1
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Alberto-Silva AS, Hemmer S, Bock HA, da Silva LA, Scott KR, Kastner N, Bhatt M, Niello M, Jäntsch K, Kudlacek O, Bossi E, Stockner T, Meyer MR, McCorvy JD, Brandt SD, Kavanagh P, Sitte HH. Bioisosteric analogs of MDMA: Improving the pharmacological profile? J Neurochem 2024. [PMID: 38898705 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.16149] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/15/2023] [Revised: 03/26/2024] [Accepted: 05/29/2024] [Indexed: 06/21/2024]
Abstract
3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, 'ecstasy') is re-emerging in clinical settings as a candidate for the treatment of specific neuropsychiatric disorders (e.g. post-traumatic stress disorder) in combination with psychotherapy. MDMA is a psychoactive drug, typically regarded as an empathogen or entactogen, which leads to transporter-mediated monoamine release. Despite its therapeutic potential, MDMA can induce dose-, individual-, and context-dependent untoward effects outside safe settings. In this study, we investigated whether three new methylenedioxy bioisosteres of MDMA improve its off-target profile. In vitro methods included radiotracer assays, transporter electrophysiology, bioluminescence resonance energy transfer and fluorescence-based assays, pooled human liver microsome/S9 fraction incubations, metabolic stability studies, isozyme mapping, and liquid chromatography coupled to high-resolution mass spectrometry. In silico methods included molecular docking. Compared with MDMA, all three MDMA bioisosteres (ODMA, TDMA, and SeDMA) showed similar pharmacological activity at human serotonin, dopamine, and norepinephrine transporters (hSERT, hDAT, and hNET, respectively) but decreased agonist activity at 5-HT2A/2B/2C receptors. Regarding their hepatic metabolism, they differed from MDMA, with N-demethylation being the only metabolic route shared, and without forming phase II metabolites. In addition, TDMA showed an enhanced intrinsic clearance in comparison to its congeners. Additional screening for their interaction with human organic cation transporters (hOCTs) and plasma membrane monoamine transporter (hPMAT) revealed a weaker interaction of the MDMA analogs with hOCT1, hOCT2, and hPMAT. Our findings suggest that these new MDMA bioisosteres might constitute appealing therapeutic alternatives to MDMA, sparing the primary pharmacological activity at hSERT, hDAT, and hNET, but displaying a reduced activity at 5-HT2A/2B/2C receptors and alternative hepatic metabolism. Whether these MDMA bioisosteres may pose lower risk alternatives to the clinically re-emerging MDMA warrants further studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ana Sofia Alberto-Silva
- Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Selina Hemmer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Center for Molecular Signaling (PZMS), Saarland University, Homburg, Germany
| | - Hailey A Bock
- Department of Cell Biology, Neurobiology and Anatomy, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Leticia Alves da Silva
- Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Kenneth R Scott
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Medicine, Trinity Centre for Health Sciences, St James Hospital, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Nina Kastner
- Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Manan Bhatt
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, Department of Biotechnology and Life Sciences, University of Insubria, Varese, Italy
| | - Marco Niello
- Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Kathrin Jäntsch
- Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Oliver Kudlacek
- Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Elena Bossi
- Laboratory of Cellular and Molecular Physiology, Department of Biotechnology and Life Sciences, University of Insubria, Varese, Italy
- Center for Research in Neuroscience, University of Insubria, Varese, Italy
| | - Thomas Stockner
- Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Markus R Meyer
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Toxicology, Institute of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, Center for Molecular Signaling (PZMS), Saarland University, Homburg, Germany
| | - John D McCorvy
- Department of Cell Biology, Neurobiology and Anatomy, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
- Neuroscience Research Center, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
- Cancer Center, Medical College of Wisconsin, Milwaukee, Wisconsin, USA
| | - Simon D Brandt
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Liverpool, UK
| | - Pierce Kavanagh
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Medicine, Trinity Centre for Health Sciences, St James Hospital, Dublin, Ireland
| | - Harald H Sitte
- Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
- Hourani Center for Applied Scientific Research, Al-Ahliyya Amman University, Amman, Jordan
- Center for Addiction Research and Science, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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2
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Alberto-Silva AS, Hemmer S, Bock HA, Alves da Silva L, Scott KR, Kastner N, Bhatt M, Niello M, Jäntsch K, Kudlacek O, Bossi E, Stockner T, Meyer MR, McCorvy JD, Brandt SD, Kavanagh P, Sitte HH. Bioisosteric analogs of MDMA with improved pharmacological profile. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.04.08.588083. [PMID: 38645142 PMCID: PMC11030374 DOI: 10.1101/2024.04.08.588083] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 04/23/2024]
Abstract
3,4-Methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA, ' ecstasy' ) is re-emerging in clinical settings as a candidate for the treatment of specific psychiatric disorders (e.g. post-traumatic stress disorder) in combination with psychotherapy. MDMA is a psychoactive drug, typically regarded as an empathogen or entactogen, which leads to transporter-mediated monoamine release. Despite its therapeutic potential, MDMA can induce dose-, individual-, and context-dependent untoward effects outside safe settings. In this study, we investigated whether three new methylenedioxy bioisosteres of MDMA improve its off-target profile. In vitro methods included radiotracer assays, transporter electrophysiology, bioluminescence resonance energy transfer and fluorescence-based assays, pooled human liver microsome/S9 fraction incubation with isozyme mapping, and liquid chromatography coupled to high-resolution mass spectrometry. In silico methods included molecular docking. Compared with MDMA, all three MDMA bioisosteres (ODMA, TDMA, and SeDMA) showed similar pharmacological activity at human serotonin and dopamine transporters (hSERT and hDAT, respectively) but decreased activity at 5-HT 2A/2B/2C receptors. Regarding their hepatic metabolism, they differed from MDMA, with N -demethylation being the only metabolic route shared, and without forming phase II metabolites. Additional screening for their interaction with human organic cation transporters (hOCTs) and plasma membrane transporter (hPMAT) revealed a weaker interaction of the MDMA analogs with hOCT1, hOCT2, and hPMAT. Our findings suggest that these new MDMA analogs might constitute appealing therapeutic alternatives to MDMA, sparing the primary pharmacological activity at hSERT and hDAT, but displaying a reduced activity at 5-HT 2A/2B/2C receptors and reduced hepatic metabolism. Whether these MDMA bioisosteres may pose lower risk alternatives to the clinically re-emerging MDMA warrants further studies.
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3
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Alwindi M, Bizanti A. Vesicular monoamine transporter (VMAT) regional expression and roles in pathological conditions. Heliyon 2023; 9:e22413. [PMID: 38034713 PMCID: PMC10687066 DOI: 10.1016/j.heliyon.2023.e22413] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2022] [Revised: 09/28/2023] [Accepted: 11/10/2023] [Indexed: 12/02/2023] Open
Abstract
Vesicular monoamine transporters (VMATs) are key regulators of neurotransmitter release responsible for controlling numerous physiological, cognitive, emotional, and behavioral functions. They represent important therapeutic targets for numerous pathological conditions. There are two isoforms of VMAT transporter proteins that function as secondary active transporters into the vesicle for storage and release via exocytosis: VMAT1 (SLC18A1) and VMAT2 (SLC18A2) which differ in their function, quantity, and regional expression. VMAT2 has gained considerable interest as a therapeutic target and diagnostic marker. Inhibitors of VMAT2 have been used as an effective therapy for a range of pathological conditions. Additionally, the functionality and phenotypic classification of classical and nonclassical catecholaminergic neurons are identified by the presence of VMAT2 in catecholaminergic neurons. Dysregulation of VMAT2 is also implicated in many neuropsychiatric diseases. Despite the complex role of VMAT2, many aspects of its function remain unclear. Therefore, our aim is to expand our knowledge of the role of VMAT with a special focus on VMAT2 in different systems and cellular pathways which may potentially facilitate development of novel, more specific therapeutic targets. The current review provides a summary demonstrating the mechanism of action of VMAT, its functional role, and its contribution to disease progression and utilization as therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Malik Alwindi
- St George's University Hospital, London SW17 0QT, United Kingdom
| | - Ariege Bizanti
- Burnett School of Biomedical Sciences, College of Medicine, University of Central Florida, Orlando, FL 32816, USA
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4
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Mayer FP, Niello M, Cintulova D, Sideromenos S, Maier J, Li Y, Bulling S, Kudlacek O, Schicker K, Iwamoto H, Deng F, Wan J, Holy M, Katamish R, Sandtner W, Li Y, Pollak DD, Blakely RD, Mihovilovic MD, Baumann MH, Sitte HH. Serotonin-releasing agents with reduced off-target effects. Mol Psychiatry 2023; 28:722-732. [PMID: 36352123 PMCID: PMC9645344 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-022-01843-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2022] [Revised: 10/06/2022] [Accepted: 10/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
Increasing extracellular levels of serotonin (5-HT) in the brain ameliorates symptoms of depression and anxiety-related disorders, e.g., social phobias and post-traumatic stress disorder. Recent evidence from preclinical and clinical studies established the therapeutic potential of drugs inducing the release of 5-HT via the 5-HT-transporter. Nevertheless, current 5-HT releasing compounds under clinical investigation carry the risk for abuse and deleterious side effects. Here, we demonstrate that S-enantiomers of certain ring-substituted cathinones show preference for the release of 5-HT ex vivo and in vivo, and exert 5-HT-associated effects in preclinical behavioral models. Importantly, the lead cathinone compounds (1) do not induce substantial dopamine release and (2) display reduced off-target activity at vesicular monoamine transporters and 5-HT2B-receptors, indicative of low abuse-liability and low potential for adverse events. Taken together, our findings identify these agents as lead compounds that may prove useful for the treatment of disorders where elevation of 5-HT has proven beneficial.
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Affiliation(s)
- Felix P. Mayer
- grid.22937.3d0000 0000 9259 8492Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringer Strasse 13a, 1090 Vienna, Austria ,grid.255951.fDepartment of Biomedical Science, Charles E. Schmidt College of Medicine, Florida Atlantic University, Jupiter, FL 33458 USA
| | - Marco Niello
- grid.22937.3d0000 0000 9259 8492Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringer Strasse 13a, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Daniela Cintulova
- grid.5329.d0000 0001 2348 4034Institute of Applied Synthetic Chemistry, TU Wien, Vienna, Austria
| | - Spyridon Sideromenos
- grid.22937.3d0000 0000 9259 8492Department of Neurophysiology and Neuropharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Julian Maier
- grid.22937.3d0000 0000 9259 8492Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringer Strasse 13a, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Yang Li
- grid.22937.3d0000 0000 9259 8492Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringer Strasse 13a, 1090 Vienna, Austria ,grid.8547.e0000 0001 0125 2443Present Address: Institutes of Brain Science, Fudan University, Shanghai, 200032 China
| | - Simon Bulling
- grid.22937.3d0000 0000 9259 8492Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringer Strasse 13a, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Oliver Kudlacek
- grid.22937.3d0000 0000 9259 8492Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringer Strasse 13a, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Klaus Schicker
- grid.22937.3d0000 0000 9259 8492Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringer Strasse 13a, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Hideki Iwamoto
- grid.255951.fStiles-Nicholson Brain Institute and Department of Biomedical Science, Charles E. Schmidt College of Medicine, Florida Atlantic University, Jupiter, FL 33458 USA
| | - Fei Deng
- grid.11135.370000 0001 2256 9319IDG McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Peking University, 100871 Beijing, China
| | - Jinxia Wan
- grid.11135.370000 0001 2256 9319IDG McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Peking University, 100871 Beijing, China
| | - Marion Holy
- grid.22937.3d0000 0000 9259 8492Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringer Strasse 13a, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Rania Katamish
- grid.255951.fDepartment of Biomedical Science, Charles E. Schmidt College of Medicine, Florida Atlantic University, Jupiter, FL 33458 USA
| | - Walter Sandtner
- grid.22937.3d0000 0000 9259 8492Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringer Strasse 13a, 1090 Vienna, Austria
| | - Yulong Li
- grid.11135.370000 0001 2256 9319IDG McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Peking University, 100871 Beijing, China
| | - Daniela D. Pollak
- grid.22937.3d0000 0000 9259 8492Department of Neurophysiology and Neuropharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Randy D. Blakely
- grid.255951.fDepartment of Biomedical Science, Charles E. Schmidt College of Medicine, Florida Atlantic University, Jupiter, FL 33458 USA ,grid.255951.fStiles-Nicholson Brain Institute and Department of Biomedical Science, Charles E. Schmidt College of Medicine, Florida Atlantic University, Jupiter, FL 33458 USA
| | - Marko D. Mihovilovic
- grid.5329.d0000 0001 2348 4034Institute of Applied Synthetic Chemistry, TU Wien, Vienna, Austria
| | - Michael H. Baumann
- grid.94365.3d0000 0001 2297 5165Designer Drug Research Unit, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, MD 21224 USA
| | - Harald H. Sitte
- grid.22937.3d0000 0000 9259 8492Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, Waehringer Strasse 13a, 1090 Vienna, Austria ,grid.22937.3d0000 0000 9259 8492AddRess, Center for Addiction Research and Science, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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5
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Lenzi M, Gasperini S, Cocchi V, Tirri M, Marti M, Hrelia P. Genotoxicological Characterization of (±)cis-4,4'-DMAR and (±)trans-4,4'-DMAR and Their Association. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23105849. [PMID: 35628658 PMCID: PMC9142882 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23105849] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2022] [Revised: 05/17/2022] [Accepted: 05/19/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
The novel psychoactive substance (NPS) 4-Methyl-5-(4-methylphenyl)-4,5-dihydroxazol-2-amine (4,4′-DMAR) shows psychostimulant activity. Data on the acute toxicity of 4,4′-DMAR are becoming increasingly available, yet the long-term effects are still almost unknown. In particular, no data on genotoxicity are available. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to evaluate its genotoxic potential using the “In Vitro Mammalian Cell Micronucleus Test” (MNvit) on (±)cis-4,4′-DMAR and (±)trans-4,4′-DMAR and their associations. The analyses were conducted in vitro on human TK6 cells. To select suitable concentrations for MNvit, we preliminarily evaluated cytotoxicity and apoptosis. All endpoints were analysed by flow cytometry. The results reveal the two racemates’ opposite behaviours: (±)cis-4,4′-DMAR shows a statistically significant increase in micronuclei (MNi) frequency that (±)trans-4,4′-DMAR is completely incapable of. This contrast confirms the well-known possibility of observing opposite biological effects of the cis- and trans- isomers of a compound, and it highlights the importance of testing single NPSs that show even small differences in structure or conformation. The genotoxic capacity demonstrated stresses an additional alarming toxicological concern related to this NPS. Moreover, the co-treatments indicate that consuming both racemates will magnify the genotoxic effect, an aspect to consider given the unpredictability of illicit drug composition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monia Lenzi
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, Alma Mater Studiorum University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy
| | - Sofia Gasperini
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, Alma Mater Studiorum University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy
| | - Veronica Cocchi
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, Alma Mater Studiorum University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy
| | - Micaela Tirri
- LTTA Center and University Center of Gender Medicine, Department of Translational Medicine, Section of Legal Medicine, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy
| | - Matteo Marti
- LTTA Center and University Center of Gender Medicine, Department of Translational Medicine, Section of Legal Medicine, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy
- Collaborative Center for the Italian National Early Warning System, Department of Anti-Drug Policies, Presidency of the Council of Ministers, 00186 Rome, Italy
| | - Patrizia Hrelia
- Department of Pharmacy and Biotechnology, Alma Mater Studiorum University of Bologna, 40126 Bologna, Italy
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6
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Interaction Profiles of Central Nervous System Active Drugs at Human Organic Cation Transporters 1-3 and Human Plasma Membrane Monoamine Transporter. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms222312995. [PMID: 34884800 PMCID: PMC8657792 DOI: 10.3390/ijms222312995] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2021] [Revised: 11/26/2021] [Accepted: 11/28/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Many psychoactive compounds have been shown to primarily interact with high-affinity and low-capacity solute carrier 6 (SLC6) monoamine transporters for norepinephrine (NET; norepinephrine transporter), dopamine (DAT; dopamine transporter) and serotonin (SERT; serotonin transporter). Previous studies indicate an overlap between the inhibitory capacities of substances at SLC6 and SLC22 human organic cation transporters (SLC22A1-3; hOCT1-3) and the human plasma membrane monoamine transporter (SLC29A4; hPMAT), which can be classified as high-capacity, low-affinity monoamine transporters. However, interactions between central nervous system active substances, the OCTs, and the functionally-related PMAT have largely been understudied. Herein, we report data from 17 psychoactive substances interacting with the SLC6 monoamine transporters, concerning their potential to interact with the human OCT isoforms and hPMAT by utilizing radiotracer-based in vitro uptake inhibition assays at stably expressing human embryonic kidney 293 cells (HEK293) cells. Many compounds inhibit substrate uptake by hOCT1 and hOCT2 in the low micromolar range, whereas only a few substances interact with hOCT3 and hPMAT. Interestingly, methylphenidate and ketamine selectively interact with hOCT1 or hOCT2, respectively. Additionally, 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA) is a potent inhibitor of hOCT1 and 2 and hPMAT. Enantiospecific differences of R- and S-α-pyrrolidinovalerophenone (R- and S-α-PVP) and R- and S-citalopram and the effects of aromatic substituents are explored. Our results highlight the significance of investigating drug interactions with hOCTs and hPMAT, due to their role in regulating monoamine concentrations and xenobiotic clearance.
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7
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Tirri M, Frisoni P, Bilel S, Arfè R, Trapella C, Fantinati A, Corli G, Marchetti B, De-Giorgio F, Camuto C, Mazzarino M, Gaudio RM, Serpelloni G, Schifano F, Botrè F, Marti M. Worsening of the Toxic Effects of (±) Cis-4,4'-DMAR Following Its Co-Administration with (±) Trans-4,4'-DMAR: Neuro-Behavioural, Physiological, Immunohistochemical and Metabolic Studies in Mice. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22168771. [PMID: 34445476 PMCID: PMC8395767 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22168771] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/22/2021] [Revised: 08/13/2021] [Accepted: 08/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
4,4’-Dimethylaminorex (4,4’-DMAR) is a new synthetic stimulant, and only a little information has been made available so far regarding its pharmaco-toxicological effects. The aim of this study was to investigate the effects of the systemic administration of both the single (±)cis (0.1–60 mg/kg) and (±)trans (30 and 60 mg/kg) stereoisomers and their co-administration (e.g., (±)cis at 1, 10 or 60 mg/kg + (±)trans at 30 mg/kg) in mice. Moreover, we investigated the effect of 4,4′-DMAR on the expression of markers of oxidative/nitrosative stress (8-OHdG, iNOS, NT and NOX2), apoptosis (Smac/DIABLO and NF-κB), and heat shock proteins (HSP27, HSP70, HSP90) in the cerebral cortex. Our study demonstrated that the (±)cis stereoisomer dose-dependently induced psychomotor agitation, sweating, salivation, hyperthermia, stimulated aggression, convulsions and death. Conversely, the (±)trans stereoisomer was ineffective whilst the stereoisomers’ co-administration resulted in a worsening of the toxic (±)cis stereoisomer effects. This trend of responses was confirmed by immunohistochemical analysis on the cortex. Finally, we investigated the potentially toxic effects of stereoisomer co-administration by studying urinary excretion. The excretion study showed that the (±)trans stereoisomer reduced the metabolism of the (±)cis form and increased its amount in the urine, possibly reflecting its increased plasma levels and, therefore, the worsening of its toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Micaela Tirri
- LTTA Center and University Center of Gender Medicine, Department of Translational Medicine, Section of Legal Medicine, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy; (M.T.); (S.B.); (R.A.); (G.C.); (B.M.); (R.M.G.)
| | - Paolo Frisoni
- Department of Medical Sciences, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy;
| | - Sabrine Bilel
- LTTA Center and University Center of Gender Medicine, Department of Translational Medicine, Section of Legal Medicine, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy; (M.T.); (S.B.); (R.A.); (G.C.); (B.M.); (R.M.G.)
| | - Raffaella Arfè
- LTTA Center and University Center of Gender Medicine, Department of Translational Medicine, Section of Legal Medicine, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy; (M.T.); (S.B.); (R.A.); (G.C.); (B.M.); (R.M.G.)
| | - Claudio Trapella
- Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy; (C.T.); (A.F.)
| | - Anna Fantinati
- Department of Chemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy; (C.T.); (A.F.)
| | - Giorgia Corli
- LTTA Center and University Center of Gender Medicine, Department of Translational Medicine, Section of Legal Medicine, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy; (M.T.); (S.B.); (R.A.); (G.C.); (B.M.); (R.M.G.)
| | - Beatrice Marchetti
- LTTA Center and University Center of Gender Medicine, Department of Translational Medicine, Section of Legal Medicine, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy; (M.T.); (S.B.); (R.A.); (G.C.); (B.M.); (R.M.G.)
| | - Fabio De-Giorgio
- Department of Health Care Surveillance and Bioetics, Section of Legal Medicine, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome, Italy;
- Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Cristian Camuto
- Laboratorio Antidoping FMSI, Largo Giulio Onesti 1, 00197 Rome, Italy; (C.C.); (M.M.); (F.B.)
| | - Monica Mazzarino
- Laboratorio Antidoping FMSI, Largo Giulio Onesti 1, 00197 Rome, Italy; (C.C.); (M.M.); (F.B.)
| | - Rosa Maria Gaudio
- LTTA Center and University Center of Gender Medicine, Department of Translational Medicine, Section of Legal Medicine, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy; (M.T.); (S.B.); (R.A.); (G.C.); (B.M.); (R.M.G.)
| | - Giovanni Serpelloni
- Neuroscience Clinical Center & TMS Unit, 37138 Verona, Italy;
- Department of Psychiatry in the College of Medicine, Drug Policy Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA
| | - Fabrizio Schifano
- Psychopharmacology, Drug Misuse and Novel Psychoactive Substances Research Unit, School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, Hatfield AL10 9AB, UK;
| | - Francesco Botrè
- Laboratorio Antidoping FMSI, Largo Giulio Onesti 1, 00197 Rome, Italy; (C.C.); (M.M.); (F.B.)
- Institute of Sport Science, University of Lausanne (ISSUL), Synathlon, 1015 Lausanne, Switzerland
| | - Matteo Marti
- LTTA Center and University Center of Gender Medicine, Department of Translational Medicine, Section of Legal Medicine, University of Ferrara, 44121 Ferrara, Italy; (M.T.); (S.B.); (R.A.); (G.C.); (B.M.); (R.M.G.)
- Collaborative Center for the Italian National Early Warning System, Department of Anti-Drug Policies, Presidency of the Council of Ministers, 00186 Rome, Italy
- Correspondence:
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8
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Rudin D, Liechti ME, Luethi D. Molecular and clinical aspects of potential neurotoxicity induced by new psychoactive stimulants and psychedelics. Exp Neurol 2021; 343:113778. [PMID: 34090893 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2021.113778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/11/2021] [Revised: 05/25/2021] [Accepted: 05/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
New psychoactive stimulants and psychedelics continue to play an important role on the illicit new psychoactive substance (NPS) market. Designer stimulants and psychedelics both affect monoaminergic systems, although by different mechanisms. Stimulant NPS primarily interact with monoamine transporters, either as inhibitors or as substrates. Psychedelic NPS most potently interact with serotonergic receptors and mediate their mind-altering effects mainly through agonism at serotonin 5-hydroxytryptamine-2A (5-HT2A) receptors. Rarely, designer stimulants and psychedelics are associated with potentially severe adverse effects. However, due to the high number of emerging NPS, it is not possible to investigate the toxicity of each individual substance in detail. The brain is an organ particularly sensitive to substance-induced toxicity due to its high metabolic activity. In fact, stimulant and psychedelic NPS have been linked to neurological and cognitive impairments. Furthermore, studies using in vitro cell models or rodents indicate a variety of mechanisms that could potentially lead to neurotoxic damage in NPS users. Cytotoxicity, mitochondrial dysfunction, and oxidative stress may potentially contribute to neurotoxicity of stimulant NPS in addition to altered neurochemistry. Serotonin 5-HT2A receptor-mediated toxicity, oxidative stress, and activation of mitochondrial apoptosis pathways could contribute to neurotoxicity of some psychedelic NPS. However, it remains unclear how well the current preclinical data of NPS-induced neurotoxicity translate to humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Deborah Rudin
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, University Hospital Basel and University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland; Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Matthias E Liechti
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, University Hospital Basel and University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland
| | - Dino Luethi
- Division of Clinical Pharmacology and Toxicology, University Hospital Basel and University of Basel, Basel, Switzerland; Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria; Institute of Applied Physics, TU Wien, Vienna, Austria.
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9
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Maier J, Rauter L, Rudin D, Niello M, Holy M, Schmid D, Wilson J, Blough BE, Gannon BM, Murnane KS, Sitte HH. α-PPP and its derivatives are selective partial releasers at the human norepinephrine transporter: A pharmacological characterization of interactions between pyrrolidinopropiophenones and high and low affinity monoamine transporters. Neuropharmacology 2021; 190:108570. [PMID: 33864800 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2021.108570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2021] [Revised: 03/31/2021] [Accepted: 04/12/2021] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
While classical cathinones, such as methcathinone, have been shown to be monoamine releasing agents at human monoamine transporters, the subgroup of α-pyrrolidinophenones has thus far solely been characterized as monoamine transporter reuptake inhibitors. Herein, we report data from previously undescribed α-pyrrolidinopropiophenone (α-PPP) derivatives and compare them with the pharmacologically well-researched α-PVP (α-pyrrolidinovalerophenone). Radiotracer-based in vitro uptake inhibition assays in HEK293 cells show that the investigated α-PPP derivatives inhibit the human high-affinity transporters of dopamine (hDAT) and norepinephrine (hNET) in the low micromolar range, with α-PVP being ten times more potent. Similar to α-PVP, no relevant pharmacological activity was found at the human serotonin transporter (hSERT). Unexpectedly, radiotracer-based in vitro release assays reveal α-PPP, MDPPP and 3Br-PPP, but not α-PVP, to be partial releasing agents at hNET (EC50 values in the low micromolar range). Furthermore, uptake inhibition assays at low-affinity monoamine transporters, i.e., the human organic cation transporters (hOCT) 1-3 and human plasma membrane monoamine transporter (hPMAT), bring to light that all compounds inhibit hOCT1 and 2 (IC50 values in the low micromolar range) while less potently interacting with hPMAT and hOCT3. In conclusion, this study describes (i) three new hybrid compounds that efficaciously block hDAT while being partial releasers at hNET, and (ii) highlights the interactions of α-PPP-derivatives with low-affinity monoamine transporters, giving impetus to further studies investigating the interaction of drugs of abuse with OCT1-3 and PMAT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julian Maier
- Medical University of Vienna, Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Währingerstraße 13A, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Laurin Rauter
- Medical University of Vienna, Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Währingerstraße 13A, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Deborah Rudin
- Medical University of Vienna, Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Währingerstraße 13A, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Marco Niello
- Medical University of Vienna, Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Währingerstraße 13A, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Marion Holy
- Medical University of Vienna, Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Währingerstraße 13A, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Diethart Schmid
- Medical University of Vienna, Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Physiology, Währingerstraße 13A, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Joseph Wilson
- Research Triangle Institute, Center for Drug Discovery, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| | - Bruce E Blough
- Research Triangle Institute, Center for Drug Discovery, Research Triangle Park, NC, USA
| | - Brenda M Gannon
- Mercer University College of Pharmacy, Mercer University Health Sciences Center, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Atlanta, GA, USA; Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, Shreveport, Department of Pharmacology Toxicology & Neuroscience and Louisiana Addiction Research Center, Shreveport, LA, USA
| | - Kevin S Murnane
- Mercer University College of Pharmacy, Mercer University Health Sciences Center, Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Atlanta, GA, USA; Louisiana State University Health Sciences Center, Shreveport, Department of Pharmacology Toxicology & Neuroscience and Louisiana Addiction Research Center, Shreveport, LA, USA
| | - Harald H Sitte
- Medical University of Vienna, Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Währingerstraße 13A, 1090, Vienna, Austria; AddRess Centre for Addiction Research and Science, Medical University of Vienna, Währingerstraße 13A, 1090, Vienna, Austria.
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10
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Niello M, Cintulová D, Raithmayr P, Holy M, Jäntsch K, Colas C, Ecker GF, Sitte HH, Mihovilovic MD. Effects of Hydroxylated Mephedrone Metabolites on Monoamine Transporter Activity in vitro. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:654061. [PMID: 33897439 PMCID: PMC8063026 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.654061] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2021] [Accepted: 03/01/2021] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Mephedrone is a largely abused psychostimulant. It elicits the release of monoamines via the high affinity transporters for dopamine (DAT), norepinephrine (NET) and serotonin (SERT). Stereoselective metabolic reactions are involved in the inactivation and the elimination of its chemical structure. However, during these processes, several structures are generated and some of them have been reported to be still pharmacologically active. In this study 1) we have newly synthetized several putative mephedrone metabolites, 2) compared their activity at monoamine transporters, 3) generated quantitative structure activity relationships, and 4) exploited the chemical structure of the putative metabolites to screen a urine sample from a drug user and dissect mephedrone metabolism. We have found that most of the tested metabolites are weak inhibitors of monoamine transporters and that all of them are more potent at DAT and NET in comparison to SERT. The only exception is represented by the COOH-metabolite which shows no pharmacological activity at all three monoamine transporters. The enantioselectivity of mephedrone and its metabolites is present mainly at SERT, with only minor effects at DAT and NET being introduced when the β-keto group is reduced to an OH-group. Importantly, while at DAT the putative metabolites did not show changes in inhibitory potencies, but rather changes in their substrate/blocker profile, at SERT they showed mainly changes in inhibitory potencies. Molecular modeling suggests that the hydrophobic nature of a specific SERT subpocket may be involved in such loss of affinity. Finally, the assessment of the putative metabolites in one urine sample of mephedrone user displayed two previously uncharacterized metabolites, 4-COOH-nor-mephedrone (4-COOH-MC) and dihydro-4- nor-mephedrone (dihydro-4-MC). These results confirm and expand previous studies highlighting the importance of the stereochemistry in the pharmacodynamics of phase-1 metabolites of mephedrone, established their structure-activity relationships at DAT, NET and SERT and pave the way for a systematic dissection of mephedrone metabolic routes. Given the number of structures found having residual and modified pharmacological profiles, these findings may help in understanding the complex subjective effects of administered mephedrone. Moreover, the dissection of mephedrone metabolic routes may help in developing new therapies for treating psychostimulants acute intoxications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marco Niello
- Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University, Vienna, Austria
| | | | - Philip Raithmayr
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Marion Holy
- Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University, Vienna, Austria
| | - Kathrin Jäntsch
- Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University, Vienna, Austria
| | - Claire Colas
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Gerhard F Ecker
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Harald H Sitte
- Institute of Pharmacology, Medical University, Vienna, Austria
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11
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Brandt SD, Walters HM, Partilla JS, Blough BE, Kavanagh PV, Baumann MH. The psychoactive aminoalkylbenzofuran derivatives, 5-APB and 6-APB, mimic the effects of 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA) on monoamine transmission in male rats. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2020; 237:3703-3714. [PMID: 32875347 PMCID: PMC7686291 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-020-05648-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2020] [Accepted: 08/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE The nonmedical use of new psychoactive substances (NPS) is a worldwide public health concern. The so-called "benzofury" compounds, 5-(2-aminopropyl)benzofuran (5-APB) and 6-(2-aminopropyl)benzofuran (6-APB), are NPS with stimulant-like properties in human users. These substances are known to interact with monoamine transporters and 5-HT receptors in transfected cells, but less is known about their effects in animal models. METHODS Here, we used in vitro monoamine transporter assays in rat brain synaptosomes to characterize the effects of 5-APB and 6-APB, together with their N-methyl derivatives 5-MAPB and 6-MAPB, in comparison with 3,4-methylenedioxyamphetamine (MDA) and 3,4-methylenedioxymethamphetamine (MDMA). In vivo neurochemical and behavioral effects of 5-APB (0.3 and 1.0 mg/kg, i.v.) and 6-APB (0.3 and 1.0 mg/kg, i.v.) were assessed in comparison with MDA (1.0 and 3.0 mg/kg, i.v.) using microdialysis sampling in the nucleus accumbens of conscious male rats. RESULTS All four benzofuran derivatives were substrate-type releasers at dopamine transporters (DAT), norepinephrine transporters (NET), and serotonin transporters (SERT) with nanomolar potencies, similar to the profile of effects produced by MDA and MDMA. However, the benzofurans were at least threefold more potent than MDA and MDMA at evoking transporter-mediated release. Like MDA, both benzofurans induced dose-related elevations in extracellular dopamine and serotonin in the brain, but benzofurans were more potent than MDA. The benzofuran derivatives also induced profound behavioral activation characterized by forward locomotion which lasted for at least 2 h post-injection. CONCLUSIONS Overall, benzofurans are more potent than MDA in vitro and in vivo, producing sustained stimulant-like effects in rats. These data suggest that benzofuran-type compounds may have abuse liability and could pose risks for adverse effects, especially if used in conjunction with abused drugs or medications which enhance monoamine transmission in the brain.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simon D. Brandt
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Byrom Street, L3 3AF, Liverpool, UK
| | - Hailey M. Walters
- Designer Drug Research Unit, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, 333 Cassell Drive, MD 21224, USA
| | - John S. Partilla
- Designer Drug Research Unit, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, 333 Cassell Drive, MD 21224, USA
| | - Bruce E. Blough
- Center for Drug Discovery, RTI International, 3040 Cornwallis Rd, Research Triangle Park, NC 27709, USA
| | - Pierce V. Kavanagh
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, School of Medicine, Trinity Centre for Health Sciences, St. James Hospital, Dublin 8, Ireland
| | - Michael H. Baumann
- Designer Drug Research Unit, Intramural Research Program, National Institute on Drug Abuse, National Institutes of Health, Baltimore, 333 Cassell Drive, MD 21224, USA,Correspondence: Michael H. Baumann, Ph.D., Chief, Designer Drug Research Unit (DDRU), Intramural Research Program (IRP), National Institute on Drug Abuse (NIDA) 333 Cassell Drive, Suite 4400, Baltimore, MD 21224,
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12
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Metabolic profile of the synthetic drug 4,4′-dimethylaminorex in urine by LC–MS-based techniques: selection of the most suitable markers of its intake. Forensic Toxicol 2020. [DOI: 10.1007/s11419-020-00544-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Abstract
Purpose
In this study, the phase I and II metabolic pathways of 4,4′-dimethylaminorex were characterized to select the marker(s) of intake allowing the unequivocal identification of this novel psychoactive substance in urine samples.
Methods
The metabolic profile of 4,4′-dimethylaminorex was characterized using both in vitro and in vivo models. In detail, for the in vitro experiments, either pooled human liver microsomes or recombinant cytochrome P450 isoforms were selected, whereas the in vivo investigation was performed on male mice ICR (CD-1®). Sample preparation included enzymatic hydrolysis followed by liquid/liquid extraction. The instrumental analysis was performed by ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography coupled to either high- or low-resolution tandem mass spectrometry.
Results
Five metabolic products were isolated only for the cis-isomer: the phase I metabolic reactions included hydrolysis, carboxylation, hydroxylation, and carbonylation. CYP2D6 was the principal isoenzyme involved, and the incubation in the presence of different allelic variants showed significant alteration on the metabolic profile. Once formed, the phase I metabolites underwent extensive conjugation. Not only the most abundant compounds detected, but also those with the most extended window of detection, were the carboxylated and the hydroxylated metabolites. These analytes together with the parent compound were selected as the most suitable markers of intake.
Conclusions
Knowledge of the metabolic profiles of the new drugs is essential for their fast identification. Phase I and phase II metabolites of 4,4′-dimethylaminorex were identified and selected as markers of intake, to be considered as the most suitable analytical targets in forensic toxicology.
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13
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Abstract
Psychoactive substances with chemical structures or pharmacological profiles that are similar to traditional drugs of abuse continue to emerge on the recreational drug market. Internet vendors may at least temporarily sell these so-called designer drugs without adhering to legal statutes or facing legal consequences. Overall, the mechanism of action and adverse effects of designer drugs are similar to traditional drugs of abuse. Stimulants, such as amphetamines and cathinones, primarily interact with monoamine transporters and mostly induce sympathomimetic adverse effects. Agonism at μ-opioid receptors and γ-aminobutyric acid-A (GABAA) or GABAB receptors mediates the pharmacological effects of sedatives, which may induce cardiorespiratory depression. Dissociative designer drugs primarily act as N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor antagonists and pose similar health risks as the medically approved dissociative anesthetic ketamine. The cannabinoid type 1 (CB1) receptor is thought to drive the psychoactive effects of synthetic cannabinoids, which are associated with a less desirable effect profile and more severe adverse effects compared with cannabis. Serotonergic 5-hydroxytryptamine-2A (5-HT2A) receptors mediate alterations of perception and cognition that are induced by serotonergic psychedelics. Because of their novelty, designer drugs may remain undetected by routine drug screening, thus hampering evaluations of adverse effects. Intoxication reports suggest that several designer drugs are used concurrently, posing a high risk for severe adverse effects and even death.
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14
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Santos‐Toscano R, Guirguis A, Davidson C. How preclinical studies have influenced novel psychoactive substance legislation in the UK and Europe. Br J Clin Pharmacol 2020; 86:452-481. [DOI: 10.1111/bcp.14224] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/20/2019] [Revised: 01/13/2020] [Accepted: 01/14/2020] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Raquel Santos‐Toscano
- School of Pharmacy & Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Clinical & Biomedical Sciences University of Central Lancashire UK
| | - Amira Guirguis
- Swansea University Medical School, Institute of Life Sciences 2, Swansea University Swansea UK
| | - Colin Davidson
- School of Pharmacy & Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Clinical & Biomedical Sciences University of Central Lancashire UK
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15
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Fabregat-Safont D, Carbón X, Ventura M, Fornís I, Hernández F, Ibáñez M. Characterization of a recently detected halogenated aminorex derivative: para-fluoro-4-methylaminorex (4'F-4-MAR). Sci Rep 2019; 9:8314. [PMID: 31165778 PMCID: PMC6549166 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-019-44830-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2018] [Accepted: 05/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Despite the fact that 33% of the new psychoactive substances seized in 2015 were synthetic cathinones, the number of these derivatives has been decreasing in the last years, probably as a consequence of the unfavourable effects reported by users. Thus, the list of possible cathinone analogues is expected to get shorter, and it is likely that the same moiety changes applied for the preparation of synthetic cathinones will be applied in the near future to other stimulants in the search for favourable alternatives to controlled substances. This is evidenced by the increase in newly reported substances belonging to stimulant classes other than cathinones. One of the possible candidates for a new backbone from which to base new stimulants is aminorex, which is classified as a Schedule I substance by the Drug Enforcement Administration. Three derivatives have been reported until now: 4-methylaminorex or 4-MAR (also categorized as a Schedule I substance), para-methyl-4-methylaminorex (4,4′-DMAR) and 3′,4′-methylenedioxy-4-methylaminorex (MDMAR). Recently, the new halogenated 4-MAR derivative, para-fluoro-4-methylaminorex, characterised in this work (and abbreviated as pF-4-methylaminorex or 4′F-4-MAR) was detected by the Slovenian police. In the present work, 4′F-4-MAR has been characterized by high resolution mass spectrometry and nuclear magnetic resonance in a sample obtained from an anonymous consumer. This research shows that the same modifications applied for the preparation of synthetic cathinones are being used to prepare new stimulants based on the aminorex backbone.
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Affiliation(s)
- D Fabregat-Safont
- Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, University Jaume I, Avda. Sos Baynat s/n, 12071, Castelló de la Plana, Spain
| | - X Carbón
- Energy Control (Asociación Bienestar y Desarrollo), c/Independencia 384, 08041, Barcelona, Spain
| | - M Ventura
- Energy Control (Asociación Bienestar y Desarrollo), c/Independencia 384, 08041, Barcelona, Spain
| | - I Fornís
- Energy Control (Asociación Bienestar y Desarrollo), c/Independencia 384, 08041, Barcelona, Spain
| | - F Hernández
- Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, University Jaume I, Avda. Sos Baynat s/n, 12071, Castelló de la Plana, Spain
| | - M Ibáñez
- Research Institute for Pesticides and Water, University Jaume I, Avda. Sos Baynat s/n, 12071, Castelló de la Plana, Spain.
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16
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Rickli A, Kolaczynska K, Hoener MC, Liechti ME. Pharmacological characterization of the aminorex analogs 4-MAR, 4,4′-DMAR, and 3,4-DMAR. Neurotoxicology 2019; 72:95-100. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuro.2019.02.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2018] [Revised: 01/15/2019] [Accepted: 02/14/2019] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
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Abstract
Aminorex (5-phenyl-4,5-dihydro-1,3-oxazol-2-amine) and 4-methylaminorex (4-methyl-5-phenyl-4,5-dihydro-1,3-oxazol-2-amine) are psychostimulants that have long been listed in Schedules IV and I of the UN Convention on Psychotropic Substances of 1971. However, a range of psychoactive analogues exist that are not internationally controlled and therefore often classified as new psychoactive substances (NPS). Aminorex analogues encompass failed pharmaceuticals that reemerged as drugs of abuse, and newly synthesized substances that were solely designed for recreational use by clandestine chemists. NPS, sometimes also referred to as "designer drugs" in alignment with a phenomenon arising in the early 1980s, serve as alternatives to controlled drugs. Aminorex and its derivatives interact with monoaminergic neurotransmission by interfering with the function of monoamine transporters. Hence, these compounds share pharmacological and neurochemical similarities with amphetamines and cocaine. The consumption of aminorex, 4-methylaminorex and 4,4'-dimethylaminorex (4-methyl-5-(4-methylphenyl)-4,5-dihydro-1,3-oxazol-2-amine) has been associated with adverse events including death, bestowing an inglorious fame on aminorex-derived drugs. In this Review, a historical background is presented, as well as an account of the pharmacodynamic and pharmacokinetic properties of aminorex and various analogues. Light is shed on their misuse as drug adulterants of well-established drugs on the market. This Review not only provides a detailed overview of an abused substance-class, but also emphasizes the darkest aspect of the NPS market, i.e., deleterious side effects that arise from the ingestion of certain NPS, as knowledge of the pharmacology, the potency, or the identity of the active ingredients remains obscure to NPS users.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julian Maier
- Medical University of Vienna, Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Währingerstraße 13A, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Felix P. Mayer
- Medical University of Vienna, Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Währingerstraße 13A, 1090, Vienna, Austria
| | - Simon D. Brandt
- School of Pharmacy and Biomolecular Sciences, Liverpool John Moores University, Byrom Street, Liverpool, L3 3AF, UK
| | - Harald H. Sitte
- Medical University of Vienna, Center for Physiology and Pharmacology, Institute of Pharmacology, Währingerstraße 13A, 1090, Vienna, Austria
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