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Chen D, Rehfeld JF, Watts AG, Rorsman P, Gundlach AL. History of key regulatory peptide systems and perspectives for future research. J Neuroendocrinol 2023; 35:e13251. [PMID: 37053148 DOI: 10.1111/jne.13251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2023] [Revised: 02/10/2023] [Accepted: 02/26/2023] [Indexed: 03/06/2023]
Abstract
Throughout the 20th Century, regulatory peptide discovery advanced from the identification of gut hormones to the extraction and characterization of hypothalamic hypophysiotropic factors, and to the isolation and cloning of multiple brain neuropeptides. These discoveries were followed by the discovery of G-protein-coupled and other membrane receptors for these peptides. Subsequently, the systems physiology associated with some of these multiple regulatory peptides and receptors has been comprehensively elucidated and has led to improved therapeutics and diagnostics and their approval by the US Food and Drug Administration. In light of this wealth of information and further potential, it is truly a time of renaissance for regulatory peptides. In this perspective, we review what we have learned from the pioneers in exemplified fields of gut peptides, such as cholecystokinin, enterochromaffin-like-cell peptides, and glucagon, from the trailblazing studies on the key stress hormone, corticotropin-releasing factor, as well as from more recently characterized relaxin-family peptides and receptors. The historical viewpoints are based on our understanding of these topics in light of the earliest phases of research and on subsequent studies and the evolution of knowledge, aiming to sharpen our vision of the current state-of-the-art and those studies that should be prioritized in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Duan Chen
- Department of Clinical and Molecular Medicine, Faculty of Medicine and Health Sciences, Norwegian University of Science and Technology (NTNU), Trondheim, Norway
| | - Jens F Rehfeld
- Department of Clinical Biochemistry, Rigshospitalet, University of Copenhagen, Copenhagen, Denmark
| | - Alan G Watts
- Department of Biological Sciences, Dornsife College of Letters, Arts and Sciences, University of Southern California, Los Angeles, California, USA
| | - Patrik Rorsman
- Oxford Centre for Diabetes, Endocrinology and Metabolism, Radcliffe Department of Medicine, University of Oxford, Oxford, UK
| | - Andrew L Gundlach
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
- Florey Department of Neuroscience and Mental Health and Department of Anatomy and Physiology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC, Australia
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Hu J, Li P, Han H, Ji P, Zhao X, Li Z. Integrated analysis of metabolomic and transcriptomic profiling reveals the effect of Buyang Huanwu decoction on Parkinson's disease in mice. PHYTOMEDICINE : INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHYTOTHERAPY AND PHYTOPHARMACOLOGY 2023; 114:154755. [PMID: 36948142 DOI: 10.1016/j.phymed.2023.154755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2022] [Revised: 02/28/2023] [Accepted: 03/08/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Parkinson's disease (PD) is a common, complex, and chronic neurodegenerative disorder involved in multi-system. At present, medicine for PD has many limitations. Buyang Huanwu decoction (BHD), a famous traditional Chinese medicinal (TCM) formulae, is used in the treatment of PD clinically in China. However, the therapeutic mechanism is still unknown. PURPOSE We aimed to explore the pharmacological mechanism of BHD alleviating PD through an integrated liver metabolome and brain transcriptome analysis. METHODS The mice with PD were induced by 1-methyl-4-phenyl-1,2,3,6-tetrahydropyridine (MPTP). Behavioral tests and immunohistochemistry were used to evaluate the neuroprotective effects of BHD. The non-targeted metabolomics analysis was conducted to profile differentially accumulated metabolites (DAMs) in the liver using a UHPLC-Q-Exactive MS/MS method. The differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in the brain were investigated by transcriptomic analysis on an Illumina sequencing platform. The correlations of DAMs and DEGs were investigated using an integrated metabolomic and transcriptomic approach. RESULTS The results of behavioral tests and immunohistochemistry proved the alleviated effects of BHD on PD symptoms. A total of 14 and 36 DAMs were detected in the groups treated with low- (L group) and high-dose (H group) BHD respectively under the positive ion mode. Compared with the PD model group (M group), three enriched pathways including metabolic pathways, ABC transporters, and biosynthesis of amino acids were common in the L and H group. Transcriptomic analysis proved that BHD could regulate the expression of numerous genes, some of which were targeted by Ben-Ldopa such as Creb5, Gm45623, Ccer2, Cd180, Fosl2, Crip3, and Noxred1. Based on the integrated metabolomic and transcriptomic analysis, 7 metabolite-gene pairs were found in four comparisons, including C vs M, M vs P, M vs L, and M vs H, and 6 enriched pathways containing purine metabolism, glycine/serine/threonine metabolism, phenylalanine metabolism, carbon fixation in photosynthetic organisms, thiamine metabolism, and ABC transporters were overlapped. CONCLUSIONS Though the underlying pharmacological mechanism of BHD is still lacking, we provided evidence that BHD could improve dopaminergic neurons in MPTP-induced PD mice by regulating liver metabolism and brain transcriptome. The correlation between the liver and the brain was preliminarily revealed in this study.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianran Hu
- Institute of Biotechnology, The Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology and Molecular Engineering of Ministry of Education, Shanxi University, Taiyuan 030006, China; Department of Biological Science and Technology, Jinzhong University, Jinzhong 030619, China
| | - Ping Li
- Department of Biological Science and Technology, Jinzhong University, Jinzhong 030619, China
| | - Hongyan Han
- Department of Biological Science and Technology, Jinzhong University, Jinzhong 030619, China
| | - Pengyu Ji
- Institute of Biotechnology, The Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology and Molecular Engineering of Ministry of Education, Shanxi University, Taiyuan 030006, China; Department of Biological Science and Technology, Jinzhong University, Jinzhong 030619, China
| | - Xin Zhao
- Key Laboratory of Cellular Physiology (Shanxi Medical University), Ministry of Education, and the Department of Physiology, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan 030001, China
| | - Zhuoyu Li
- Institute of Biotechnology, The Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology and Molecular Engineering of Ministry of Education, Shanxi University, Taiyuan 030006, China.
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A 35-bp Conserved Region Is Crucial for Insl3 Promoter Activity in Mouse MA-10 Leydig Cells. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232315060. [PMID: 36499388 PMCID: PMC9738330 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232315060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/01/2022] [Revised: 11/14/2022] [Accepted: 11/28/2022] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
The peptide hormone insulin-like 3 (INSL3) is produced almost exclusively by Leydig cells of the male gonad. INSL3 has several functions such as fetal testis descent and bone metabolism in adults. Insl3 gene expression in Leydig cells is not hormonally regulated but rather is constitutively expressed. The regulatory region of the Insl3 gene has been described in various species; moreover, functional studies have revealed that the Insl3 promoter is regulated by various transcription factors that include the nuclear receptors AR, NUR77, COUP-TFII, LRH1, and SF1, as well as the Krüppel-like factor KLF6. However, these transcription factors are also found in several tissues that do not express Insl3, indicating that other, yet unidentified factors, must be involved to drive Insl3 expression specifically in Leydig cells. Through a fine functional promoter analysis, we have identified a 35-bp region that is responsible for conferring 70% of the activity of the mouse Insl3 promoter in Leydig cells. All tri- and dinucleotide mutations introduced dramatically reduced Insl3 promoter activity, indicating that the entire 35-bp sequence is required. Nuclear proteins from MA-10 Leydig cells bound specifically to the 35-bp region. The 35-bp sequence contains GC- and GA-rich motifs as well as potential binding elements for members of the CREB, C/EBP, AP1, AP2, and NF-κB families. The Insl3 promoter was indeed activated 2-fold by NF-κB p50 but not by other transcription factors tested. These results help to further define the regulation of Insl3 gene transcription in Leydig cells.
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Ivell R, Alhujaili W, Kohsaka T, Anand-Ivell R. Physiology and evolution of the INSL3/RXFP2 hormone/receptor system in higher vertebrates. Gen Comp Endocrinol 2020; 299:113583. [PMID: 32800774 DOI: 10.1016/j.ygcen.2020.113583] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/23/2020] [Accepted: 08/08/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Although the insulin-like peptide hormone INSL3 and its cognate receptor RXFP2 (relaxin-family peptide receptor 2) have existed throughout chordate evolution, their physiological diversification appears to be linked closely with mammalian emergence and radiation. In contrast, they have been lost in birds and reptiles. Both hormone and receptor are expressed from autosomal genes which have maintained their synteny across vertebrate evolution. Whereas the INSL3 gene comprises only two exons closely linked to the JAK3 gene, RXFP2 is normally encoded by 18 exons. Both genes, however, are subject to alternative splicing to yield a variety of possibly inactive or antagonistic molecules. In mammals, the INSL3-RXFP2 dyad has maintained a probably primitive association with gametogenesis, seen also in fish, whereby INSL3 promotes the survival, growth and differentiation of male germ cells in the testis and follicle development in the ovary. In addition, however, the INSL3/RXFP2 system has adopted a typical 'neohormone' profile, essential for the promotion of internal fertilisation and viviparity; fetal INSL3 is essential for the first phase of testicular descent into a scrotum, and also appears to be associated with male phenotype, in particular horn and skeletal growth. Circulating INSL3 is produced exclusively by the mature testicular Leydig cells in male mammals and acts as a potent biomarker for testis development during fetal and pubertal development as well as in ageing. As such it can be used also to monitor seasonally breeding animals as well as to investigate environmental or lifestyle conditions affecting development. Nevertheless, most information about INSL3 and RXFP2 comes from a very limited selection of species; it will be especially useful to gain further information from a more diverse range of animals, especially those whose evolution has led them to express unusual reproductive phenotypes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Richard Ivell
- School of Bioscience, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, LE2 5RD, UK; School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, LE2 5RD, UK.
| | - Waleed Alhujaili
- School of Bioscience, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, LE2 5RD, UK
| | - Tetsuya Kohsaka
- Dept. of Applied Life Science, Shizuoka University, 836 Ohya, Suruga-ku, Shizuoka, Japan
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Abstract
Insulin-like 3 peptide (INSL3) is a member of the insulin-like peptide superfamily and is the only known physiological ligand of relaxin family peptide receptor 2 (RXFP2), a G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR). In mammals, INSL3 is primarily produced both in testicular Leydig cells and in ovarian theca cells, but circulating levels of the hormone are much higher in males than in females. The INSL3/RXFP2 system has an essential role in the development of the gubernaculum for the initial transabdominal descent of the testis and in maintaining proper reproductive health in men. Although its function in female physiology has been less well-characterized, it was reported that INSL3 deletion affects antral follicle development during the follicular phase of the menstrual cycle and uterus function. Since the discovery of its role in the reproductive system, the study of INSL3/RXFP2 has expanded to others organs, such as skeletal muscle, bone, kidney, thyroid, brain, and eye. This review aims to summarize the various advances in understanding the physiological function of this ligand-receptor pair since its first discovery and elucidate its future therapeutic potential in the management of various diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Esteban-Lopez
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine, Miami, Florida, USA
| | - Alexander I Agoulnik
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine, Miami, Florida, USA
- Biomolecular Science Institute, Florida International University, Miami, Florida, USA
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Ng HH, Esteban-Lopez M, Agoulnik AI. Targeting the relaxin/insulin-like family peptide receptor 1 and 2 with small molecule compounds. Mol Cell Endocrinol 2019; 487:40-44. [PMID: 30590098 PMCID: PMC6451876 DOI: 10.1016/j.mce.2018.12.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/03/2018] [Accepted: 12/18/2018] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The peptide hormone relaxin has beneficial roles in several organs through its action on its cognate G protein-coupled receptor, RXFP1. Relaxin administration is limited to intravenous, subcutaneous, intramuscular, or spinal injection. Another drawback of peptide-based therapy is the short half-life, which requires continuous delivery of the drug to achieve efficient concentration in target organs. The discovery of a non-peptide small molecule agonist of RXFP1, ML290, provides an alternative to the natural ligand. This review summarizes the development of ML290 and its potential future therapeutic applications in various diseases, including liver fibrosis and cardiovascular diseases. We also discuss the development of small molecule agonists targeting the insulin-like 3 receptor, RXFP2, and propose the potential use of these small molecules in the context of bone and muscle remodeling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hooi Hooi Ng
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine, Florida International University, Miami, FL, 33199, USA.
| | - Maria Esteban-Lopez
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine, Florida International University, Miami, FL, 33199, USA.
| | - Alexander I Agoulnik
- Department of Human and Molecular Genetics, Herbert Wertheim College of Medicine, Florida International University, Miami, FL, 33199, USA.
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Ivell R, Anand-Ivell R. Insulin-like peptide 3 (INSL3) is a major regulator of female reproductive physiology. Hum Reprod Update 2018; 24:639-651. [DOI: 10.1093/humupd/dmy029] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/08/2018] [Accepted: 08/31/2018] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Richard Ivell
- School of Biosciences, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, UK
- School of Veterinary Medicine and Science, University of Nottingham, Sutton Bonington, UK
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Koos BJ, Rajaee A, Ibe B, Guerra C, Kruger L. Thalamic mediation of hypoxic respiratory depression in lambs. Am J Physiol Regul Integr Comp Physiol 2016; 310:R586-95. [PMID: 26818057 PMCID: PMC4867384 DOI: 10.1152/ajpregu.00412.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/25/2015] [Accepted: 01/27/2016] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Immaturity of respiratory controllers in preterm infants dispose to recurrent apnea and oxygen deprivation. Accompanying reductions in brain oxygen tensions evoke respiratory depression, potentially exacerbating hypoxemia. Central respiratory depression during moderate hypoxia is revealed in the ventilatory decline following initial augmentation. This study determined whether the thalamic parafascicular nuclear (Pf) complex involved in adult nociception and sensorimotor regulation (Bentivoglio M, Balerecia G, Kruger L. Prog Brain Res 87: 53-80, 1991) also becomes a postnatal controller of hypoxic ventilatory decline. Respiratory responses to moderate isocapnic hypoxia were studied in conscious lambs. Hypoxic ventilatory decline was compared with peak augmentation. Pf and/or adjacent thalamic structures were destroyed by the neuron-specific toxin ibotenic acid (IB). IB lesions involving the thalamic Pf abolished hypoxic ventilatory decline. Lesions of adjacent thalamic nuclei that spared Pf and control injections of vehicle failed to blunt hypoxic respiratory depression. Our findings reveal that the thalamic Pf region is a critical controller of hypoxic ventilatory depression and thus a key target for exploring molecular concomitants of forebrain pathways regulating hypoxic ventilatory depression in early development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian J Koos
- Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California;
| | - Arezoo Rajaee
- Department of Obstetrics & Gynecology, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California
| | - Basil Ibe
- Department of Pediatrics, C. W. Steers Biological Resource Center, Los Angeles Biomedical Research Institute, Harbor-University of California Los Angeles Medical Center, Torrance, California; and
| | - Catalina Guerra
- C. W. Steers Biological Resource Center, Los Angeles Biomedical Research Institute, Harbor-University of California Los Angeles Medical Center, Torrance, California
| | - Lawrence Kruger
- Department of Neurobiology, David Geffen School of Medicine at University of California Los Angeles, Los Angeles, California
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Halls ML, Bathgate RAD, Sutton SW, Dschietzig TB, Summers RJ. International Union of Basic and Clinical Pharmacology. XCV. Recent advances in the understanding of the pharmacology and biological roles of relaxin family peptide receptors 1-4, the receptors for relaxin family peptides. Pharmacol Rev 2015; 67:389-440. [PMID: 25761609 DOI: 10.1124/pr.114.009472] [Citation(s) in RCA: 94] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Relaxin, insulin-like peptide 3 (INSL3), relaxin-3, and INSL5 are the cognate ligands for the relaxin family peptide (RXFP) receptors 1-4, respectively. RXFP1 activates pleiotropic signaling pathways including the signalosome protein complex that facilitates high-sensitivity signaling; coupling to Gα(s), Gα(i), and Gα(o) proteins; interaction with glucocorticoid receptors; and the formation of hetero-oligomers with distinctive pharmacological properties. In addition to relaxin-related ligands, RXFP1 is activated by Clq-tumor necrosis factor-related protein 8 and by small-molecular-weight agonists, such as ML290 [2-isopropoxy-N-(2-(3-(trifluoromethylsulfonyl)phenylcarbamoyl)phenyl)benzamide], that act allosterically. RXFP2 activates only the Gα(s)- and Gα(o)-coupled pathways. Relaxin-3 is primarily a neuropeptide, and its cognate receptor RXFP3 is a target for the treatment of depression, anxiety, and autism. A variety of peptide agonists, antagonists, biased agonists, and an allosteric modulator target RXFP3. Both RXFP3 and the related RXFP4 couple to Gα(i)/Gα(o) proteins. INSL5 has the properties of an incretin; it is secreted from the gut and is orexigenic. The expression of RXFP4 in gut, adipose tissue, and β-islets together with compromised glucose tolerance in INSL5 or RXFP4 knockout mice suggests a metabolic role. This review focuses on the many advances in our understanding of RXFP receptors in the last 5 years, their signal transduction mechanisms, the development of novel compounds that target RXFP1-4, the challenges facing the field, and current prospects for new therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle L Halls
- Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Parkville, Victoria, Australia (M.L.H., R.J.S.); Neuropeptides Division, Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia (R.A.D.B.); Neuroscience Drug Discovery, Janssen Research & Development, LLC, San Diego, California (S.W.S.); Immundiagnostik AG, Bensheim, Germany (T.B.D.); and Charité-University Medicine Berlin, Campus Mitte, Medical Clinic for Cardiology and Angiology, Berlin, Germany (T.B.D.)
| | - Ross A D Bathgate
- Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Parkville, Victoria, Australia (M.L.H., R.J.S.); Neuropeptides Division, Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia (R.A.D.B.); Neuroscience Drug Discovery, Janssen Research & Development, LLC, San Diego, California (S.W.S.); Immundiagnostik AG, Bensheim, Germany (T.B.D.); and Charité-University Medicine Berlin, Campus Mitte, Medical Clinic for Cardiology and Angiology, Berlin, Germany (T.B.D.)
| | - Steve W Sutton
- Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Parkville, Victoria, Australia (M.L.H., R.J.S.); Neuropeptides Division, Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia (R.A.D.B.); Neuroscience Drug Discovery, Janssen Research & Development, LLC, San Diego, California (S.W.S.); Immundiagnostik AG, Bensheim, Germany (T.B.D.); and Charité-University Medicine Berlin, Campus Mitte, Medical Clinic for Cardiology and Angiology, Berlin, Germany (T.B.D.)
| | - Thomas B Dschietzig
- Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Parkville, Victoria, Australia (M.L.H., R.J.S.); Neuropeptides Division, Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia (R.A.D.B.); Neuroscience Drug Discovery, Janssen Research & Development, LLC, San Diego, California (S.W.S.); Immundiagnostik AG, Bensheim, Germany (T.B.D.); and Charité-University Medicine Berlin, Campus Mitte, Medical Clinic for Cardiology and Angiology, Berlin, Germany (T.B.D.)
| | - Roger J Summers
- Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Parkville, Victoria, Australia (M.L.H., R.J.S.); Neuropeptides Division, Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Victoria, Australia (R.A.D.B.); Neuroscience Drug Discovery, Janssen Research & Development, LLC, San Diego, California (S.W.S.); Immundiagnostik AG, Bensheim, Germany (T.B.D.); and Charité-University Medicine Berlin, Campus Mitte, Medical Clinic for Cardiology and Angiology, Berlin, Germany (T.B.D.)
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Donizetti A, Fiengo M, Del Gaudio R, Iazzetti G, Pariante P, Minucci S, Aniello F. Expression pattern of zebrafish rxfp2 homologue genes during embryonic development. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL ZOOLOGY PART B-MOLECULAR AND DEVELOPMENTAL EVOLUTION 2015; 324:605-13. [PMID: 26173401 DOI: 10.1002/jez.b.22637] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/19/2014] [Accepted: 06/05/2015] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
RXFP2 is one of the 4 receptors for relaxin insulin-like peptides, in particular it binds with high affinity the INSL3 peptide. INSL3/RXFP2 pair is essential for testicular descent during placental mammalian development. The evolutionary history of this ligand/receptor pair has received much attention, since its function in vertebrate species lacking testicular descent, such as the fishes, remains elusive. Herein, we analyzed the expression pattern of three rxfp2 homologue genes in zebrafish embryonic development. For all the three rxfp2 genes (rxfp2a, rxfp2b, and rxfp2-like) we showed the presence of maternally derived transcripts. Later in the development, rxfp2a is only expressed at larval stage, whereas rxfp2b is expressed in all the analyzed stage with highest level in the larvae. The rxfp2-like gene is expressed in all the analyzed stage with a transcript level that increased starting at early pharyngula stage. The spatial localization analysis of rxfp2-like gene showed that it is expressed in many cell clusters in the developing brain. In addition, other rxfp2-like-expressing cells were identified in the retina and oral epithelium. This analysis provides new insights to elucidate the evolution of rxfp2 genes in vertebrate lineage and lays the foundations to study their role in vertebrate embryonic development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aldo Donizetti
- Department of Biology, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
| | - Marcella Fiengo
- Department of Biology, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
| | | | - Giovanni Iazzetti
- Department of Biology, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
| | - Paolo Pariante
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Second University of Naples, Naples, Italy
| | - Sergio Minucci
- Department of Experimental Medicine, Second University of Naples, Naples, Italy
| | - Francesco Aniello
- Department of Biology, University of Naples Federico II, Naples, Italy
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Chan LJ, Smith CM, Chua BE, Lin F, Bathgate RAD, Separovic F, Gundlach AL, Hossain MA, Wade JD. Synthesis of fluorescent analogs of relaxin family peptides and their preliminary in vitro and in vivo characterization. Front Chem 2013; 1:30. [PMID: 24790958 PMCID: PMC3982560 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2013.00030] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/08/2013] [Accepted: 11/18/2013] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Relaxin, a heterodimeric polypeptide hormone, is a key regulator of collagen metabolism and multiple vascular control pathways in humans and rodents. Its actions are mediated via its cognate G-protein-coupled receptor, RXFP1 although it also "pharmacologically" activates RXFP2, the receptor for the related, insulin-like peptide 3 (INSL3), which has specific actions on reproduction and bone metabolism. Therefore, experimental tools to facilitate insights into the distinct biological actions of relaxin and INSL3 are required, particularly for studies of tissues containing both RXFP1 and RXFP2. Here, we chemically functionalized human (H2) relaxin, the RXFP1-selective relaxin analog H2:A(4-24)(F23A), and INSL3 to accommodate a fluorophore without marked reduction in binding or activation propensity. Chemical synthesis of the two chains for each peptide was followed by sequential regioselective formation of their three disulfide bonds. Click chemistry conjugation of Cy5.5 at the B-chain N-terminus, with conservation of the disulfide bonds, yielded analogs displaying appropriate selective binding affinity and ability to activate RXFP1 and/or RXFP2 in vitro. The in vivo biological activity of Cy5.5-H2 relaxin and Cy5.5-H2:A(4-24)(F23A) was confirmed in mice, as acute intracerebroventricular (icv) infusion of these peptides (but not Cy5.5-INSL3) stimulated water drinking, an established behavioral response elicited by central RXFP1 activation. The central distribution of Cy5.5-conjugated peptides was examined in mice killed 30 min after infusion, revealing higher fluorescence within brain tissue near-adjacent to the cerebral ventricle walls relative to deeper brain areas. Production of fluorophore-conjugated relaxin family peptides will facilitate future pharmacological studies to probe the function of H2 relaxin/RXFP1 and INSL3/RXFP2 signaling in vivo while tracking their distribution following central or peripheral administration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda J Chan
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Melbourne VIC, Australia ; School of Chemistry, The University of Melbourne VIC, Australia
| | - Craig M Smith
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Melbourne VIC, Australia ; Florey Department of Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Melbourne VIC, Australia
| | - Berenice E Chua
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Melbourne VIC, Australia
| | - Feng Lin
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Melbourne VIC, Australia
| | - Ross A D Bathgate
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Melbourne VIC, Australia ; Florey Department of Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Melbourne VIC, Australia ; Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of Melbourne VIC, Australia
| | | | - Andrew L Gundlach
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Melbourne VIC, Australia ; Florey Department of Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Melbourne VIC, Australia
| | - Mohammed Akhter Hossain
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Melbourne VIC, Australia ; School of Chemistry, The University of Melbourne VIC, Australia ; Florey Department of Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Melbourne VIC, Australia
| | - John D Wade
- The Florey Institute of Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Melbourne VIC, Australia ; School of Chemistry, The University of Melbourne VIC, Australia ; Florey Department of Neuroscience and Mental Health, The University of Melbourne VIC, Australia
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Bathgate RAD, Halls ML, van der Westhuizen ET, Callander GE, Kocan M, Summers RJ. Relaxin family peptides and their receptors. Physiol Rev 2013; 93:405-80. [PMID: 23303914 DOI: 10.1152/physrev.00001.2012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 376] [Impact Index Per Article: 34.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
There are seven relaxin family peptides that are all structurally related to insulin. Relaxin has many roles in female and male reproduction, as a neuropeptide in the central nervous system, as a vasodilator and cardiac stimulant in the cardiovascular system, and as an antifibrotic agent. Insulin-like peptide-3 (INSL3) has clearly defined specialist roles in male and female reproduction, relaxin-3 is primarily a neuropeptide involved in stress and metabolic control, and INSL5 is widely distributed particularly in the gastrointestinal tract. Although they are structurally related to insulin, the relaxin family peptides produce their physiological effects by activating a group of four G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs), relaxin family peptide receptors 1-4 (RXFP1-4). Relaxin and INSL3 are the cognate ligands for RXFP1 and RXFP2, respectively, that are leucine-rich repeat containing GPCRs. RXFP1 activates a wide spectrum of signaling pathways to generate second messengers that include cAMP and nitric oxide, whereas RXFP2 activates a subset of these pathways. Relaxin-3 and INSL5 are the cognate ligands for RXFP3 and RXFP4 that are closely related to small peptide receptors that when activated inhibit cAMP production and activate MAP kinases. Although there are still many unanswered questions regarding the mode of action of relaxin family peptides, it is clear that they have important physiological roles that could be exploited for therapeutic benefit.
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Affiliation(s)
- R A D Bathgate
- Drug Discovery Biology, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences & Department of Pharmacology, Monash University, Victoria, Australia
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Kusnoor SV, Bubser M, Deutch AY. The effects of nigrostriatal dopamine depletion on the thalamic parafascicular nucleus. Brain Res 2012; 1446:46-55. [PMID: 22353754 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2012.01.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2011] [Revised: 12/22/2011] [Accepted: 01/18/2012] [Indexed: 10/14/2022]
Abstract
Neuronal loss in Parkinson's disease (PD) is seen in a number of brain regions in addition to the substantia nigra (SN). Among these is the thalamic parafascicular nucleus (PF), which sends glutamatergic projections to the striatum and receives GABAergic inputs from the SN. Recent data suggest that lesions of nigrostriatal dopamine axons cause a loss of PF neurons, which has been interpreted to suggest that the PF cell loss seen in PD is secondary to dopamine denervation. However, the extent of a PF dopamine innervation in the rat is unclear, and it is possible that PF cell loss in parkinsonism is independent of nigrostriatal dopamine degeneration. We characterized the dopamine innervation of the PF in the rat and determined if 6-hydroxydopamine SN lesions cause PF neuron degeneration. Dual-label immunohistochemistry revealed that almost all tyrosine hydroxylase-immunoreactive (TH-ir) axons in the PF also expressed dopamine-beta-hydroxylase and were therefore noradrenergic or adrenergic. Moreover, an antibody directed against dopamine revealed only very rare PF dopaminergic axons. Retrograde-tract tracing-immunohistochemistry did not uncover an innervation of the PF from midbrain dopamine neurons. Nigrostriatal dopamine neuron lesions did not elicit degeneration of PF cells, as reflected by a lack of FluoroJade C staining. Similarly, neither unilateral 6-OHDA lesions of nigrostriatal axons nor the dorsal noradrenergic bundle decreased the number of PF neurons or the number of PF neurons retrogradely-labeled from the striatum. These data suggest that the loss of thalamostriatal PF neurons in Parkinson's Disease is a primary event rather than secondary to nigrostriatal dopamine degeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sheila V Kusnoor
- Department of Psychiatry, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN 37212, USA
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Bay K, Andersson AM. Human testicular insulin-like factor 3: in relation to development, reproductive hormones and andrological disorders. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011; 34:97-109. [PMID: 20550598 DOI: 10.1111/j.1365-2605.2010.01074.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 64] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Knockout of the gene encoding insulin-like factor 3 (INSL3) results in cryptorchidism in mice due to disruption of the transabdominal phase of testicular descent. This finding was essential for understanding the complete course of testis descensus, and wound up years of speculations regarding the endocrine regulation of this process. INSL3 is, along with testosterone, a major secretory product of testicular Leydig cells. In addition to its crucial function in testicular descent, INSL3 is suggested to play a paracrine role in germ cell survival and an endocrine role in bone metabolism. INSL3 is produced in human prenatal and neonatal, and in adult Leydig cells to various extents, and is in a developmental context regulated like testosterone, with production during second trimester, an early postnatal peak and increasing secretion during puberty, resulting in high adult serum levels. INSL3 production is entirely dependent on the state of Leydig cell differentiation, and is stimulated by the long-term trophic effects mediated by luteinizing hormone (LH). Once differentiated, Leydig cells apparently express INSL3 in a constitutive manner, and the hormone is thereby insensitive to the acute, steroidogenic effects of LH, which for example is an important factor in the regulation of testosterone. Clinically, serum INSL3 levels can turn out to be a usable tool to monitor basal Leydig cell function in patients with various disorders affecting Leydig cell function. According to animal studies, foetal INSL3 production is, directly or indirectly, sensitive to oestrogenic or anti-androgenic compounds. This provides important insight into the mechanism by which maternal exposure to endocrine disrupters can result in cryptorchidism in the next generation. Conclusively, INSL3 is an interesting testicular hormone with potential clinical value as a marker for Leydig cell function. It should be considered on a par with testosterone in the evaluation of testicular function and the consequences of Leydig cell dysfunction.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Bay
- University Department of Growth and Reproduction, Rigshospitalet, Copenhagen, Denmark.
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McGowan BMC, Minnion JS, Murphy KG, White NE, Roy D, Stanley SA, Dhillo WS, Gardiner JV, Ghatei MA, Bloom SR. Central and peripheral administration of human relaxin-2 to adult male rats inhibits food intake. Diabetes Obes Metab 2010; 12:1090-6. [PMID: 20977581 DOI: 10.1111/j.1463-1326.2010.01302.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
AIM Relaxin is a polypeptide hormone involved in pregnancy and lactation. It is mainly secreted by the corpus luteum and placenta, but is expressed in a number of other tissues, including heart and brain. Within the brain, relaxin is expressed in the olfactory and limbic systems, the cortex and the hypothalamic arcuate nucleus (ARC). Its cognate receptor, relaxin family peptide receptor 1 (RXFP1), is also widely expressed in the brain, including the hypothalamic ARC and paraventricular nucleus (PVN), areas important in appetite regulation. The aim of this study was to investigate whether relaxin influences food intake through central hypothalamic circuits. METHODS The human form of relaxin, human relaxin-2 (H2) was administered centrally and peripherally to male Wistar rats and food intake measured. Behaviour was also assessed. RESULTS Intracerebroventricular (ICV) administration of H2 significantly decreased 1-h food intake in the early dark phase [2.95 ± 0.45 g (saline) vs. 0.95 ± 0.18 g (180 pmol H2), p < 0.001]. ICV administration of H2 decreased feeding behaviour and increased grooming and headdown behaviour. Intraparaventricular injections of H2 significantly decreased 1-h food intake in the early dark phase [3.13 ± 0.35 g (saline) vs. 1.35 ± 0.33 g (18 pmol H2), p < 0.01, 1.61 ± 0.31 g (180 pmol H2), p < 0.05 and 1.23 ± 0.32 g (540 pmol H2), p < 0.001]. Intraperitoneal (IP) administration of H2 significantly decreased 1-h food intake in the early dark phase [4.63 ± 0.46 g (vehicle) vs. 3.08 ± 0.15 g (66 nmol H2), p < 0.01, 3.00 ± 0.17 g (200 nmol H2), p < 0.01 and 2.26 ± 0.36 g (660 nmol H2), p < 0.001]. CONCLUSIONS Central and peripheral administration of H2 reduces the food intake in rats. This effect may be mediated via the PVN and/or other brain regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- B M C McGowan
- Department of Diabetes and Endocrinology, Guy's & St Thomas' NHS Foundation Trust, London, UK
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Callander GE, Bathgate RAD. Relaxin family peptide systems and the central nervous system. Cell Mol Life Sci 2010; 67:2327-41. [PMID: 20213277 PMCID: PMC11115692 DOI: 10.1007/s00018-010-0304-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/17/2009] [Revised: 01/13/2010] [Accepted: 02/03/2010] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
Abstract
Since its discovery in the 1920s, relaxin has enjoyed a reputation as a peptide hormone of pregnancy. However, relaxin and other relaxin family peptides are now associated with numerous non-reproductive physiologies and disease states. The new millennium bought with it the sequence of the human genome and subsequently new directions for relaxin research. In 2002, the ancestral relaxin gene RLN3 was identified from genome databases. The relaxin-3 peptide is highly expressed in a small region of the brain and in species from teleost to primates and has both conserved sequence and sites of expression. Combined with the discovery of the relaxin family peptide receptors, interest in the role of the relaxin family peptides in the central nervous system has been reignited. This review explores the relaxin family peptides that are expressed in or act upon the brain, the receptors that mediate their actions, and what is currently known of their functions.
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Affiliation(s)
- G. E. Callander
- Florey Neuroscience Institutes and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3010 Australia
| | - R. A. D. Bathgate
- Florey Neuroscience Institutes and Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, The University of Melbourne, Melbourne, VIC 3010 Australia
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Ma S, Sang Q, Lanciego JL, Gundlach AL. Localization of relaxin-3 in brain of Macaca fascicularis: identification of a nucleus incertus in primate. J Comp Neurol 2010; 517:856-72. [PMID: 19844992 DOI: 10.1002/cne.22197] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Relaxin-3 (RLN3) is a highly conserved, ancestral member of the insulin/relaxin peptide family. RLN3 mRNA is highly expressed in rat, mouse, and human brain and molecular genetic and pharmacological studies suggest that RLN3 is the cognate ligand for the relaxin family peptide-3 receptor (RXFP3). The distribution of RLN3/RXFP3 networks has been determined in rat and mouse brain, but not in higher species. In this study we describe the distribution of RLN3 neurons in the brain of macaque (Macaca fascicularis) using in situ hybridization histochemistry and immunohistochemistry. RLN3 mRNA and high levels of RLN3-like immunoreactivity (-LI) were observed in neurons within a ventromedial region of the central gray of the pons and medulla that appears to represent the primate analog of the nucleus incertus (NI) described in lower species. Nerve fibers and terminals containing RLN3-LI were observed throughout brain regions identical to those known to receive afferents from the NI in the rat, including the septum, hippocampus, entorhinal cortex, lateral, dorsomedial and ventromedial hypothalamus, supramammillary and interpeduncular nuclei, anterodorsal, paraventricular and reuniens thalamic nuclei, lateral habenula, central gray, and dorsal raphe, solitary tract, and ambiguus nuclei. Experimental studies in the rat strongly implicate a role of this neuropeptide-receptor system in arousal, feeding, and metabolism, learning and memory, and central responses to psychological stressors. These new anatomical findings support the proposition that the RLN3 system is similarly involved in the integration and modulation of behavioral activation and arousal and responses to stress in nonhuman primates and humans.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sherie Ma
- Florey Neuroscience Institutes, The University of Melbourne, Victoria 3010, Australia.
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Sedaghat K, Finkelstein DI, Gundlach AL. Effect of unilateral lesion of the nigrostriatal dopamine pathway on survival and neurochemistry of parafascicular nucleus neurons in the rat — Evaluation of time-course and LGR8 expression. Brain Res 2009; 1271:83-94. [DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2009.03.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2008] [Revised: 03/10/2009] [Accepted: 03/11/2009] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
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Gundlach AL, Ma S, Sang Q, Shen PJ, Piccenna L, Sedaghat K, Smith CM, Bathgate RAD, Lawrence AJ, Tregear GW, Wade JD, Finkelstein DI, Bonaventure P, Liu C, Lovenberg TW, Sutton SW. Relaxin Family Peptides and Receptors in Mammalian Brain. Ann N Y Acad Sci 2009; 1160:226-35. [DOI: 10.1111/j.1749-6632.2009.03956.x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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