Clozapine attenuates mitochondrial dysfunction, inflammatory gene expression, and behavioral abnormalities in an animal model of schizophrenia

Neuroreceptor Inhibition by Clozapine Triggers Mitohormesis and Metabolic Reprogramming in Human Blood Cells

The antipsychotic drug clozapine demonstrates superior efficacy in treatment-resistant schizophrenia, but its intracellular mode of action is not completely understood. Here, we analysed the effects of clozapine (2.5-20 µM) on metabolic fluxes, cell respiration, and intracellular ATP in human HL60 cells. Some results were confirmed in leukocytes of clozapine-treated patients. Neuroreceptor inhibition under clozapine reduced Akt activation with decreased glucose uptake, thereby inducing ER stress and the unfolded protein response (UPR). Metabolic profiling by liquid-chromatography/mass-spectrometry revealed downregulation of glycolysis and the pentose phosphate pathway, thereby saving glucose to keep the electron transport chain working. Mitochondrial respiration was dampened by upregulation of the F0F1-ATPase inhibitory factor 1 (IF1) leading to 30-40% lower oxygen consumption in HL60 cells. Blocking IF1 expression by cotreatment with epigallocatechin-3-gallate (EGCG) increased apoptosis of HL60 cells. Upregulation of the mitochondrial citrate carrier shifted excess citrate to the cytosol for use in lipogenesis and for storage as triacylglycerol in lipid droplets (LDs). Accordingly, clozapine-treated HL60 cells and leukocytes from clozapine-treated patients contain more LDs than untreated cells. Since mitochondrial disturbances are described in the pathophysiology of schizophrenia, clozapine-induced mitohormesis is an excellent way to escape energy deficits and improve cell survival.

The role of gender differences in the outcome of juvenile social isolation: Emphasis on changes in behavioral, biochemical and expression of nitric oxide synthase genes alteration

Social isolation can cause serious problem in performance of individuals in community. As gender differences may cause variation results in the severity of depressive behavior and response of patients to therapy, the impact of gender and the interaction of the level of endocrine secretion in depression were investigated in this study. Wistar rats of both sexes were subjected to post-weaning social isolation (PWSI) conditions and, together with the control group, experienced several behavioral tests including open-field Test (OFT), elevated plus maze (EPM), force swimming test (FST), splash test and novel object recognition test (NOR). Hippocampal tissue was isolated to measure biochemical factors such as nitric oxide level, FRAP amount, MDA level. In addition, real-time-PCR test was used to quantify the genes expression level of inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) and neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS). On the other hand, sexual hormone levels in blood were measured. Both cognitive and behavioral f unctions were declined as the result of PWSI induction in male and diestrus female rats. The consequent surge of estradiol during estrous phase seems to suppress the accumulation of reactive oxygen species (ROS), and modulate iNOS and nNOS expression. In conclusion, while the pattern of PWSI in surge cellular antioxidants, raising cellular ROS level is gender-specific, this alleviation was in relation with the drop of estradiol and unrelated with testosterone level.

Altered mitochondrial lymphocyte in overweight schizophrenia patients treated with atypical antipsychotics and its association with cognitive function

Objective

Increasing evidence indicated that schizophrenia and obesity are associated with altered mitochondrial and immune function. In this study, we investigated the levels of CRP (C-reactive protein) and mitochondrial lymphocytes in chronically treated schizophrenia patients with atypical antipsychotic medications and further explored the relationship between mitochondrial lymphocyte and weight gain as well as cognitive function in these patients.

Methods

We evaluated the mitochondrial lymphocyte count of 97 patients (53 overweight, 44 non-overweight) and 100 healthy controls using mitochondrial fluorescence staining and flow cytometry (NovoCyte, Agilent Technologies, US). The serum CRP was measured by high-sensitivity enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA). Clinical symptoms and cognitive function of the patients were assessed using the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS) and the Repeatable Battery for the Assessment of Neuropsychological Status (RBANS).

Results

The results showed that mitochondrial lymphocyte counts of CD3+ T, CD3+CD4+ T, and CD3+CD8+ T cells in schizophrenia patients were higher than in the control group (p < 0.05). Additionally, overweight patients had significantly higher mitochondrial lymphocyte counts of CD3+ T and CD3+CD4+ T cells compared to schizophrenia patients with normal weight. Stratified analysis by gender revealed that there was a statistically significant difference in CD3+CD4+ mitochondrial lymphocyte count in male patients (p = 0.014) and a marginal trend toward significance in female patients (p = 0.058). Furthermore, the mitochondrial lymphocyte counts of CD3+ T and CD3+CD4+ T cells, as well as CRP levels, were positively correlated with BMI in schizophrenia patients, but the mitochondrial lymphocyte counts of CD3+CD4+ T cells were negatively correlated with the language scale in the RBANS.

Conclusion

Our study results provide evidence for the association between altered mitochondrial T lymphocyte and weight gain as well as cognitive impairment in schizophrenia patients treated with atypical antipsychotic medications.

Fabrication of a microfluidic device for probiotic drug's dosage screening: Precision Medicine for Breast Cancer Treatment

Breast cancer is the most common cancer in women; it has been affecting the lives of millions each year globally and microfluidic devices seem to be a promising method for the future advancements in this field. This research uses a dynamic cell culture condition in a microfluidic concentration gradient device, helping us to assess breast anticancer activities of probiotic strains against MCF-7 cells. It has been shown that MCF-7 cells could grow and proliferate for at least 24 h; however, a specific concentration of probiotic supernatant could induce more cell death signaling population after 48 h. One of our key findings was that our evaluated optimum dose (7.8 mg/L) was less than the conventional static cell culture treatment dose (12 mg/L). To determine the most effective dose over time and the percentage of apoptosis versus necrosis, flowcytometric assessment was performed. Exposing the MCF-7 cells to probiotic supernatant after 6, 24 and 48 h, confirmed that the apoptotic and necrotic cell death signaling were concentration and time dependent. We have shown a case that these types of microfluidics platforms performing dynamic cell culture could be beneficial in personalized medicine and cancer therapy.

Schizophrenia as metabolic disease. What are the causes?

Schizophrenia (SZ) is a devastating neurodevelopmental disease with an accelerated ageing feature. The criteria of metabolic disease firmly fit with those of schizophrenia. Disturbances in energy and mitochondria are at the core of complex pathology. Genetic and environmental interaction creates changes in redox, inflammation, and apoptosis. All the factors behind schizophrenia interact in a cycle where it is difficult to discriminate between the cause and the effect. New technology and advances in the multi-dispensary fields could break this cycle in the future.

Mitochondrial Damage of Lymphocytes in Patients with Acute Relapse of Schizophrenia: A Correlational Study with Efficacy and Clinical Symptoms

OBJECTIVE

Accumulating evidence has demonstrated that schizophrenia is associated with mitochondrial and immune abnormalities. In this pilot case-control study, we investigated the level of mitochondrial impairment in lymphocytes in patients with acute relapse of schizophrenia and explored the correlation between the level of mitochondrial damage and symptoms or treatment response.

METHODS

Lymphocytic mitochondrial damage was detected using mitochondrial fluorescence staining and flow cytometry in 37 patients (at admission and discharge) and 24 controls. Clinical symptoms were assessed using the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS) and Clinical Global Impression Scale (CGI-S).

RESULTS

The levels of mitochondrial damage in CD3+ T, CD4+ T, and CD8+ T lymphocytes of the patients with schizophrenia at admission were significantly higher than those of the controls (p<0.05) and did not return to normal at discharge (p>0.05). The mitochondrial damage of T cells significantly improved at discharge for responsive patients only, as compared with that at admission (P<0.05). However, no significant difference was found in mitochondrial damage in CD19+ B cells between patients and healthy controls, or between admission and discharge (p>0.05). Furthermore, the reduction in mitochondrial damage of CD3, CD4, and CD8 lymphocytes was positively correlated with the reduction of the score of the PANSS positive scale at discharge (p<0.05), while no significant correlation was found between the level of mitochondrial damage in lymphocytes and the scores of PANSS and CGI-S.

CONCLUSION

Acute relapse of schizophrenia might be associated with higher levels of mitochondrial damage in peripheral blood T lymphocytes. The degree of recovery of mitochondrial impairment in the T cells may be used as a predictor of treatment response in schizophrenia. As this is a pilot study, the conclusion still needs further verification in large-scale studies.

Post-weaning social isolation impairs purinergic signaling in rat brain

Early life stressors, such as social isolation (SI), can disrupt brain development contributing to behavioral and neurochemical alterations in adulthood. Purinergic receptors and ectonucleotidases are key regulators of brain development in embryonic and postnatal periods, and they are involved in several psychiatric disorders, including schizophrenia. The extracellular ATP drives purinergic signaling by activating P2X and P2Y receptors and it is hydrolyzed by ectonucleotidases in adenosine, which activates P1 receptors. The purpose of this study was to investigate if SI, a rodent model used to replicate abnormal behavior relevant to schizophrenia, impacts purinergic signaling. Male Wistar rats were reared from weaning in group-housed or SI conditions for 8 weeks. SI rats exhibited impairment in prepulse inhibition and social interaction. SI presented increased ADP levels in cerebrospinal fluid and ADP hydrolysis in the hippocampus and striatum synaptosomes. Purinergic receptor expressions were upregulated in the prefrontal cortex and downregulated in the hippocampus and striatum. A_2A receptors were differentially expressed in SI prefrontal cortex and the striatum, suggesting distinct roles in these brain structures. SI also presented decreased ADP, adenosine, and guanosine levels in the cerebrospinal fluid in response to D-amphetamine. Like patients with schizophrenia, uric acid levels were prominently increased in SI rats after D-amphetamine challenge. We suggest that the SI-induced deficits in prepulse inhibition might be related to the SI-induced changes in purinergic signaling. We provide new evidence that purinergic signaling is markedly affected in a rat model relevant to schizophrenia, pointing out the importance of purinergic system in psychiatry conditions.