicit distinct modes of neuronal acclimatization in cellular signaling. These pharmacodynamic modifications should be considered in drug development for chronic use.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bradley M Keegan
- Center for the Neurobiology of Addiction Treatment, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Medical Center Blvd., Winston-Salem, NC 27157, USA
| | - Annie L Dreitzler
- Center for the Neurobiology of Addiction Treatment, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Medical Center Blvd., Winston-Salem, NC 27157, USA
| | - Tammy Sexton
- Center for the Neurobiology of Addiction Treatment, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Medical Center Blvd., Winston-Salem, NC 27157, USA
| | - Thomas J R Beveridge
- Center for the Neurobiology of Addiction Treatment, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Medical Center Blvd., Winston-Salem, NC 27157, USA
| | - Hilary R Smith
- Center for the Neurobiology of Addiction Treatment, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Medical Center Blvd., Winston-Salem, NC 27157, USA
| | - Mack D Miller
- Center for the Neurobiology of Addiction Treatment, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Medical Center Blvd., Winston-Salem, NC 27157, USA
| | - Bruce E Blough
- Center for Drug Discovery, RTI International, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Linda J Porrino
- Center for the Neurobiology of Addiction Treatment, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Medical Center Blvd., Winston-Salem, NC 27157, USA
| | - Steven R Childers
- Center for the Neurobiology of Addiction Treatment, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Medical Center Blvd., Winston-Salem, NC 27157, USA
| | - Allyn C Howlett
- Center for the Neurobiology of Addiction Treatment, Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Wake Forest School of Medicine, Medical Center Blvd., Winston-Salem, NC 27157, USA.
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12
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Abstract
Psychoactive substances with chemical structures or pharmacological profiles that are similar to traditional drugs of abuse continue to emerge on the recreational drug market. Internet vendors may at least temporarily sell these so-called designer drugs without adhering to legal statutes or facing legal consequences. Overall, the mechanism of action and adverse effects of designer drugs are similar to traditional drugs of abuse. Stimulants, such as amphetamines and cathinones, primarily interact with monoamine transporters and mostly induce sympathomimetic adverse effects. Agonism at μ-opioid receptors and γ-aminobutyric acid-A (GABAA) or GABAB receptors mediates the pharmacological effects of sedatives, which may induce cardiorespiratory depression. Dissociative designer drugs primarily act as N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor antagonists and pose similar health risks as the medically approved dissociative anesthetic ketamine. The cannabinoid type 1 (CB1) receptor is thought to drive the psychoactive effects of synthetic cannabinoids, which are associated with a less desirable effect profile and more severe adverse effects compared with cannabis. Serotonergic 5-hydroxytryptamine-2A (5-HT2A) receptors mediate alterations of perception and cognition that are induced by serotonergic psychedelics. Because of their novelty, designer drugs may remain undetected by routine drug screening, thus hampering evaluations of adverse effects. Intoxication reports suggest that several designer drugs are used concurrently, posing a high risk for severe adverse effects and even death.
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13
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Santos‐Toscano R, Guirguis A, Davidson C. How preclinical studies have influenced novel psychoactive substance legislation in the UK and Europe. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2020; 86:452-481. [DOI: 10.1111/bcp.14224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2019] [Revised: 01/13/2020] [Accepted: 01/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Raquel Santos‐Toscano
- School of Pharmacy & Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Clinical & Biomedical Sciences University of Central Lancashire UK
| | - Amira Guirguis
- Swansea University Medical School, Institute of Life Sciences 2, Swansea University Swansea UK
| | - Colin Davidson
- School of Pharmacy & Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Clinical & Biomedical Sciences University of Central Lancashire UK
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14
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Luethi D, Walter M, Zhou X, Rudin D, Krähenbühl S, Liechti ME. Para-Halogenation Affects Monoamine Transporter Inhibition Properties and Hepatocellular Toxicity of Amphetamines and Methcathinones. Front Pharmacol 2019; 10:438. [PMID: 31068823 PMCID: PMC6491784 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2019.00438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2019] [Accepted: 04/05/2019] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Halogenated derivatives of amphetamine-type stimulants are appearing on the drug market, often with altered pharmacological profile and sometimes different legal status compared to the non-halogenated substances. The aim of the present study was to investigate the pharmacological profile and hepatocellular toxicity of para-halogenated amphetamines and cathinones. The potential of amphetamine, 4-fluoroamphetamine, 4-chloroamphetamine, methcathinone, 4-fluoromethcathinone, and 4-chloromethcathinone to inhibit the monoamine transporters for norepinephrine, dopamine, and serotonin was determined in transporter-transfected human embryonic kidney 293 cells. Cell membrane integrity, ATP content, oxygen consumption rate, and superoxide levels were measured in human hepatoma HepG2 cells after exposure to the substances for 24 h. All compounds inhibited the norepinephrine transporter at submicromolar concentrations and the dopamine transporter at low micromolar concentrations. The selectivity of the compounds to inhibit the dopamine versus serotonin transporter decreased with increasing size of the para-substituent, resulting in potent serotonin uptake inhibition for the halogenated derivatives. All substances depleted the cellular ATP content at lower concentrations (0.25–2 mM) than cell membrane integrity loss occurred (≥0.5 mM), suggesting mitochondrial toxicity. The amphetamines and 4-chloromethcathinone additionally impaired the mitochondrial respiratory chain, confirming mitochondrial toxicity. The following toxicity rank order for the para-substituents was observed: chloride > fluoride > hydrogen. In conclusion, para-halogenation of stimulants increases the risk for serotonergic neurotoxicity. Furthermore, para-halogenation may increase hepatic toxicity mediated by mitochondrial impairment in susceptible users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dino Luethi
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine, University Hospital Basel, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Melanie Walter
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine, University Hospital Basel, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Xun Zhou
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine, University Hospital Basel, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Deborah Rudin
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine, University Hospital Basel, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Stephan Krähenbühl
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine, University Hospital Basel, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland.,Swiss Centre for Applied Human Toxicology (SCAHT), University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Matthias E Liechti
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Biomedicine, University Hospital Basel, University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
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15
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Niello M, Cintulova D, Hellsberg E, Jäntsch K, Holy M, Ayatollahi LH, Cozzi NV, Freissmuth M, Sandtner W, Ecker GF, Mihovilovic MD, Sitte HH. para-Trifluoromethyl-methcathinone is an allosteric modulator of the serotonin transporter. Neuropharmacology 2019; 161:107615. [PMID: 31028773 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2019.04.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2018] [Revised: 04/17/2019] [Accepted: 04/19/2019] [Indexed: 11/15/2022]
Abstract
The transporters for dopamine (DAT) and serotonin (SERT) are important targets in the treatment of psychiatric disorders including major depression, anxiety and attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder. Drugs acting at these transporters can act as inhibitors or as releasers. In addition, it has been recently appreciated that some compounds are less efficacious releasers than amphetamine. Thus, they are classified as partial releasers. Compounds can act on both SERT and DAT or display exquisite selectivity for either SERT or DAT, but the structural basis for selectivity is poorly understood. The trifluoromethyl-substitution of methcathinone in the para-position has been shown to dramatically shift the selectivity of methcathinone (MCAT) towards SERT. Here, we examined MCAT, para-trifluoromethyl-methcathinone (pCF3MCAT) and other analogues to understand (i) the determinants of selectivity and (ii) the effects of the para-CF3-substitution of MCAT on the transport cycle. We systematically tested different para-substituted MCATs by biochemical, computational and electrophysiological approaches: addition of the pCF3group, but not of other substituents with larger van der Waal's volume, lipophilicity or polarity, converted the DAT-selective MCAT into a SERT-selective partial releaser. Electrophysiological and superfusion experiments, together with kinetic modelling, showed that pCF3MCAT, but not MCAT, trapped a fraction of SERTs in an inactive state by occupying the S2-site. These findings define a new mechanism of action for partial releasers, which is distinct from the other two known binding modes underlying partial release. Our observations highlight the fact that the substrate permeation pathway of monoamine transporters supports multiple binding modes, which can be exploited for drug design. This article is part of the issue entitled 'Special Issue on Neurotransmitter Transporters'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Niello
- Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University, Vienna, Austria
| | | | - Eva Hellsberg
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Kathrin Jäntsch
- Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University, Vienna, Austria
| | - Marion Holy
- Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University, Vienna, Austria
| | | | - Nicholas V Cozzi
- Department of Cell and Regenerative Biology, University of Wisconsin School of Medicine and Public Health, Madison, USA
| | | | - Walter Sandtner
- Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University, Vienna, Austria
| | - Gerhard F Ecker
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | | | - Harald H Sitte
- Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University, Vienna, Austria.
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16
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Grumann C, Huppertz LM, Bisel P, Angerer V, Auwärter V. Method validation and preliminary pharmacokinetic studies on the new designer stimulant 3‐fluorophenmetrazine (3‐FPM). Drug Test Anal 2019; 11:1009-1017. [DOI: 10.1002/dta.2577] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2019] [Revised: 02/15/2019] [Accepted: 02/17/2019] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Christina Grumann
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center – University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg Freiburg Germany
- Hermann Staudinger Graduate SchoolUniversity of Freiburg Freiburg Germany
| | - Laura M. Huppertz
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center – University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg Freiburg Germany
| | - Philippe Bisel
- Institute for Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Freiburg Freiburg Germany
| | - Verena Angerer
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center – University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg Freiburg Germany
- Forensic ToxicologyInstitute of Forensic Medicine St. Gallen Switzerland
| | - Volker Auwärter
- Institute of Forensic Medicine, Forensic Toxicology, Medical Center – University of Freiburg, Faculty of Medicine, University of Freiburg Freiburg Germany
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17
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Abstract
Aminorex (5-phenyl-4,5-dihydro-1,3-oxazol-2-amine) and 4-methylaminorex (4-methyl-5-phenyl-4,5-dihydro-1,3-oxazol-2-amine) are psychostimulants that have long been listed in Schedules IV and I of the UN Convention on Psychotropic Substances of 1971. However, a range of psychoactive analogues exist that are not internationally controlled and therefore often classified as new psychoactive substances (NPS). Aminorex analogues encompass failed pharmaceuticals that reemerged as drugs of abuse, and newly synthesized substances that were solely designed for recreational use by clandestine chemists. NPS, sometimes also referred to as "designer drugs" in alignment with a phenomenon arising in the early 1980s, serve as alternatives to controlled drugs. Aminorex and its derivatives interact with monoaminergic neurotransmission by interfering with the function of monoamine transporters. Hence, these compounds share pharmacological and neurochemical similarities with amphetamines and cocaine. The consumption of aminorex, 4-methylaminorex and 4,4'-dimethylaminorex (4-methyl-5-(4-methylphenyl)-4,5-dihydro-1,3-oxazol-2-amine) has been associated with adverse events including death, bestowing an inglorious fame on aminorex-derived drugs. In this Review, a historical background is presented, as well as an account of the pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties of aminorex and various analogues. Light is shed on their misuse as drug adulterants of well-established drugs on the market. This Review not only provides a detailed overview of an abused substance-class, but also emphasizes the darkest aspect of the NPS market, i.e., deleterious side effects that arise from the ingestion of certain NPS, as knowledge of the pharmacology, the potency, or the identity of the active ingredients remains obscure to NPS users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julian Maier
- Medical University of Vienna, Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Währingerstraße 13A, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Felix P. Mayer
- Medical University of Vienna, Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Währingerstraße 13A, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Simon D. Brandt
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Byrom Street, Liverpool, L3 3AF, UK
| | - Harald H. Sitte
- Medical University of Vienna, Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Währingerstraße 13A, 1090, Vienna, Austria
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McLaughlin G, Baumann MH, Kavanagh PV, Morris N, Power JD, Dowling G, Twamley B, O’Brien J, Hessman G, Westphal F, Walther D, Brandt SD. Synthesis, analytical characterization, and monoamine transporter activity of the new psychoactive substance 4-methylphenmetrazine (4-MPM), with differentiation from its ortho- and meta- positional isomers. Drug Test Anal 2018; 10:1404-1416. [PMID: 29673128 PMCID: PMC7316143 DOI: 10.1002/dta.2396] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2018] [Revised: 04/12/2018] [Accepted: 04/13/2018] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The availability of new psychoactive substances (NPS) on the recreational drug market continues to create challenges for scientists in the forensic, clinical and toxicology fields. Phenmetrazine (3-methyl-2-phenylmorpholine) and an array of its analogs form a class of psychostimulants that are well documented in the patent and scientific literature. The present study reports on two phenmetrazine analogs that have been encountered on the NPS market following the introduction of 3-fluorophenmetrazine (3-FPM), namely 4-methylphenmetrazine (4-MPM), and 3-methylphenmetrazine (3-MPM). This study describes the syntheses, analytical characterization, and pharmacological evaluation of the positional isomers of MPM. Analytical characterizations employed various chromatographic, spectroscopic, and mass spectrometric platforms. Pharmacological studies were conducted to assess whether MPM isomers might display stimulant-like effects similar to the parent compound phenmetrazine. The isomers were tested for their ability to inhibit uptake or stimulate release of tritiated substrates at dopamine, norepinephrine and serotonin transporters using in vitro transporter assays in rat brain synaptosomes. The analytical characterization of three vendor samples revealed the presence of 4-MPM in two of the samples and 3-MPM in the third sample, which agreed with the product label. The pharmacological findings suggest that 2-MPM and 3-MPM will exhibit stimulant properties similar to the parent compound phenmetrazine, whereas 4-MPM may display entactogen properties more similar to 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). The combination of test purchases, analytical characterization, targeted organic synthesis, and pharmacological evaluation of NPS and their isomers is an effective approach for the provision of data on these substances as they emerge in the marketplace.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gavin McLaughlin
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Medicine, Trinity Centre for Health Sciences, St. James’s Hospital, James’s Street, Dublin 8, D08W9RT, Ireland
- Forensic Science Ireland, Garda Headquarters, Phoenix Park, Dublin 8, D08HN3X, Ireland
| | - Michael H. Baumann
- Designer Drug Research Unit, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, 333 Cassell Drive, Suite 4400, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Pierce V. Kavanagh
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Medicine, Trinity Centre for Health Sciences, St. James’s Hospital, James’s Street, Dublin 8, D08W9RT, Ireland
| | - Noreen Morris
- Department of Life & Physical Sciences, Faculty of Science and Health, Athlone Institute of Technology, Dublin Road, Athlone, Co. Westmeath, N37HD68, Ireland
| | - John D. Power
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Medicine, Trinity Centre for Health Sciences, St. James’s Hospital, James’s Street, Dublin 8, D08W9RT, Ireland
- Forensic Science Ireland, Garda Headquarters, Phoenix Park, Dublin 8, D08HN3X, Ireland
| | - Geraldine Dowling
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Medicine, Trinity Centre for Health Sciences, St. James’s Hospital, James’s Street, Dublin 8, D08W9RT, Ireland
- Department of Life Sciences, School of Science, Sligo Institute of Technology, Ash Lane, Sligo, F91YW50, Ireland
| | - Brendan Twamley
- School of Chemistry, Trinity College Dublin, College Green, Dublin 2, D02EV57, Ireland
| | - John O’Brien
- School of Chemistry, Trinity College Dublin, College Green, Dublin 2, D02EV57, Ireland
| | - Gary Hessman
- School of Chemistry, Trinity College Dublin, College Green, Dublin 2, D02EV57, Ireland
| | - Folker Westphal
- State Bureau of Criminal Investigation Schleswig-Holstein, Section Narcotics/Toxicology, Mühlenweg 166, D-24116 Kiel, Germany
| | - Donna Walther
- Designer Drug Research Unit, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, 333 Cassell Drive, Suite 4400, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA
| | - Simon D. Brandt
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Byrom Street, Liverpool L3 3AF, UK
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