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Regulation of sensorimotor gating via Disc1/Huntingtin-mediated Bdnf transport in the cortico-striatal circuit. Mol Psychiatry 2022; 27:1805-1815. [PMID: 35165396 PMCID: PMC9272458 DOI: 10.1038/s41380-021-01389-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/19/2021] [Revised: 10/15/2021] [Accepted: 11/03/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Sensorimotor information processing underlies normal cognitive and behavioral traits and has classically been evaluated through prepulse inhibition (PPI) of a startle reflex. PPI is a behavioral dimension deregulated in several neurological and psychiatric disorders, yet the mechanisms underlying the cross-diagnostic nature of PPI deficits across these conditions remain to be understood. To identify circuitry mechanisms for PPI, we performed circuitry recording over the prefrontal cortex and striatum, two brain regions previously implicated in PPI, using wild-type (WT) mice compared to Disc1-locus-impairment (LI) mice, a model representing neuropsychiatric conditions. We demonstrated that the corticostriatal projection regulates neurophysiological responses during the PPI testing in WT, whereas these circuitry responses were disrupted in Disc1-LI mice. Because our biochemical analyses revealed attenuated brain-derived neurotrophic factor (Bdnf) transport along the corticostriatal circuit in Disc1-LI mice, we investigated the potential role of Bdnf in this circuitry for regulation of PPI. Virus-mediated delivery of Bdnf into the striatum rescued PPI deficits in Disc1-LI mice. Pharmacologically augmenting Bdnf transport by chronic lithium administration, partly via phosphorylation of Huntingtin (Htt) serine-421 and its integration into the motor machinery, restored striatal Bdnf levels and rescued PPI deficits in Disc1-LI mice. Furthermore, reducing the cortical Bdnf expression negated this rescuing effect of lithium, confirming the key role of Bdnf in lithium-mediated PPI rescuing. Collectively, the data suggest that striatal Bdnf supply, collaboratively regulated by Htt and Disc1 along the corticostriatal circuit, is involved in sensorimotor gating, highlighting the utility of dimensional approach in investigating pathophysiological mechanisms across neuropsychiatric disorders.
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Dorsal striatal dopamine induces fronto-cortical hypoactivity and attenuates anxiety and compulsive behaviors in rats. Neuropsychopharmacology 2022; 47:454-464. [PMID: 34725486 PMCID: PMC8559920 DOI: 10.1038/s41386-021-01207-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/07/2021] [Revised: 09/27/2021] [Accepted: 10/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Dorsal striatal dopamine transmission engages the cortico-striato-thalamo-cortical (CSTC) circuit, which is implicated in many neuropsychiatric diseases, including obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD). Yet it is unknown if dorsal striatal dopamine hyperactivity is the cause or consequence of changes elsewhere in the CSTC circuit. Classical pharmacological and neurotoxic manipulations of the CSTC and other brain circuits suffer from various drawbacks related to off-target effects and adaptive changes. Chemogenetics, on the other hand, enables a highly selective targeting of specific neuronal populations within a given circuit. In this study, we developed a chemogenetic method for selective activation of dopamine neurons in the substantia nigra, which innervates the dorsal striatum in the rat. We used this model to investigate effects of targeted dopamine activation on CSTC circuit function, especially in fronto-cortical regions. We found that chemogenetic activation of these neurons increased movement (as expected with increased dopamine release), rearings and time spent in center, while also lower self-grooming. Furthermore, this activation increased prepulse inhibition of the startle response in females. Remarkably, we observed reduced [18F]FDG metabolism in the frontal cortex, following dopamine activation in the dorsal striatum, while total glutamate levels- in this region were increased. This result is in accord with clinical studies of increased [18F]FDG metabolism and lower glutamate levels in similar regions of the brain of people with OCD. Taken together, the present chemogenetic model adds a mechanistic basis with behavioral and translational relevance to prior clinical neuroimaging studies showing deficits in fronto-cortical glucose metabolism across a variety of clinical populations (e.g. addiction, risky decision-making, compulsivity or obesity).
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3
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Sherafat Y, Chen E, Lallai V, Bautista M, Fowler JP, Chen YC, Miwa J, Fowler CD. Differential Expression Patterns of Lynx Proteins and Involvement of Lynx1 in Prepulse Inhibition. Front Behav Neurosci 2021; 15:703748. [PMID: 34803621 PMCID: PMC8595198 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2021.703748] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/14/2021] [Accepted: 09/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Negative allosteric modulators, such as lynx1 and lynx2, directly interact with nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs). The nAChRs are integral to cholinergic signaling in the brain and have been shown to mediate different aspects of cognitive function. Given the interaction between lynx proteins and these receptors, we examined whether these endogenous negative allosteric modulators are involved in cognitive behaviors associated with cholinergic function. We found both cell-specific and overlapping expression patterns of lynx1 and lynx2 mRNA in brain regions associated with cognition, learning, memory, and sensorimotor processing, including the prefrontal cortex (PFC), cingulate cortex, septum, hippocampus, amygdala, striatum, and pontine nuclei. Since lynx proteins are thought to play a role in conditioned associations and given the expression patterns across brain regions, we first assessed whether lynx knockout mice would differ in a cognitive flexibility task. We found no deficits in reversal learning in either the lynx1–/– or lynx2–/– knockout mice. Thereafter, sensorimotor gating was examined with the prepulse inhibition (PPI) assessment. Interestingly, we found that both male and female lynx1–/– mice exhibited a deficit in the PPI behavioral response. Given the comparable expression of lynx2 in regions involved in sensorimotor gating, we then examined whether removal of the lynx2 protein would lead to similar behavioral effects. Unexpectedly, we found that while male lynx2–/– mice exhibited a decrease in the baseline startle response, no differences were found in sensorimotor gating for either male or female lynx2–/– mice. Taken together, these studies provide insight into the expression patterns of lynx1 and lynx2 across multiple brain regions and illustrate the modulatory effects of the lynx1 protein in sensorimotor gating.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yasmine Sherafat
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
| | - Edison Chen
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
| | - Valeria Lallai
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
| | - Malia Bautista
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
| | - James P Fowler
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
| | - Yen-Chu Chen
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
| | - Julie Miwa
- Department of Biological Sciences, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, PA, United States
| | - Christie D Fowler
- Department of Neurobiology and Behavior, University of California, Irvine, Irvine, CA, United States
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Disruption of prepulse inhibition is associated with compulsive behavior severity and nucleus accumbens dopamine receptor changes in Sapap3 knockout mice. Sci Rep 2021; 11:9442. [PMID: 33941812 PMCID: PMC8093235 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-88769-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2020] [Accepted: 03/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) is associated with disruption of sensorimotor gating, which may contribute to difficulties inhibiting intrusive thoughts and compulsive rituals. Neural mechanisms underlying these disturbances are unclear; however, striatal dopamine is implicated in regulation of sensorimotor gating and OCD pathophysiology. The goal of this study was to examine the relationships between sensorimotor gating, compulsive behavior, and striatal dopamine receptor levels in Sapap3 knockout mice (KOs), a widely used preclinical model system for OCD research. We found a trend for disruption of sensorimotor gating in Sapap3-KOs using the translational measure prepulse inhibition (PPI); however, there was significant heterogeneity in both PPI and compulsive grooming in KOs. Disruption of PPI was significantly correlated with a more severe compulsive phenotype. In addition, PPI disruption and compulsive grooming severity were associated with reduced dopamine D1 and D2/3 receptor density in the nucleus accumbens core (NAcC). Compulsive grooming progressively worsened in Sapap3-KOs tested longitudinally, but PPI disruption was first detected in high-grooming KOs at 7 months of age. Through detailed characterization of individual differences in OCD-relevant behavioral and neurochemical measures, our findings suggest that NAcC dopamine receptor changes may be involved in disruption of sensorimotor gating and compulsive behavior relevant to OCD.
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Serotonin 5-HT 1B receptor-mediated behavior and binding in mice with the overactive and dysregulated serotonin transporter Ala56 variant. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2021; 238:1111-1120. [PMID: 33511450 PMCID: PMC8728944 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-020-05758-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/20/2020] [Accepted: 12/28/2020] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
RATIONALE Elevated whole-blood serotonin (5-HT) is a robust biomarker in ~ 30% of patients with autism spectrum disorders, in which repetitive behavior is a core symptom. Furthermore, elevated whole-blood 5-HT has also been described in patients with pediatric obsessive-compulsive disorder. The 5-HT1B receptor is associated with repetitive behaviors seen in both disorders. Chronic blockade of serotonin transporter (SERT) reduces 5-HT1B receptor levels in the orbitofrontal cortex (OFC) and attenuates the sensorimotor deficits and hyperactivity seen with the 5-HT1B agonist RU24969. We hypothesized that enhanced SERT function would increase 5-HT1B receptor levels in OFC and enhance sensorimotor deficits and hyperactivity induced by RU24969. OBJECTIVES We examined the impact of the SERT Ala56 mutation, which leads to enhanced SERT function, on 5-HT1B receptor binding and 5-HT1B-mediated sensorimotor deficits. METHODS Specific binding to 5-HT1B receptors was measured in OFC and striatum of naïve SERT Ala56 or wild-type mice. The impact of the 5-HT1A/1B receptor agonist RU24969 on prepulse inhibition (PPI) of startle, hyperactivity, and expression of cFos was examined. RESULTS While enhanced SERT function increased 5-HT1B receptor levels in OFC of Ala56 mice, RU24969-induced PPI deficits and hyperlocomotion were not different between genotypes. Baseline levels of cFos expression were not different between groups. RU24969 increased cFos expression in OFC of wild-types and decreased cFos in the striatum. CONCLUSIONS While reducing 5-HT1B receptors may attenuate sensorimotor gating deficits, increased 5-HT1B levels in SERT Ala56 mice do not necessarily exacerbate these deficits, potentially due to compensations during neural circuit development in this model system.
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Katrancha SM, Shaw JE, Zhao AY, Myers SA, Cocco AR, Jeng AT, Zhu M, Pittenger C, Greer CA, Carr SA, Xiao X, Koleske AJ. Trio Haploinsufficiency Causes Neurodevelopmental Disease-Associated Deficits. Cell Rep 2020; 26:2805-2817.e9. [PMID: 30840899 PMCID: PMC6436967 DOI: 10.1016/j.celrep.2019.02.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2018] [Revised: 12/22/2018] [Accepted: 02/06/2019] [Indexed: 12/31/2022] Open
Abstract
Heterozygous coding mutations in TRIO are associated with neurodevelopmental disorders, including autism, schizophrenia, bipolar disorder, and epilepsy, and impair TRIO's biochemical activities. To model mutant alleles, we ablated one or both Trio alleles from excitatory neurons in the cortex and hippocampus of mice. Trio haploinsufficiency increases anxiety and impairs social preference and motor coordination. Trio loss reduces forebrain size and dendritic arborization but increases dendritic spine densities. Cortical synapses in Trio haploinsufficient mice are small, exhibit pre- and postsynaptic deficits, and cannot undergo long-term potentiation. Similar phenotypes are observed in Trio knockout mice. Overall, Trio haploinsufficiency causes severe disease-relevant deficits in behavior and neuronal structure and function. Interestingly, phosphodiesterase 4A5 (PDE4A5) levels are reduced and protein kinase A (PKA) signaling is increased when TRIO levels are reduced. Elevation of PDE4A5 and drug-based attenuation of PKA signaling rescue Trio haploinsufficiency-related dendritic spine defects, suggesting an avenue for therapeutic intervention for TRIO-related neurodevelopmental disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sara Marie Katrancha
- Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA; Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA; Department of Neuroscience, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - Juliana E Shaw
- Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - Amy Y Zhao
- Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA; Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA; Department of Neuroscience, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - Samuel A Myers
- The Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | | | - Amanda T Jeng
- Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - Minsheng Zhu
- Model Animal Research Center, Nanjing University, Nanjing 210061, China
| | - Christopher Pittenger
- Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA; Child Study Center, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - Charles A Greer
- Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA; Department of Neuroscience, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA; Department of Neurosurgery, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA
| | - Steven A Carr
- The Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA 02142, USA
| | - Xiao Xiao
- Institute of Science and Technology for Brain-Inspired Intelligence, Fudan University, Shanghai 200433, China; Key Laboratory of Computational Neuroscience and Brain-Inspired Intelligence (Fudan University), Ministry of Education, Shanghai 200433, China.
| | - Anthony J Koleske
- Department of Molecular Biophysics and Biochemistry, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA; Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA; Department of Neuroscience, Yale University, New Haven, CT 06510, USA.
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7
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Brand Z, Avital A. High resolution behavioral and neural activity representation using a geometrical approach. Sci Rep 2020; 10:7977. [PMID: 32409747 PMCID: PMC7224390 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-64726-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2019] [Accepted: 04/21/2020] [Indexed: 11/09/2022] Open
Abstract
Available tools for recording neuronal activity are limited and reductive due to massive data arising from high-frequency measurements. We have developed a method that utilizes variance within the physiological activity and includes all data points per measurement. Data is expressed geometrically in a physiologically meaningful manner, to represent a precise and detailed view of the recorded neural activity. The recorded raw data from any pair of electrodes was plotted and following a covariance calculation, an eigenvalues and chi-square distribution were used to define the ellipse which bounds 95% of the raw data. We validated our method by correlating specific behavioral observation and physiological activity with behavioral tasks that require similar body movement but potentially involve significantly different neuronal activity. Graphical representation of telemetrically recorded data generates a scatter plot with distinct elliptic geometrical properties that clearly and significantly correlated with behavior. Our reproducible approach improves on existing methods by allowing a dynamic, accurate and comprehensive correlate using an intuitive output. Long-term, it may serve as the basis for advanced machine learning applications and animal-based artificial intelligence models aimed at predicting or characterizing behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zev Brand
- Behavioral Neuroscience lab, Gutwirth Building, Department of Neuroscience, Faculty of Medicine and Emek Medical Center, Technion - Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, 32000, Israel
| | - Avi Avital
- Behavioral Neuroscience lab, Gutwirth Building, Department of Neuroscience, Faculty of Medicine and Emek Medical Center, Technion - Israel Institute of Technology, Haifa, 32000, Israel.
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8
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Rahman T, Weickert CS, Harms L, Meehan C, Schall U, Todd J, Hodgson DM, Michie PT, Purves-Tyson T. Effect of Immune Activation during Early Gestation or Late Gestation on Inhibitory Markers in Adult Male Rats. Sci Rep 2020; 10:1982. [PMID: 32029751 PMCID: PMC7004984 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-58449-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/31/2019] [Accepted: 12/26/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
People with schizophrenia exhibit deficits in inhibitory neurons and cognition. The timing of maternal immune activation (MIA) may present distinct schizophrenia-like phenotypes in progeny. We investigated whether early gestation [gestational day (GD) 10] or late gestation (GD19) MIA, via viral mimetic polyI:C, produces deficits in inhibitory neuron indices (GAD1, PVALB, SST, SSTR2 mRNAs) within cortical, striatal, and hippocampal subregions of male adult rat offspring. In situ hybridisation revealed that polyI:C offspring had: (1) SST mRNA reductions in the cingulate cortex and nucleus accumbens shell, regardless of MIA timing; (2) SSTR2 mRNA reductions in the cortex and striatum of GD19, but not GD10, MIA; (3) no alterations in cortical or striatal GAD1 mRNA of polyI:C offspring, but an expected reduction of PVALB mRNA in the infralimbic cortex, and; (4) no alterations in inhibitory markers in hippocampus. Maternal IL-6 response negatively correlated with adult offspring SST mRNA in cortex and striatum, but not hippocampus. These results show lasting inhibitory-related deficits in cortex and striatum in adult offspring from MIA. SST downregulation in specific cortical and striatal subregions, with additional deficits in somatostatin-related signalling through SSTR2, may contribute to some of the adult behavioural changes resulting from MIA and its timing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tasnim Rahman
- School of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,Neuroscience Research Australia, Sydney, NSW, Australia
| | - Cynthia Shannon Weickert
- School of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,Neuroscience Research Australia, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,Department of Neuroscience and Physiology, Upstate Medical University, Syracuse, NY, USA
| | - Lauren Harms
- School of Psychology, The University of Newcastle, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,Priority Centre for Brain and Mental Health Research, The University of Newcastle, Newcastle, NSW, Australia.,Hunter Medical Research Institute, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
| | - Crystal Meehan
- School of Psychology, The University of Newcastle, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,Priority Centre for Brain and Mental Health Research, The University of Newcastle, Newcastle, NSW, Australia.,Hunter Medical Research Institute, Newcastle, NSW, Australia.,Division of Psychology, School of Medicine, College of Health and Medicine, University of Tasmania, Hobart, TAS, Australia
| | - Ulrich Schall
- Priority Centre for Brain and Mental Health Research, The University of Newcastle, Newcastle, NSW, Australia.,Hunter Medical Research Institute, Newcastle, NSW, Australia.,School of Medicine and Public Health, The University of Newcastle, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
| | - Juanita Todd
- School of Psychology, The University of Newcastle, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,Priority Centre for Brain and Mental Health Research, The University of Newcastle, Newcastle, NSW, Australia.,Hunter Medical Research Institute, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
| | - Deborah M Hodgson
- School of Psychology, The University of Newcastle, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,Priority Centre for Brain and Mental Health Research, The University of Newcastle, Newcastle, NSW, Australia.,Hunter Medical Research Institute, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
| | - Patricia T Michie
- School of Psychology, The University of Newcastle, Sydney, NSW, Australia.,Priority Centre for Brain and Mental Health Research, The University of Newcastle, Newcastle, NSW, Australia.,Hunter Medical Research Institute, Newcastle, NSW, Australia
| | - Tertia Purves-Tyson
- School of Psychiatry, Faculty of Medicine, University of New South Wales, Sydney, NSW, Australia. .,Neuroscience Research Australia, Sydney, NSW, Australia.
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9
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Elle T, Alam M, Voigt C, Krauss JK, John N, Schwabe K. Deep brain stimulation of the thalamic centromedian-parafascicular nucleus improves behavioural and neuronal traits in a rat model of Tourette. Behav Brain Res 2020; 378:112251. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2019.112251] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/05/2019] [Revised: 09/17/2019] [Accepted: 09/17/2019] [Indexed: 01/23/2023]
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10
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Østerbøg TB, On DM, Oliveras I, Río-Álamos C, Sanchez-Gonzalez A, Tapias-Espinosa C, Tobeña A, González-Maeso J, Fernández-Teruel A, Aznar S. Metabotropic Glutamate Receptor 2 and Dopamine Receptor 2 Gene Expression Predict Sensorimotor Gating Response in the Genetically Heterogeneous NIH-HS Rat Strain. Mol Neurobiol 2019; 57:1516-1528. [DOI: 10.1007/s12035-019-01829-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2019] [Accepted: 11/01/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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11
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Neonatal corticosterone mitigates autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorders associated with streptococcus in mice. Sci Rep 2018; 8:10188. [PMID: 29976948 PMCID: PMC6033871 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-28372-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2018] [Accepted: 06/12/2018] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
Increased glucocorticoid concentrations have been shown to favor resilience towards autoimmune phenomena. Here, we addressed whether experimentally induced elevations in circulating glucocorticoids mitigate the abnormalities exhibited by an experimental model of Pediatric Autoimmune Neuropsychiatric Disorders Associated with Streptococcus (PANDAS). This is a pathogenic hypothesis linking repeated exposures to Group-A-beta-hemolytic streptococcus (GAS), autoantibodies targeting selected brain nuclei and neurobehavioral abnormalities. To persistently elevate glucocorticoid concentrations, we supplemented lactating SJL/J mice with corticosterone (CORT; 80 mg/L) in the drinking water. Starting in adolescence (postnatal day 28), developing offspring were exposed to four injections - at bi-weekly intervals - of a GAS homogenate and tested for behavioral, immunological, neurochemical and molecular alterations. GAS mice showed increased perseverative behavior, impaired sensorimotor gating, reduced reactivity to a serotonergic agonist and inflammatory infiltrates in the anterior diencephalon. Neonatal CORT persistently increased circulating glucocorticoids concentrations and counteracted these alterations. Additionally, neonatal CORT increased peripheral and CNS concentrations of the anti-inflammatory cytokine IL-9. Further, upstream regulator analysis of differentially expressed genes in the striatum showed that the regulatory effect of estradiol is inhibited in GAS-treated mice and activated in GAS-treated mice exposed to CORT. These data support the hypothesis that elevations in glucocorticoids may promote central immunomodulatory processes.
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12
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Aguilar BL, Forcelli PA, Malkova L. Inhibition of the substantia nigra pars reticulata produces divergent effects on sensorimotor gating in rats and monkeys. Sci Rep 2018; 8:9369. [PMID: 29921848 PMCID: PMC6008324 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-27577-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2018] [Accepted: 06/06/2018] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
The basal ganglia are an evolutionarily old group of structures, with gross organization conserved across species. Despite this conservation, there is evidence suggesting that anatomical organization of a key output nucleus of the basal ganglia, the substantia nigra pars reticulata (SNpr), diverges across species. Nevertheless, there are relatively few comparative studies examining the impact of manipulations of SNpr across species. Here, we evaluated the role of SNpr in a highly conserved behavior: prepulse inhibition of the acoustic startle response (PPI). We performed parallel experiments in both rats and rhesus macaques using intracranial microinfusions of GABAA agonist muscimol to investigate the role of SNpr in PPI. SNpr inactivation significantly disrupted PPI in rats, congruent with prior studies; however, in macaques, SNpr inactivation resulted in facilitation of PPI. We suggest that this difference in circuit function results from a divergence in anatomical connectivity, underscoring the importance of circuit dissection studies across species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brittany L Aguilar
- Interdisciplinary Program in Neuroscience, Georgetown University, Washington DC, 20057, USA
- Department of Pharmacology & Physiology, Georgetown University, Washington DC, 20057, USA
| | - Patrick A Forcelli
- Interdisciplinary Program in Neuroscience, Georgetown University, Washington DC, 20057, USA.
- Department of Pharmacology & Physiology, Georgetown University, Washington DC, 20057, USA.
- Department of Neuroscience, Georgetown University, Washington DC, 20057, USA.
| | - Ludise Malkova
- Interdisciplinary Program in Neuroscience, Georgetown University, Washington DC, 20057, USA.
- Department of Pharmacology & Physiology, Georgetown University, Washington DC, 20057, USA.
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13
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Monteiro P, Barak B, Zhou Y, McRae R, Rodrigues D, Wickersham IR, Feng G. Dichotomous parvalbumin interneuron populations in dorsolateral and dorsomedial striatum. J Physiol 2018; 596:3695-3707. [PMID: 29808928 DOI: 10.1113/jp275936] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2018] [Accepted: 04/16/2018] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
KEY POINTS There are two electrophysiological dichotomous populations of parvalbumin (PV) interneurons located in the dorsal striatum. Striatal PV interneurons in medial and lateral regions differ significantly in their intrinsic excitability. Parvalbumin interneurons in the dorsomedial striatum, but not in the dorsolateral striatum, receive afferent glutamatergic input from cingulate cortex. ABSTRACT Dorsomedial striatum circuitry is involved in goal-directed actions or movements that become habits upon repetition, as encoded by the dorsolateral striatum. An inability to shift from habits can compromise action-control and prevent behavioural adaptation. Although these regions appear to be clearly behaviourally distinct, little is known about their distinct physiology. Parvalbumin (PV) interneurons are a major source of striatal inhibition and are usually considered as a homogeneous population in the entire dorsal striatum. In the present study, we recorded PV interneurons in dorsal striatum slices from wild-type male mice and suggest the existence of two electrophysiological dichotomous populations. We found that PV interneurons located at the dorsomedial striatum region have increased intrinsic excitability compared to PV interneurons in dorsolateral region. We also found that PV interneurons in the dorsomedial region, but not in the dorsolateral striatum region, receive short-latency excitatory inputs from cingulate cortex. Therefore, the results of the present study demonstrate the importance of considering region specific parvalbumin interneuron populations when studying dorsal striatal function.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patricia Monteiro
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA.,Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA.,PhD Programme in Experimental Biology and Biomedicine (PDBEB), Center for Neuroscience and Cell Biology, University of Coimbra, Coimbra, Portugal.,Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho and ICVS/3B's - PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
| | - Boaz Barak
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Yang Zhou
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Rebecca McRae
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Diana Rodrigues
- Life and Health Sciences Research Institute (ICVS), School of Medicine, University of Minho and ICVS/3B's - PT Government Associate Laboratory, Braga/Guimarães, Portugal
| | - Ian R Wickersham
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA
| | - Guoping Feng
- McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, USA.,Stanley Center for Psychiatric Research, Broad Institute of MIT and Harvard, Cambridge, MA, USA
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Assous M, Tepper JM. Excitatory extrinsic afferents to striatal interneurons and interactions with striatal microcircuitry. Eur J Neurosci 2018; 49:593-603. [PMID: 29480942 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.13881] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2018] [Revised: 02/20/2018] [Accepted: 02/20/2018] [Indexed: 01/24/2023]
Abstract
The striatum constitutes the main input structure of the basal ganglia and receives two major excitatory glutamatergic inputs, from the cortex and the thalamus. Excitatory cortico- and thalamostriatal connections innervate the principal neurons of the striatum, the spiny projection neurons (SPNs), which constitute the main cellular input as well as the only output of the striatum. In addition, corticostriatal and thalamostriatal inputs also innervate striatal interneurons. Some of these inputs have been very well studied, for example the thalamic innervation of cholinergic interneurons and the cortical innervation of striatal fast-spiking interneurons, but inputs to most other GABAergic interneurons remain largely unstudied, due in part to the relatively recent identification and characterization of many of these interneurons. In this review, we will discuss and reconcile some older as well as more recent data on the extrinsic excitatory inputs to striatal interneurons. We propose that the traditional feed-forward inhibitory model of the cortical input to the fast-spiking interneuron then inhibiting the SPN, often assumed to be the prototype of the main functional organization of striatal interneurons, is incomplete. We provide evidence that the extrinsic innervation of striatal interneurons is not uniform but shows great cell-type specificity. In addition, we will review data showing that striatal interneurons are themselves interconnected in a highly cell-type-specific manner. These data suggest that the impact of the extrinsic inputs on striatal activity critically depends on synaptic interactions within interneuronal circuitry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maxime Assous
- Center for Molecular and Behavioral Neuroscience, Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey, 197 University Avenue, Newark, NJ, 07102, USA
| | - James M Tepper
- Center for Molecular and Behavioral Neuroscience, Rutgers, the State University of New Jersey, 197 University Avenue, Newark, NJ, 07102, USA
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15
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Kesby JP, Eyles DW, McGrath JJ, Scott JG. Dopamine, psychosis and schizophrenia: the widening gap between basic and clinical neuroscience. Transl Psychiatry 2018; 8:30. [PMID: 29382821 PMCID: PMC5802623 DOI: 10.1038/s41398-017-0071-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 196] [Impact Index Per Article: 32.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2017] [Revised: 10/10/2017] [Accepted: 10/26/2017] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The stagnation in drug development for schizophrenia highlights the need for better translation between basic and clinical research. Understanding the neurobiology of schizophrenia presents substantial challenges but a key feature continues to be the involvement of subcortical dopaminergic dysfunction in those with psychotic symptoms. Our contemporary knowledge regarding dopamine dysfunction has clarified where and when dopaminergic alterations may present in schizophrenia. For example, clinical studies have shown patients with schizophrenia show increased presynaptic dopamine function in the associative striatum, rather than the limbic striatum as previously presumed. Furthermore, subjects deemed at high risk of developing schizophrenia show similar presynaptic dopamine abnormalities in the associative striatum. Thus, our view of subcortical dopamine function in schizophrenia continues to evolve as we accommodate this newly acquired information. However, basic research in animal models has been slow to incorporate these clinical findings. For example, psychostimulant-induced locomotion, the commonly utilised phenotype for positive symptoms in rodents, is heavily associated with dopaminergic activation in the limbic striatum. This anatomical misalignment has brought into question how we assess positive symptoms in animal models and represents an opportunity for improved translation between basic and clinical research. The current review focuses on the role of subcortical dopamine dysfunction in psychosis and schizophrenia. We present and discuss alternative phenotypes that may provide a more translational approach to assess the neurobiology of positive symptoms in schizophrenia. Incorporation of recent clinical findings is essential if we are to develop meaningful translational animal models.
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Affiliation(s)
- JP Kesby
- 0000 0000 9320 7537grid.1003.2Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD Australia ,0000 0000 9320 7537grid.1003.2Centre for Clinical Research, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Herston, QLD Australia
| | - DW Eyles
- 0000 0000 9320 7537grid.1003.2Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD Australia ,0000 0004 0606 3563grid.417162.7Queensland Centre for Mental Health Research, The Park Centre for Mental Health, Wacol, QLD Australia
| | - JJ McGrath
- 0000 0000 9320 7537grid.1003.2Queensland Brain Institute, The University of Queensland, St. Lucia, QLD Australia ,0000 0004 0606 3563grid.417162.7Queensland Centre for Mental Health Research, The Park Centre for Mental Health, Wacol, QLD Australia ,0000 0001 1956 2722grid.7048.bNational Centre for Register-based Research, Aarhus University, Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - JG Scott
- 0000 0000 9320 7537grid.1003.2Centre for Clinical Research, Faculty of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Herston, QLD Australia ,0000 0004 0606 3563grid.417162.7Queensland Centre for Mental Health Research, The Park Centre for Mental Health, Wacol, QLD Australia ,0000 0001 0688 4634grid.416100.2Metro North Mental Health, Royal Brisbane and Women’s Hospital, Herston, QLD Australia
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Abdominal Vagal Afferents Modulate the Brain Transcriptome and Behaviors Relevant to Schizophrenia. J Neurosci 2018; 38:1634-1647. [PMID: 29326171 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.0813-17.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/24/2017] [Revised: 11/25/2017] [Accepted: 12/18/2017] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Reduced activity of vagal efferents has long been implicated in schizophrenia and appears to be responsible for diminished parasympathetic activity and associated peripheral symptoms such as low heart rate variability and cardiovascular complications in affected individuals. In contrast, only little attention has been paid to the possibility that impaired afferent vagal signaling may be relevant for the disorder's pathophysiology as well. The present study explored this hypothesis using a model of subdiaphragmatic vagal deafferentation (SDA) in male rats. SDA represents the most complete and selective vagal deafferentation method existing to date as it leads to complete disconnection of all abdominal vagal afferents while sparing half of the abdominal vagal efferents. Using next-generation mRNA sequencing, we show that SDA leads to brain transcriptional changes in functional networks annotating with schizophrenia. We further demonstrate that SDA induces a hyperdopaminergic state, which manifests itself as increased sensitivity to acute amphetamine treatment and elevated accumbal levels of dopamine and its major metabolite, 3,4-dihydroxyphenylacetic acid. Our study also shows that SDA impairs sensorimotor gating and the attentional control of associative learning, which were assessed using the paradigms of prepulse inhibition and latent inhibition, respectively. These data provide converging evidence suggesting that the brain transcriptome, dopamine neurochemistry, and behavioral functions implicated in schizophrenia are subject to visceral modulation through abdominal vagal afferents. Our findings may encourage the further establishment and use of therapies for schizophrenia that are based on vagal interventions.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT The present work provides a better understanding of how disrupted vagal afferent signaling can contribute to schizophrenia-related brain and behavioral abnormalities. More specifically, it shows that subdiaphragmatic vagal deafferentation (SDA) in rats leads to (1) brain transcriptional changes in functional networks related to schizophrenia, (2) increased sensitivity to dopamine-stimulating drugs and elevated dopamine levels in the nucleus accumbens, and (3) impairments in sensorimotor gating and the attentional control of associative learning. These findings may encourage the further establishment of novel therapies for schizophrenia that are based on vagal interventions.
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Manning EE, Ahmari SE. How can preclinical mouse models be used to gain insight into prefrontal cortex dysfunction in obsessive-compulsive disorder? Brain Neurosci Adv 2018; 2:2398212818783896. [PMID: 32166143 PMCID: PMC7058260 DOI: 10.1177/2398212818783896] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/06/2018] [Accepted: 05/18/2018] [Indexed: 01/09/2023] Open
Abstract
Obsessive-compulsive disorder is a debilitating psychiatric disorder that is characterised by perseverative thoughts and behaviours. Cognitive and affective disturbances play a central role in this illness, and it is therefore not surprising that clinical neuroimaging studies have demonstrated widespread alterations in prefrontal cortex functioning in patients. Preclinical mouse experimental systems provide the opportunity to gain mechanistic insight into the neurobiological changes underlying prefrontal cortex dysfunction through new technologies that allow measurement and manipulation of activity in discrete neural populations in awake, behaving mice. However, recent preclinical research has focused on striatal dysfunction, and has therefore provided relatively little insight regarding the role of the prefrontal cortex in obsessive-compulsive disorder-relevant behaviours. Here, we will discuss a number of translational prefrontal cortex-dependent paradigms, including obsessive-compulsive disorder-relevant tasks that produce compulsive responding, and how they can be leveraged in this context. Drawing on recent examples that have led to mechanistic insight about specific genes, cell types and circuits that mediate prefrontal cortex contributions to distinct aspects of cognition, we will provide a framework for applying similar strategies to identify neural mechanisms underlying obsessive-compulsive disorder-relevant behavioural domains. We propose that research using clinically relevant paradigms will accelerate translation of findings from preclinical mouse models, thus supporting the development of novel therapeutics targeted to specific pathophysiological mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Susanne E. Ahmari
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Pittsburgh, Pittsburgh, PA, USA
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18
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Rapanelli M, Frick LR, Xu M, Groman SM, Jindachomthong K, Tamamaki N, Tanahira C, Taylor JR, Pittenger C. Targeted Interneuron Depletion in the Dorsal Striatum Produces Autism-like Behavioral Abnormalities in Male but Not Female Mice. Biol Psychiatry 2017; 82:194-203. [PMID: 28347488 PMCID: PMC5374721 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopsych.2017.01.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 54] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/12/2016] [Revised: 12/27/2016] [Accepted: 01/02/2017] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Interneuronal pathology is implicated in many neuropsychiatric disorders, including autism spectrum disorder (ASD) and Tourette syndrome (TS). Interneurons of the striatum, including the parvalbumin-expressing fast-spiking interneurons (FSIs) and the large cholinergic interneurons (CINs), are affected in patients with TS and in preclinical models of both ASD and TS. METHODS To test the causal importance of these neuronal abnormalities, we recapitulated them in vivo in developmentally normal mice using a combination transgenic-viral strategy for targeted toxin-mediated ablation. RESULTS We found that conjoint ~50% depletion of FSIs and CINs in the dorsal striatum of male mice produces spontaneous stereotypy and marked deficits in social interaction. Strikingly, these behavioral effects are not seen in female mice; because ASD and TS have a marked male predominance, this observation reinforces the potential relevance of the finding to human disease. Neither of these effects is seen when only one or the other interneuronal population is depleted; ablation of both is required. Depletion of FSIs, but not of CINs, also produces anxiety-like behavior, as has been described previously. Behavioral pathology in male mice after conjoint FSI and CIN depletion is accompanied by increases in activity-dependent signaling in the dorsal striatum; these alterations were not observed after disruption of only one interneuron type or in doubly depleted female mice. CONCLUSIONS These data indicate that disruption of CIN and FSI interneurons in the dorsal striatum is sufficient to produce network and behavioral changes of potential relevance to ASD, in a sexually dimorphic manner.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Meiyu Xu
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut
| | | | | | - Nobuaki Tamamaki
- Department of Morphological Neural Science, Graduate School of Medicine, Kumamoto University, Honjo, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Chiyoko Tanahira
- Department of Morphological Neural Science, Graduate School of Medicine, Kumamoto University, Honjo, Kumamoto, Japan
| | - Jane Rebecca Taylor
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut; Department of Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut
| | - Christopher Pittenger
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut; Department of Psychology, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut; Child Study Center, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut; Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, Yale University, New Haven, Connecticut.
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19
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Assous M, Kaminer J, Shah F, Garg A, Koós T, Tepper JM. Differential processing of thalamic information via distinct striatal interneuron circuits. Nat Commun 2017; 8:15860. [PMID: 28604688 PMCID: PMC5477498 DOI: 10.1038/ncomms15860] [Citation(s) in RCA: 66] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/23/2017] [Accepted: 05/03/2017] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Recent discoveries of striatal GABAergic interneurons require a new conceptualization of the organization of intrastriatal circuitry and their cortical and thalamic inputs. We investigated thalamic inputs to the two populations of striatal neuropeptide Y (NPY) interneurons, plateau low threshold spike (PLTS) and NPY-neurogliaform (NGF) cells. Optogenetic activation of parafascicular inputs evokes suprathreshold monosynaptic glutamatergic excitation in NGF interneurons and a disynaptic, nicotinic excitation through cholinergic interneurons. In contrast, the predominant response of PLTS interneurons is a disynaptic inhibition dependent on thalamic activation of striatal tyrosine hydroxylase interneurons (THINs). In contrast, THINs do not innervate NGF or fast spiking interneurons, showing significant specificity in THINs outputs. Chemospecific ablation of THINs impairs prepulse inhibition of the acoustic startle response suggesting an important behavioural role of this disynaptic pathway. Our findings demonstrate that the impact of the parafascicular nucleus on striatal activity and some related behaviour critically depend on synaptic interactions within interneuronal circuits. The responses of striatal GABAergic interneurons to thalamic inputs are not well characterised. Here, the authors demonstrate that complex intrastriatal circuitry is responsible for thalamic-evoked monosynaptic and disynaptic excitation in NPY-NGF interneurons but a disynaptic inhibition in the NPY-PLTS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maxime Assous
- Center for Molecular and Behavioral Neuroscience, Rutgers University, Newark, New Jersey 07102, USA
| | - Jaime Kaminer
- Center for Molecular and Behavioral Neuroscience, Rutgers University, Newark, New Jersey 07102, USA
| | - Fulva Shah
- Center for Molecular and Behavioral Neuroscience, Rutgers University, Newark, New Jersey 07102, USA
| | - Arpan Garg
- Center for Molecular and Behavioral Neuroscience, Rutgers University, Newark, New Jersey 07102, USA
| | - Tibor Koós
- Center for Molecular and Behavioral Neuroscience, Rutgers University, Newark, New Jersey 07102, USA
| | - James M Tepper
- Center for Molecular and Behavioral Neuroscience, Rutgers University, Newark, New Jersey 07102, USA
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20
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Rodrigues S, Salum C, Ferreira TL. Dorsal striatum D1-expressing neurons are involved with sensorimotor gating on prepulse inhibition test. J Psychopharmacol 2017; 31:505-513. [PMID: 28114835 DOI: 10.1177/0269881116686879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Prepulse inhibition (PPI) is a behavioral test in which the startle reflex response to a high-intensity stimulus (pulse) is inhibited by the prior presentation of a weak stimulus (prepulse). The classic neural circuitry that mediates startle response is localized in the brainstem; however, recent studies point to the contribution of structures involved in higher cognitive functions in regulating the sensorimotor gating, particularly forebrain regions innervated by dopaminergic nuclei. The aim of the present study was to verify the role of dorsal striatum (DS) and dopaminergic transmitting mediated by D1 and D2 receptors on PPI test in rats. DS inactivation induced by muscimol injection did not affect PPI (%PPI and startle response), although it impaired the locomotor activity and caused catalepsy. Infusion of D1-like antagonist SCH23390 impaired %PPI but did not disturb the startle response and locomotor activity evaluated immediately after PPI test. D2 antagonist microinjection (sulpiride) did not affect %PPI and startle response, but impaired motor activity. These results point to an important role of DS, probably mediated by direct basal ganglia pathway, on modulation of sensorimotor gating, in accordance with clinical studies showing PPI deficits in schizophrenia, Tourette syndrome, and compulsive disorders - pathologies related to basal ganglia dysfunctions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Samanta Rodrigues
- Centro de Matemática Computação e Cognição, Universidade Federal do ABC, São Bernardo do Campo, Brazil
| | - Cristiane Salum
- Centro de Matemática Computação e Cognição, Universidade Federal do ABC, São Bernardo do Campo, Brazil
| | - Tatiana L Ferreira
- Centro de Matemática Computação e Cognição, Universidade Federal do ABC, São Bernardo do Campo, Brazil
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21
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Swerdlow NR, Braff DL, Geyer MA. Sensorimotor gating of the startle reflex: what we said 25 years ago, what has happened since then, and what comes next. J Psychopharmacol 2016; 30:1072-1081. [PMID: 27539931 PMCID: PMC6036900 DOI: 10.1177/0269881116661075] [Citation(s) in RCA: 128] [Impact Index Per Article: 16.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/31/2022]
Abstract
Our 1992 paper, 'The neural substrates of sensorimotor gating of the startle reflex: a review of recent findings and their implications', reviewed a series of (then) new and preliminary findings from cross-species studies of prepulse inhibition of the startle reflex, and commented on their implications. At the time that the report was composed, PubMed listed about 40 citations for studies using the search term 'prepulse inhibition'. In the ensuing 25 years, the field has added about 2700 such reports, reflecting the substantial growth in interest in prepulse inhibition and its utility across a number of different experimental applications. The 30th anniversary of the Journal of Psychopharmacology provides an opportunity to comment briefly on what was described in that 1992 report, how the field has progressed in the subsequent decades, and the paths forward for studies of prepulse inhibition and its use as an operational measure of sensorimotor gating. Among these future paths, we highlight the use of prepulse inhibition as: an endophenotype for genomic studies, and a biomarker for healthy brain circuitry, which may predict sensitivity to psychotherapeutics. Our 1992 report was highly speculative and based on paper-thin empirical data, yet viewed in a certain light, it appears to have contained a basic roadmap for a journey spanning the next 25 years of prepulse inhibition research… and 'what a long, strange trip it's been'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neal R Swerdlow
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego School of Medicine, La Jolla, CA, USA
| | - David L Braff
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego School of Medicine, La Jolla, CA, USA
- Research Service, VA San Diego Healthcare System, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - Mark A Geyer
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego School of Medicine, La Jolla, CA, USA
- Research Service, VA San Diego Healthcare System, San Diego, CA, USA
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22
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Spinello C, Laviola G, Macrì S. Pediatric Autoimmune Disorders Associated with Streptococcal Infections and Tourette's Syndrome in Preclinical Studies. Front Neurosci 2016; 10:310. [PMID: 27445678 PMCID: PMC4928151 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2016.00310] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2016] [Accepted: 06/20/2016] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
Accumulating evidence suggests that Tourette's Syndrome (TS) - a multifactorial pediatric disorder characterized by the recurrent exhibition of motor tics and/or vocal utterances - can partly depend on immune dysregulation provoked by early repeated streptococcal infections. The natural and adaptive antibody-mediated reaction to streptococcus has been proposed to potentially turn into a pathological autoimmune response in vulnerable individuals. Specifically, in conditions of increased permeability of the blood brain barrier (BBB), streptococcus-induced antibodies have been proposed to: (i) reach neuronal targets located in brain areas responsible for motion control; and (ii) contribute to the exhibition of symptoms. This theoretical framework is supported by indirect evidence indicating that a subset of TS patients exhibit elevated streptococcal antibody titers upon tic relapses. A systematic evaluation of this hypothesis entails preclinical studies providing a proof of concept of the aforementioned pathological sequelae. These studies shall rest upon individuals characterized by a vulnerable immune system, repeatedly exposed to streptococcus, and carefully screened for phenotypes isomorphic to the pathological signs of TS observed in patients. Preclinical animal models may thus constitute an informative, useful tool upon which conducting targeted, hypothesis-driven experiments. In the present review we discuss the available evidence in preclinical models in support of the link between TS and pediatric autoimmune neuropsychiatric disorders associated with streptococcus infections (PANDAS), and the existing gaps that future research shall bridge. Specifically, we report recent preclinical evidence indicating that the immune responses to repeated streptococcal immunizations relate to the occurrence of behavioral and neurological phenotypes reminiscent of TS. By the same token, we discuss the limitations of these studies: limited evidence of behavioral phenotypes isomorphic to tics and scarce knowledge about the immunological phenomena favoring the transition from natural adaptive immunity to pathological outcomes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chiara Spinello
- Section of Behavioural Neuroscience, Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Istituto Superiore di Sanità Roma, Italy
| | - Giovanni Laviola
- Section of Behavioural Neuroscience, Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Istituto Superiore di Sanità Roma, Italy
| | - Simone Macrì
- Section of Behavioural Neuroscience, Department of Cell Biology and Neuroscience, Istituto Superiore di Sanità Roma, Italy
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Pittenger C, Adams TG, Gallezot JD, Crowley MJ, Nabulsi N, Ropchan J, Gao H, Kichuk SA, Simpson R, Billingslea E, Hannestad J, Bloch M, Mayes L, Bhagwagar Z, Carson RE. OCD is associated with an altered association between sensorimotor gating and cortical and subcortical 5-HT1b receptor binding. J Affect Disord 2016; 196:87-96. [PMID: 26919057 PMCID: PMC4808438 DOI: 10.1016/j.jad.2016.02.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/02/2015] [Revised: 12/02/2015] [Accepted: 02/07/2016] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Abstract
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is characterized by impaired sensorimotor gating, as measured using prepulse inhibition (PPI). This effect may be related to abnormalities in the serotonin (5-HT) system. 5-HT1B agonists can impair PPI, produce OCD-like behaviors in animals, and exacerbate OCD symptoms in humans. We measured 5-HT1B receptor availability using (11)C-P943 positron emission tomography (PET) in unmedicated, non-depressed OCD patients (n=12) and matched healthy controls (HC; n=12). Usable PPI data were obtained from 20 of these subjects (10 from each group). There were no significant main effects of OCD diagnosis on 5-HT1B receptor availability ((11)C-P943 BPND); however, the relationship between PPI and (11)C-P943 BPND differed dramatically and significantly between groups. 5-HT1B receptor availability in the basal ganglia and thalamus correlated positively with PPI in controls; these correlations were lost or even reversed in the OCD group. In cortical regions there were no significant correlations with PPI in controls, but widespread positive correlations in OCD patients. Positive correlations between 5-HT1B receptor availability and PPI were consistent across diagnostic groups only in two structures, the orbitofrontal cortex and the amygdala. Differential associations of 5-HT1B receptor availability with PPI in patients suggest functionally important alterations in the serotonergic regulation of cortical/subcortical balance in OCD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christopher Pittenger
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine, USA; Department of Psychology, Yale University School of Medicine, USA; Child Study Center, Yale University School of Medicine, USA; Interdepartmental Neuroscience Program, Yale University School of Medicine, USA.
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Mintzopoulos D, Gillis TE, Robertson HR, Dalia T, Feng G, Rauch SL, Kaufman MJ. Striatal magnetic resonance spectroscopy abnormalities in young adult SAPAP3 knockout mice. BIOLOGICAL PSYCHIATRY. COGNITIVE NEUROSCIENCE AND NEUROIMAGING 2016; 1:39-48. [PMID: 26858992 PMCID: PMC4742338 DOI: 10.1016/j.bpsc.2015.10.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) is a debilitating condition with lifetime prevalence of 1-3%. OCD typically arises in youth but delays in diagnosis impede optimal treatment and developmental studies of the disorder. Research using genetically modified rodents may provide models of etiology that enable earlier detection and intervention. The SAPAP3 knockout (KO) transgenic mouse was developed as an animal model of OCD and related disorders (OCRD). KO mice exhibit compulsive self-grooming behavior analogous to behaviors found in people with OCRD. Striatal hyperactivity has been reported in these mice and in humans with OCD. METHODS Striatal and medial frontal cortex 9.4 Tesla proton spectra were acquired from young adult SAPAP3 KO and wild-type control mice to determine whether KO mice have metabolic and neurochemical abnormalities. RESULTS Young adult KO mice had lower striatal lactate (P=0.006) and glutathione (P=0.039) levels. Among all mice, striatal lactate and glutathione levels were associated (R=0.73, P=0.007). We found no group differences in medial frontal cortex metabolites. At the age range studied, only 1 of 8 KO mice had skin lesions indicative of severe compulsive grooming. CONCLUSION Young adult SAPAP3 KO mice have striatal but not medial frontal cortex MRS abnormalities that may reflect striatal hypermetabolism accompanied by oxidative stress. These abnormalities typically preceded the onset of severe compulsive grooming. Our findings are consistent with striatal hypermetabolism in OCD. Together, these results suggest that striatal MRS measures of lactate or glutathione might be useful biomarkers for early detection of risk for developing compulsive behavior disorders.
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Selective Effects of PDE10A Inhibitors on Striatopallidal Neurons Require Phosphatase Inhibition by DARPP-32. eNeuro 2015; 2:eN-NWR-0060-15. [PMID: 26465004 PMCID: PMC4596023 DOI: 10.1523/eneuro.0060-15.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2015] [Revised: 07/21/2015] [Accepted: 08/10/2015] [Indexed: 01/13/2023] Open
Abstract
Type 10A phosphodiesterase (PDE10A) is highly expressed in the striatum, in striatonigral and striatopallidal medium-sized spiny neurons (MSNs), which express D1 and D2 dopamine receptors, respectively. PDE10A inhibitors have pharmacological and behavioral effects suggesting an antipsychotic profile, but the cellular bases of these effects are unclear. We analyzed the effects of PDE10A inhibition in vivo by immunohistochemistry, and imaged cAMP, cAMP-dependent protein kinase A (PKA), and cGMP signals with biosensors in mouse brain slices. PDE10A inhibition in mouse striatal slices produced a steady-state increase in intracellular cAMP concentration in D1 and D2 MSNs, demonstrating that PDE10A regulates basal cAMP levels. Surprisingly, the PKA-dependent AKAR3 phosphorylation signal was strong in D2 MSNs, whereas D1 MSNs remained unresponsive. This effect was also observed in adult mice in vivo since PDE10A inhibition increased phospho-histone H3 immunoreactivity selectively in D2 MSNs in the dorsomedial striatum. The PKA-dependent effects in D2 MSNs were prevented in brain slices and in vivo by mutation of the PKA-regulated phosphorylation site of 32 kDa dopamine- and cAMP-regulated phosphoprotein (DARPP-32), which is required for protein phosphatase-1 inhibition. These data highlight differences in the integration of the cAMP signal in D1 and D2 MSNs, resulting from stronger inhibition of protein phosphatase-1 by DARPP-32 in D2 MSNs than in D1 MSNs. This study shows that PDE10A inhibitors share with antipsychotic medications the property of activating preferentially PKA-dependent signaling in D2 MSNs.
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26
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Macrì S, Ceci C, Proietti Onori M, Invernizzi RW, Bartolini E, Altabella L, Canese R, Imperi M, Orefici G, Creti R, Margarit I, Magliozzi R, Laviola G. Mice repeatedly exposed to Group-A β-Haemolytic Streptococcus show perseverative behaviors, impaired sensorimotor gating, and immune activation in rostral diencephalon. Sci Rep 2015; 5:13257. [PMID: 26304458 PMCID: PMC4548234 DOI: 10.1038/srep13257] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2015] [Accepted: 06/09/2015] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Repeated exposure to Group-A β-Haemolytic Streptococcus (GAS) may constitute a vulnerability factor in the onset and course of pediatric motor disturbances. GAS infections/colonization can stimulate the production of antibodies, which may cross the blood brain barrier, target selected brain areas (e.g. basal ganglia), and exacerbate motor alterations. Here, we exposed developing SJL male mice to four injections with a GAS homogenate and evaluated the following domains: motor coordination; general locomotion; repetitive behaviors; perseverative responses; and sensorimotor gating (pre-pulse inhibition, PPI). To demonstrate that behavioral changes were associated with immune-mediated brain alterations, we analyzed, in selected brain areas, the presence of infiltrates and microglial activation (immunohistochemistry), monoamines (HPLC), and brain metabolites (in vivo Magnetic Resonance Spectroscopy). GAS-exposed mice showed increased repetitive and perseverative behaviors, impaired PPI, and reduced concentrations of serotonin in prefrontal cortex, a brain area linked to the behavioral domains investigated, wherein they also showed remarkable elevations in lactate. Active inflammatory processes were substantiated by the observation of infiltrates and microglial activation in the white matter of the anterior diencephalon. These data support the hypothesis that repeated GAS exposure may elicit inflammatory responses in brain areas involved in motor control and perseverative behavior, and result in phenotypic abnormalities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Simone Macrì
- Sect. Behavioural Neuroscience, Dept. Cell Biology &Neuroscience, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena, 299, I-00161 Roma, Italy
| | - Chiara Ceci
- Sect. Behavioural Neuroscience, Dept. Cell Biology &Neuroscience, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena, 299, I-00161 Roma, Italy
| | - Martina Proietti Onori
- Sect. Behavioural Neuroscience, Dept. Cell Biology &Neuroscience, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena, 299, I-00161 Roma, Italy
| | | | - Erika Bartolini
- Research Centre, Novartis Vaccines and Diagnostics, Via Fiorentina 1, 53100 Siena, Italy
| | - Luisa Altabella
- Sect. Molecular and Cellular Imaging, Dept. Cell Biology &Neuroscience, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena, 299, I-00161 Roma, Italy
| | - Rossella Canese
- Sect. Molecular and Cellular Imaging, Dept. Cell Biology &Neuroscience, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena, 299, I-00161 Roma, Italy
| | - Monica Imperi
- Sect. Respiratory and Systemic Bacterial Diseases, Dept. of Infectious, Parasitic, and Immune-mediated Diseases, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena, 299, I-00161 Roma, Italy
| | - Graziella Orefici
- Sect. Respiratory and Systemic Bacterial Diseases, Dept. of Infectious, Parasitic, and Immune-mediated Diseases, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena, 299, I-00161 Roma, Italy
| | - Roberta Creti
- Sect. Respiratory and Systemic Bacterial Diseases, Dept. of Infectious, Parasitic, and Immune-mediated Diseases, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena, 299, I-00161 Roma, Italy
| | - Immaculada Margarit
- Research Centre, Novartis Vaccines and Diagnostics, Via Fiorentina 1, 53100 Siena, Italy
| | - Roberta Magliozzi
- Sect. Demyelinating and Inflammatory Diseases of the CNS, Dept. Cell Biology &Neuroscience, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena, 299, I-00161 Roma, Italy
| | - Giovanni Laviola
- Sect. Behavioural Neuroscience, Dept. Cell Biology &Neuroscience, Istituto Superiore di Sanità, Viale Regina Elena, 299, I-00161 Roma, Italy
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Targeted ablation of cholinergic interneurons in the dorsolateral striatum produces behavioral manifestations of Tourette syndrome. Proc Natl Acad Sci U S A 2015; 112:893-8. [PMID: 25561540 DOI: 10.1073/pnas.1419533112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 112] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/16/2023] Open
Abstract
Gilles de la Tourette syndrome (TS) is characterized by tics, which are transiently worsened by stress, acute administration of dopaminergic drugs, and by subtle deficits in motor coordination and sensorimotor gating. It represents the most severe end of a spectrum of tic disorders that, in aggregate, affect ∼ 5% of the population. Available treatments are frequently inadequate, and the pathophysiology is poorly understood. Postmortem studies have revealed a reduction in specific striatal interneurons, including the large cholinergic interneurons, in severe disease. We tested the hypothesis that this deficit is sufficient to produce aspects of the phenomenology of TS, using a strategy for targeted, specific cell ablation in mice. We achieved ∼ 50% ablation of the cholinergic interneurons of the striatum, recapitulating the deficit observed in patients postmortem, without any effect on GABAergic markers or on parvalbumin-expressing fast-spiking interneurons. Interneuron ablation in the dorsolateral striatum (DLS), corresponding roughly to the human putamen, led to tic-like stereotypies after either acute stress or d-amphetamine challenge; ablation in the dorsomedial striatum, in contrast, did not. DLS interneuron ablation also led to a deficit in coordination on the rotorod, but not to any abnormalities in prepulse inhibition, a measure of sensorimotor gating. These results support the causal sufficiency of cholinergic interneuron deficits in the DLS to produce some, but not all, of the characteristic symptoms of TS.
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Arvidsson E, Viereckel T, Mikulovic S, Wallén-Mackenzie Å. Age- and sex-dependence of dopamine release and capacity for recovery identified in the dorsal striatum of C57/Bl6J mice. PLoS One 2014; 9:e99592. [PMID: 24925086 PMCID: PMC4055716 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0099592] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2014] [Accepted: 05/15/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
The dorsal striatum is the main input structure of the basal ganglia and the major target area of dopaminergic projections originating in the substantia nigra pars compacta. Heavily involved in the regulation of voluntary movement and habit formation, this structure is of strong importance in Parkinson's disease, obsessive-compulsive disorder, Tourette's syndrome and addiction. The C57/Bl6J mouse strain, the most commonly used strain in preclinical research today, is frequently used as a model organism for analysis of dopaminergic parameters implicated in human pathophysiology. Several components of the dopamine system have been shown to vary with age and sex, however knowledge of the contribution of these factors for dopamine release kinetics in the C57/Bl6J mouse strain is lacking. In the present study, we used an intracranial KCl-stimulation challenge paradigm to provoke release from dopaminergic terminals in the dorsal striatum of anaesthetized C57/Bl6J mice. By high-speed in vivo chronoamperometric recordings, we analyzed DA release parameters in male and female mice of two different ages. Our experiments demonstrate elevated DA amplitudes in adult compared to young mice of both sexes and higher DA amplitudes in females compared to males at both ages. Adult mice exhibited higher recovery capabilities after repeated stimulation than did young mice and also showed a lower variability in the kinetic parameters trise and t80 between stimulations. These results identified age- and sex- dimorphisms in DA release parameters and point to the importance of taking these dimorphisms into account when utilizing the C57/Bl6J mouse strain as model for neurological and neuropsychiatric disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emma Arvidsson
- Department of Neuroscience, Unit of Functional Neurobiology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Thomas Viereckel
- Department of Neuroscience, Unit of Functional Neurobiology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Sanja Mikulovic
- Department of Neuroscience, Unit of Developmental Genetics, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
| | - Åsa Wallén-Mackenzie
- Department of Neuroscience, Unit of Functional Neurobiology, Uppsala University, Uppsala, Sweden
- * E-mail:
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30
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Salicylate-induced auditory perceptual disorders and plastic changes in nonclassical auditory centers in rats. Neural Plast 2014; 2014:658741. [PMID: 24891959 PMCID: PMC4033555 DOI: 10.1155/2014/658741] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2014] [Revised: 03/26/2014] [Accepted: 04/02/2014] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous studies have shown that sodium salicylate (SS) activates not only central auditory structures, but also nonauditory regions associated with emotion and memory. To identify electrophysiological changes in the nonauditory regions, we recorded sound-evoked local field potentials and multiunit discharges from the striatum, amygdala, hippocampus, and cingulate cortex after SS-treatment. The SS-treatment produced behavioral evidence of tinnitus and hyperacusis. Physiologically, the treatment significantly enhanced sound-evoked neural activity in the striatum, amygdala, and hippocampus, but not in the cingulate. The enhanced sound evoked response could be linked to the hyperacusis-like behavior. Further analysis showed that the enhancement of sound-evoked activity occurred predominantly at the midfrequencies, likely reflecting shifts of neurons towards the midfrequency range after SS-treatment as observed in our previous studies in the auditory cortex and amygdala. The increased number of midfrequency neurons would lead to a relative higher number of total spontaneous discharges in the midfrequency region, even though the mean discharge rate of each neuron may not increase. The tonotopical overactivity in the midfrequency region in quiet may potentially lead to tonal sensation of midfrequency (the tinnitus). The neural changes in the amygdala and hippocampus may also contribute to the negative effect that patients associate with their tinnitus.
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Baldan LC, Williams KA, Gallezot JD, Pogorelov V, Rapanelli M, Crowley M, Anderson GM, Loring E, Gorczyca R, Billingslea E, Wasylink S, Panza KE, Ercan-Sencicek AG, Krusong K, Leventhal BL, Ohtsu H, Bloch MH, Hughes ZA, Krystal JH, Mayes L, de Araujo I, Ding YS, State MW, Pittenger C. Histidine decarboxylase deficiency causes tourette syndrome: parallel findings in humans and mice. Neuron 2014; 81:77-90. [PMID: 24411733 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuron.2013.10.052] [Citation(s) in RCA: 181] [Impact Index Per Article: 18.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 10/18/2013] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
Abstract
Tourette syndrome (TS) is characterized by tics, sensorimotor gating deficiencies, and abnormalities of cortico-basal ganglia circuits. A mutation in histidine decarboxylase (Hdc), the key enzyme for the biosynthesis of histamine (HA), has been implicated as a rare genetic cause. Hdc knockout mice exhibited potentiated tic-like stereotypies, recapitulating core phenomenology of TS; these were mitigated by the dopamine (DA) D2 antagonist haloperidol, a proven pharmacotherapy, and by HA infusion into the brain. Prepulse inhibition was impaired in both mice and humans carrying Hdc mutations. HA infusion reduced striatal DA levels; in Hdc knockout mice, striatal DA was increased and the DA-regulated immediate early gene Fos was upregulated. DA D2/D3 receptor binding was altered both in mice and in humans carrying the Hdc mutation. These data confirm histidine decarboxylase deficiency as a rare cause of TS and identify HA-DA interactions in the basal ganglia as an important locus of pathology.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Kyle A Williams
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine.,Department of Child Study Center, Yale University School of Medicine
| | | | | | | | - Michael Crowley
- Department of Child Study Center, Yale University School of Medicine
| | - George M Anderson
- Department of Child Study Center, Yale University School of Medicine.,Department of Laboratory Medicine, Yale University School of Medicine
| | - Erin Loring
- Department of Child Study Center, Yale University School of Medicine.,Department of Genetics, Yale University School of Medicine.,Department of Program on Neurogenetics, Yale University School of Medicine
| | | | | | | | - Kaitlyn E Panza
- Department of Child Study Center, Yale University School of Medicine
| | - A Gulhan Ercan-Sencicek
- Department of Child Study Center, Yale University School of Medicine.,Department of Genetics, Yale University School of Medicine
| | - Kuakarun Krusong
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine.,Dept. of Biochem., Faculty of Science, Chulalongkorn Univ., Bangkok, Thailand
| | - Bennett L Leventhal
- Nathan S. Kline Institute for Psychiatric Research.,New York University Dept of Child and Adolescent Psychiatry
| | - Hiroshi Ohtsu
- Tohoku University, Graduate School of Engineering, Sendai, Japan
| | - Michael H Bloch
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine.,Department of Child Study Center, Yale University School of Medicine
| | - Zoë A Hughes
- Neuroscience Research Unit, Pfizer, Inc., Cambridge, MA
| | - John H Krystal
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine
| | - Linda Mayes
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine.,Department of Child Study Center, Yale University School of Medicine.,Department of Pediatrics, Yale University School of Medicine.,Department of Psychology, Yale University School of Medicine
| | - Ivan de Araujo
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine.,John B. Pierce Laboratory, New Haven, CT
| | - Yu-Shin Ding
- Department of Diagnostic Radiology, Yale University School of Medicine
| | - Matthew W State
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine.,Department of Child Study Center, Yale University School of Medicine.,Department of Genetics, Yale University School of Medicine.,Department of Program on Neurogenetics, Yale University School of Medicine
| | - Christopher Pittenger
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University School of Medicine.,Department of Child Study Center, Yale University School of Medicine.,Department of Psychology, Yale University School of Medicine.,Integrated Neuroscience Research Program; New Haven, CT 06520
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Zoetmulder M, Biernat HB, Nikolic M, Korbo L, Jennum PJ. Sensorimotor gating deficits in multiple system atrophy: Comparison with Parkinson's disease and idiopathic REM sleep behavior disorder. Parkinsonism Relat Disord 2014; 20:297-302. [DOI: 10.1016/j.parkreldis.2013.11.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/07/2013] [Revised: 10/22/2013] [Accepted: 11/30/2013] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
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Lee AS, André JM, Pittenger C. Lesions of the dorsomedial striatum delay spatial learning and render cue-based navigation inflexible in a water maze task in mice. Front Behav Neurosci 2014; 8:42. [PMID: 24592223 PMCID: PMC3923143 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2014.00042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2013] [Accepted: 01/28/2014] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The dorsal striatum is involved in cue-based navigation strategies and in the development of habits. It has been proposed that striatum-dependent cued navigation competes with hippocampus-dependent spatial navigation in some circumstances. We have previously shown that large lesions of the dorsal striatum, as well as impairment of corticostriatal synaptic plasticity in transgenic mice, can enhance spatial learning in a water maze task, presumably by the disruption of competitive interference. However, the dorsal striatum is not a homogeneous structure; both anatomical considerations and experimental studies in various paradigms show that dorsomedial and dorsolateral striatum are functionally distinct, although there is no precise anatomical or neurochemical boundary between them. Here we investigated the effect of restricted excitotoxic lesions of dorsomedial striatum (DMS) on cued and spatial water maze learning. We find that dorsomedial striatal lesions delay spatial learning but permit cued learning. After cued learning, lesioned animals showed inflexible search, resulting in repeated visits to the escape platform-associated cue. These results support a role for the DMS in behavioral flexibility rather than in cue-based navigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anni S Lee
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University New Haven, CT, USA ; Weill Cornell Graduate School New York, NY, USA
| | - Jessica M André
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University New Haven, CT, USA
| | - Christopher Pittenger
- Department of Psychiatry, Yale University New Haven, CT, USA ; Department of Psychology, Yale University New Haven, CT, USA ; The Child Study Center, Yale University New Haven, CT, USA
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Abstract
Movement disorders, which include disorders such as Parkinson's disease, dystonia, Tourette's syndrome, restless legs syndrome, and akathisia, have traditionally been considered to be disorders of impaired motor control resulting predominantly from dysfunction of the basal ganglia. This notion has been revised largely because of increasing recognition of associated behavioural, psychiatric, autonomic, and other non-motor symptoms. The sensory aspects of movement disorders include intrinsic sensory abnormalities and the effects of external sensory input on the underlying motor abnormality. The basal ganglia, cerebellum, thalamus, and their connections, coupled with altered sensory input, seem to play a key part in abnormal sensorimotor integration. However, more investigation into the phenomenology and physiological basis of sensory abnormalities, and about the role of the basal ganglia, cerebellum, and related structures in somatosensory processing, and its effect on motor control, is needed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neepa Patel
- Parkinson's Disease Center and Movement Disorders Clinic, Department of Neurology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA
| | - Joseph Jankovic
- Parkinson's Disease Center and Movement Disorders Clinic, Department of Neurology, Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX, USA.
| | - Mark Hallett
- Human Motor Control Section, NINDS, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
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Brain mechanisms for prepulse inhibition in adults with Tourette syndrome: initial findings. Psychiatry Res 2013; 214:33-41. [PMID: 23916249 PMCID: PMC3932431 DOI: 10.1016/j.pscychresns.2013.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 46] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2012] [Revised: 04/21/2013] [Accepted: 05/17/2013] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Prepulse inhibition (PPI) of the startle reflex is disrupted in a number of developmental neuropsychiatric disorders, including Tourette syndrome (TS). This disruption is hypothesized to reflect abnormalities in sensorimotor gating. We applied whole-brain functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to elucidate the neural correlates of PPI in adult TS subjects using airpuff stimuli to the throat to elicit a tactile startle response. We used a cross-sectional, case-control study design and a blocked-design fMRI paradigm. There were 33 participants: 17 with TS and 16 healthy individuals. As a measure of PPI-related brain activity, we looked for differential cerebral activation to prepulse-plus-pulse stimuli versus activation to pulse-alone stimuli. In healthy subjects, PPI was associated with increased activity in multiple brain regions, of which activation in the left middle frontal gyrus in the healthy controls showed a significant linear correlation with the degree of PPI measured outside of the magnet. Group comparisons identified nine regions where brain activity during PPI differed significantly between TS and healthy subjects. Among the TS subjects, activation in the left caudate was significantly correlated with current tic severity as measured by the total score on the Yale Global Tic Severity Scale. Differential activation of the caudate nucleus associated with current tic severity is consistent with neuropathological data and suggests that portions of cortical-striatal circuits may modulate the severity of tic symptoms in adulthood.
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Cavanna AE, Nani A. Tourette syndrome and consciousness of action. TREMOR AND OTHER HYPERKINETIC MOVEMENTS (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2013; 3. [PMID: 24106650 PMCID: PMC3782755 DOI: 10.7916/d8pv6j33] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/30/2013] [Accepted: 08/24/2013] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Tourette syndrome (TS) is a neuropsychiatric disorder characterized by the chronic presence of multiple motor tics and at least one vocal/phonic tic since childhood. Tics typically change and vary in both intensity and severity over time, with remission and exacerbation common. In the vast majority of patients, tic expression is characteristically accompanied by discomforting bodily sensations, known as sensory phenomena or premonitory urges. METHODS We reviewed the existing literature on premonitory urges associated with the sense of voluntariness of action in TS. RESULTS Although the wish to move is perceived by the patient as involuntary, the decision to release the tic is often perceived by the patient as a voluntary capitulation to the subjective urge. Most patients with TS can exert a degree of control over the urge and constantly try to inhibit the movement. Based on these features, it has been suggested that tics performed in response to an urge to move should be classified as 'unvoluntary', as opposed to voluntary or involuntary acts. However, recent experimental data suggest that the brain areas involved in the generation of the wish to act show considerable overlap between healthy subjects and patients with TS. DISCUSSION The simultaneous presence of both voluntary and involuntary aspects in the expression of tic symptoms by patients with TS is consistent with the hypothesis that tics can have the same neurophysiologic substrate as voluntary acts, even though they are misperceived as being involuntary. This reinforces the view of TS as a hyperkinetic movement disorder primarily affecting the conscious experience of action.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea E Cavanna
- Michael Trimble Neuropsychiatry Research Group, BSMHFT and University of Birmingham, United Kingdom ; School of Life and Health Sciences, Aston University, Birmingham, United Kingdom ; Sobell Department of Motor Neuroscience and Movement Disorders, UCL and Institute of Neurology, London, United Kingdom
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Theoretical and practical considerations behind the use of laboratory animals for the study of Tourette syndrome. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2013; 37:1085-100. [PMID: 23583771 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2013.03.014] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2012] [Revised: 03/19/2013] [Accepted: 03/23/2013] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
In the present manuscript we review a substantial body of literature describing several pre-clinical animal models designed and developed with the purpose of investigating the biological determinants of Tourette syndrome (TS). In order to map the animal models onto the theoretical background upon which they have been devised, we first define phenomenological and etiological aspects of TS and then match this information to the available pre-clinical models. Thus, we first describe the characteristic symptoms exhibited by TS patients and then a series of hypotheses attempting to identify the multifactorial causes of TS. With respect to the former, we detail the phenomenology of abnormal repetitive behaviors (tics and stereotypies), obsessive-compulsive behaviors and aberrant sensory-motor gating. With respect to the latter, we describe both potential candidate vulnerability genes and environmental factors (difficult pregnancies, psychosocial stressors and infections). We then discuss how this evidence has been translated in pre-clinical research with respect to both dependent (symptoms) and independent (etiological factors) variables. Thus, while, on the one hand, we detail the methodologies adopted to measure abnormal repetitive and obsessive-compulsive behaviors, and sensory-motor gating, on the other hand, we describe genetic engineering studies and environmental modulations aimed at reproducing the proposed biological determinants in laboratory rodents. A special emphasis is placed upon "programming" events, occurring during critical stages of early development and exerting organizational delayed consequences. In the final section, we outline a heuristic model with the purpose of integrating clinical and pre-clinical evidence in the study of TS.
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Kohl S, Heekeren K, Klosterkötter J, Kuhn J. Prepulse inhibition in psychiatric disorders--apart from schizophrenia. J Psychiatr Res 2013; 47:445-52. [PMID: 23287742 DOI: 10.1016/j.jpsychires.2012.11.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 230] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2012] [Revised: 11/30/2012] [Accepted: 11/30/2012] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Prepulse inhibition (PPI) is a robust operational measure of sensorimotor gating. In schizophrenic patients PPI is deficient. The aim of our review was to investigate the state of science regarding PPI and psychiatric disorders aside from schizophrenia. We used the online database PubMed in order to search for original published reports on PPI studies. The terms "prepulse inhibition", "sensorimotor gating", "blink recovery", and "blink reflex excitability" have been combined with the names of psychiatric disorders. We found that PPI is deficient in obsessive compulsive disorder (OCD) and Gilles de la Tourette's syndrome (GTS). In bipolar disorder dysfunctional PPI seems to be rather state dependent. Studies on depression and attention deficit/hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) consistently report no alterations. Evidence regarding sensorimotor gating in anxiety, autism, fragile X syndrome, posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), substance disorders, and Huntington's disease is still poor. There is a strong need for further studies on PPI in psychiatric disorders. PPI is highly applicable for translational research and might also be a very useful tool to investigate the mode of action of innovative, neuro-modulative techniques. Future PPI studies should control for influencing variables such as smoking, sex, or medication.
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Affiliation(s)
- S Kohl
- University of Cologne, Department of Psychiatry and Psychotherapy, Kerpener Straße 62, 50937 Cologne, Germany
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Murayama K, Nakao T, Sanematsu H, Okada K, Yoshiura T, Tomita M, Masuda Y, Isomura K, Nakagawa A, Kanba S. Differential neural network of checking versus washing symptoms in obsessive-compulsive disorder. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2013; 40:160-6. [PMID: 22996045 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2012.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/18/2012] [Revised: 08/26/2012] [Accepted: 09/12/2012] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is clinically heterogeneous. The aim of this study was to investigate differential neural responses to a symptom provocation task in drug-free patients who have predominantly aggression/checking symptoms (Checkers) and patients with contamination/washing symptoms (Washers). We compared the Checkers (n=10) and the Washers (n=12) separately to normal controls during the symptom provocation tasks using fMRI (functional magnetic resonance imaging). Moreover, we performed correlative analysis in each OCD group between brain activation and symptom severity. The Checkers showed hypoactivation in the left caudate and left anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) compared to the normal controls and a positive correlation between activated brain areas and symptom severity in the left ACC. The Washers showed hyperactivation in several bilateral cortico-cerebellar regions and a positive correlation between symptom severity and the bilateral fronto-temporal gyrus. We suggest that the caudate and ACC are associated with checking rituals and that large cortical brain regions are related to washing rituals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keitaro Murayama
- Department of Neuropsychiatry, Graduate School of Medical Science, Kyushu University, Fukuoka, Japan
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Abstract
Tourette syndrome (TS) is a neuropsychiatric disorder involving multiple motor and phonic tics. Tics, which usually begin between the ages of 6 and 8, are sudden, rapid, stereotyped, and apparently purposeless movements or sounds that involve discrete muscle groups. Individuals with TS experience a variety of different sensory phenomena, including premonitory urges prior to tics and somatic hypersensitivity due to impaired sensorimotor gating. In addition to other conditions, stress, anxiety, fatigue, or other heightened emotional states tend to exacerbate tics, while relaxation, playing sports, and focused concentration on a specific task tend to alleviate tic symptoms. Ninety percent of children with TS also have comorbid conditions, such as attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD), obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD), or an impulse control disorder. These disorders often cause more problems for the child both at home and at school than tics do alone. Proper diagnosis and treatment of TS involves appropriate evaluation and recognition, not only of tics, but also of these associated conditions.
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Swerdlow NR. Update: studies of prepulse inhibition of startle, with particular relevance to the pathophysiology or treatment of Tourette Syndrome. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2012; 37:1150-6. [PMID: 23017868 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2012] [Revised: 08/28/2012] [Accepted: 09/05/2012] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Prepulse inhibition of the startle reflex (PPI) is an operational measure of sensorimotor gating, in which the motor response to an abrupt, intense stimulus is inhibited by a weak lead stimulus. PPI is reduced in several brain disorders, including Tourette Syndrome (TS); it is regulated by forebrain circuitry, including portions of the basal ganglia implicated in the pathophysiology of TS, and is also heritable and under strong genetic control. PPI has been the focus of numerous translational models, because it is expressed by most mammalian species, with remarkable conservation of response characteristics and underlying neural circuitry between rodents and primates. Several of these models have recently explored causative factors in TS - from genes to specific basal ganglia perturbations - as well as potential TS therapeutics, including novel pharmacological and neurosurgical interventions. With the focus on Comprehensive Behavioral Interventions for Tics (CBIT) in the evolving treatment model for TS, future studies might apply PPI as a predictive measure for CBIT response, or for identifying medications that might augment CBIT efficacy. In the end, a measure based on a simple pontine-based reflex will have limitations in its ability to explicate any complex behavioral phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Neal R Swerdlow
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, University of California, San Diego, 9500 Gilman Dr., La Jolla, CA 92093-0804, USA.
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Amitai N, Weber M, Swerdlow NR, Sharp RF, Breier MR, Halberstadt AL, Young JW. A novel visuospatial priming task for rats with relevance to Tourette syndrome and modulation of dopamine levels. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2012; 37:1139-49. [PMID: 23010529 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2012.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/25/2012] [Revised: 09/06/2012] [Accepted: 09/17/2012] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Individuals with Tourette syndrome (TS) exhibit deficits in inhibitory information processing which may reflect impaired neural mechanisms underlying symptoms and which can be detected using a negative priming (NP) task. NP is the normal reduction of performance when identifying target stimuli that appear where non-target stimuli appeared previously. TS subjects exhibit diminished NP and their NP levels predict their response to behavioral therapy. Here we review relevant literature on this issue and also report a novel rat NP task. In the latter, rats respond to target stimuli (continuous light) while ignoring non-target stimuli (blinking light). Each trial was preceded by a prime in which target and non-target stimuli were briefly presented. Performance was challenged by shortening prime duration and by administering amphetamine. During the short prime challenge, rats exhibited lower accuracy in NP vs. baseline trials, indicative of inhibitory information processing. Modulation by amphetamine administration indicates that this drug had rate-dependent effects. Evidence is provided of individual differences in NP and response to the drug, with priming being reduced in high NP rats, while it was increased in low NP subjects. The rat NP task represents a novel and suitable tool for investigating the neural bases of inhibitory information processing and its dysfunction in TS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nurith Amitai
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California San Diego, 9500 Gilman Drive MC 0804, La Jolla, CA 92093-0804, USA
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Lindemann C, Krauss JK, Schwabe K. Deep brain stimulation of the subthalamic nucleus in the 6-hydroxydopamine rat model of Parkinson's disease: Effects on sensorimotor gating. Behav Brain Res 2012; 230:243-50. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2012.02.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2012] [Accepted: 02/02/2012] [Indexed: 12/27/2022]
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Ahmari SE, Risbrough VB, Geyer MA, Simpson HB. Impaired sensorimotor gating in unmedicated adults with obsessive-compulsive disorder. Neuropsychopharmacology 2012; 37:1216-23. [PMID: 22218093 PMCID: PMC3306882 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2011.308] [Citation(s) in RCA: 132] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Functional and structural imaging studies suggest that obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) symptoms arise from dysfunction in cortico-striato-thalamo-cortical circuits. It has therefore been hypothesized that neurophysiological tasks subserved by these circuits should be abnormal in OCD patients. One neurocognitive probe associated with this circuitry is prepulse inhibition (PPI) of the acoustic startle response. PPI deficits are thought to reflect abnormalities in processing and integration of sensory and motor information. Two prior studies found that OCD patients had PPI deficits at single prepulse (PP) intensities. However, most patients in these studies were taking psychotropic medications at the time of PPI testing, and preclinical studies have demonstrated effects of psychotropic medications on PPI. We examined PPI in 22 unmedicated OCD patients and 22 matched healthy controls at three different PP intensities (74, 78, and 86 dB). OCD patients had significantly less PPI across all three PP intensities compared with controls. Exploratory analyses indicated that OCD patients with a history of tics had lower levels of PPI. Our results demonstrate that unmedicated OCD patients have impaired sensorimotor gating as measured by PPI. This indicates that PPI deficits are present in OCD patients and are not the result of medication effects. Our findings also suggest that OCD patients with a history of tics may have greater impairment in sensorimotor gating than the general OCD population. Future studies should be designed to examine whether PPI deficits characterize tic-related OCD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susanne E Ahmari
- Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University, College of Physicians & Surgeons, New York, NY, USA,Division of Integrative Neuroscience, New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY, USA,Division of Clinical Therapeutics, New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY, USA,Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University, College of Physicians & Surgeons, New York, NY 10032-2695, USA, Tel: +1 212 543 5036, Fax: +1 212 543 5074, E-mail:
| | | | - Mark A Geyer
- Department of Psychiatry, University of California, San Diego, CA, USA
| | - H Blair Simpson
- Department of Psychiatry, Columbia University, College of Physicians & Surgeons, New York, NY, USA,Division of Clinical Therapeutics, New York State Psychiatric Institute, New York, NY, USA
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