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Sánchez Triviño CA, Hernandez- Clavijo A, Gonzalez-Velandia KY, Pifferi S, Menini A. Noradrenaline modulates sensory information in mouse vomeronasal sensory neurons. iScience 2024; 27:110872. [PMID: 39328934 PMCID: PMC11424947 DOI: 10.1016/j.isci.2024.110872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2024] [Revised: 07/19/2024] [Accepted: 08/30/2024] [Indexed: 09/28/2024] Open
Abstract
During the induction of the body's alert state, the sympathetic system modulates sensory modalities and fine-tunes peripheral organs for improved stimulus detection. We explored noradrenaline (NA)'s role in modulating signaling in vomeronasal sensory neurons (VSNs), responsible for detecting pheromones and other semiochemicals. In current-clamp recordings, NA increased the firing frequency in response to natural stimuli of responsive VSNs and induced spiking activity in previously unresponsive neurons. Current injections into VSNs showed an increase in firing frequency during NA application. Combining transcriptomic analysis, electrophysiology, Ca2+ imaging, and a pharmacological approach, we identified alpha 1 adrenergic receptors as crucial for NA-induced firing frequency increases in VSNs. Immunohistochemistry revealed catecholaminergic fibers in the vomeronasal sensory epithelium, suggesting localized NA release near VSNs. This study unveils NA as a key regulator of VSN signaling, shedding light on the intricate interplay between the sympathetic nervous system and chemosensory processing, advancing our understanding of sensory modulation.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Andres Hernandez- Clavijo
- Neurobiology Group, SISSA, Scuola Internazionale Superiore di Studi Avanzati, 34136 Trieste, Italy
- Department of Chemosensation, Institute for Biology II, RWTH Aachen University, 52074 Aachen, Germany
| | | | - Simone Pifferi
- Department of Experimental and Clinical Medicine, Università Politecnica delle Marche, 60126 Ancona, Italy
| | - Anna Menini
- Neurobiology Group, SISSA, Scuola Internazionale Superiore di Studi Avanzati, 34136 Trieste, Italy
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2
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Fox ME, Montemarano A, Ostman AE, Basu M, Herb B, Ament SA, Fox LD. Transcriptional signatures of fentanyl use in the mouse ventral tegmental area. Addict Biol 2024; 29:e13403. [PMID: 38735880 PMCID: PMC11089014 DOI: 10.1111/adb.13403] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2024] [Revised: 03/27/2024] [Accepted: 04/25/2024] [Indexed: 05/14/2024]
Abstract
Synthetic opioids such as fentanyl contribute to the vast majority of opioid-related overdose deaths, but fentanyl use remains broadly understudied. Like other substances with misuse potential, opioids cause lasting molecular adaptations to brain reward circuits, including neurons in the ventral tegmental area (VTA). The VTA contains numerous cell types that play diverse roles in opioid use and relapse; however, it is unknown how fentanyl experience alters the transcriptional landscape in specific subtypes. Here, we performed single nuclei RNA sequencing to study transcriptional programs in fentanyl-experienced mice. Male and female C57/BL6 mice self-administered intravenous fentanyl (1.5 μg/kg/infusion) or saline for 10 days. After 24 h abstinence, VTA nuclei were isolated and prepared for sequencing on the 10× platform. We identified different patterns of gene expression across cell types. In dopamine neurons, we found enrichment of genes involved in growth hormone signalling. In dopamine-glutamate-GABA combinatorial neurons, and some GABA neurons, we found enrichment of genes involved in Pi3k-Akt signalling. In glutamate neurons, we found enrichment of genes involved in cholinergic signalling. We identified transcriptional regulators for the differentially expressed genes in each neuron cluster, including downregulated transcriptional repressor Bcl6, and upregulated transcription factor Tcf4. We also compared the fentanyl-induced gene expression changes identified in mouse VTA with a published rat dataset in bulk VTA, and found overlap in genes related to GABAergic signalling and extracellular matrix interaction. Together, we provide a comprehensive picture of how fentanyl self-administration alters the transcriptional landscape of the mouse VTA that serves as the foundation for future mechanistic studies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Megan E. Fox
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative MedicineThe Pennsylvania State University College of MedicineHersheyPennsylvaniaUSA
- Department of PharmacologyThe Pennsylvania State University College of MedicineHersheyPennsylvaniaUSA
| | - Annalisa Montemarano
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative MedicineThe Pennsylvania State University College of MedicineHersheyPennsylvaniaUSA
| | - Alexandria E. Ostman
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative MedicineThe Pennsylvania State University College of MedicineHersheyPennsylvaniaUSA
| | - Mahashweta Basu
- Institute for Genome SciencesUniversity of Maryland School of MedicineBaltimoreMarylandUSA
| | - Brian Herb
- Institute for Genome SciencesUniversity of Maryland School of MedicineBaltimoreMarylandUSA
| | - Seth A. Ament
- Institute for Genome SciencesUniversity of Maryland School of MedicineBaltimoreMarylandUSA
| | - Logan D. Fox
- Department of Anesthesiology and Perioperative MedicineThe Pennsylvania State University College of MedicineHersheyPennsylvaniaUSA
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3
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Saito A, Murata H, Niitani K, Nagasaki J, Otoda A, Chujo Y, Yanagida J, Nishitani N, Deyama S, Kaneda K. Social defeat stress enhances the rewarding effects of cocaine through α 1A adrenoceptors in the medial prefrontal cortex of mice. Neuropharmacology 2024; 242:109757. [PMID: 37839511 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2023.109757] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/05/2023] [Revised: 10/07/2023] [Accepted: 10/07/2023] [Indexed: 10/17/2023]
Abstract
Various stressors potentiate the rewarding effects of cocaine and contribute to cocaine cravings. However, it remains unclear whether psychosocial stress enhances the rewarding effects of cocaine. Accordingly, this study employed a cocaine-conditioned place preference (CPP) paradigm combined with social defeat (SD) exposure to investigate the effects of acute SD stress on cocaine reward in male mice. We found that SD stress immediately before the posttest significantly increased cocaine CPP, and systemic blockade of α1 adrenoceptors, but not β adrenoceptors, suppressed this increase. Fiber photometry recordings with GRABNE1m sensors revealed increased noradrenaline (NA) levels in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC) in test mice in response to attacks by aggressor mice during SD. Moreover, the SD stress-induced enhancement of CPP was effectively suppressed by intra-mPFC infusion of an α1 adrenoceptor antagonist. In vitro whole-cell recordings demonstrated that silodosin, an α1A, but not α1B or α1D, adrenoceptor antagonist, inhibited NA-induced depolarizing currents and facilitation of excitatory synaptic transmissions. Consistently, intra-mPFC silodosin infusion significantly suppressed the SD stress-induced CPP enhancement. Conversely, intra-mPFC infusion of α1A adrenoceptor agonist augmented cocaine CPP in the absence of stress exposure. Additionally, intranasal silodosin administration attenuated the SD stress-induced enhancement of CPP, and chemogenetic inhibition of mPFC excitatory neurons also suppressed the SD stress-induced CPP enhancement. Together, these findings suggest that NA stimulation of α1A adrenoceptors and the subsequent activation of mPFC pyramidal cells may contribute to SD stress-induced amplification of the rewarding effects of cocaine, and intranasal silodosin administration may hold therapeutic potential for mitigating stress-associated cocaine craving.
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Affiliation(s)
- Atsushi Saito
- Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Institute of Medical, Pharmaceutical and Health Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, 920-1192, Japan
| | - Haruka Murata
- Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Institute of Medical, Pharmaceutical and Health Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, 920-1192, Japan
| | - Kazuhei Niitani
- Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Institute of Medical, Pharmaceutical and Health Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, 920-1192, Japan
| | - Junpei Nagasaki
- Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Institute of Medical, Pharmaceutical and Health Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, 920-1192, Japan
| | - Atsuki Otoda
- Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Institute of Medical, Pharmaceutical and Health Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, 920-1192, Japan
| | - Yusuke Chujo
- Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Institute of Medical, Pharmaceutical and Health Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, 920-1192, Japan
| | - Junko Yanagida
- Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Institute of Medical, Pharmaceutical and Health Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, 920-1192, Japan
| | - Naoya Nishitani
- Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Institute of Medical, Pharmaceutical and Health Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, 920-1192, Japan
| | - Satoshi Deyama
- Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Institute of Medical, Pharmaceutical and Health Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, 920-1192, Japan
| | - Katsuyuki Kaneda
- Laboratory of Molecular Pharmacology, Institute of Medical, Pharmaceutical and Health Sciences, Kanazawa University, Kanazawa, 920-1192, Japan.
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4
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Fox ME, Montemarano A, Ostman AE, Basu M, Herb B, Ament SA, Fox LD. Transcriptional signatures of fentanyl use in the mouse ventral tegmental area. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.12.18.572172. [PMID: 38187661 PMCID: PMC10769205 DOI: 10.1101/2023.12.18.572172] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2024]
Abstract
Synthetic opioids such as fentanyl contribute to the vast majority of opioid-related overdose deaths, but fentanyl use remains broadly understudied. Like other substances with misuse potential, opioids cause lasting molecular adaptations to brain reward circuits, including neurons in the ventral tegmental area (VTA). The VTA contains numerous cell types that play diverse roles in opioid use and relapse, however it is unknown how fentanyl experience alters the transcriptional landscape in specific subtypes. Here, we performed single nuclei RNA sequencing to study transcriptional programs in fentanyl experienced mice. Male and female C57/BL6 mice self-administered intravenous fentanyl (1.5 µg/kg/infusion) or saline for 10 days. After 24 hr abstinence, VTA nuclei were isolated and prepared for sequencing on the 10X platform. We identified different patterns of gene expression across cell types. In dopamine neurons, we found enrichment of genes involved in growth hormone signaling. In dopamine-glutamate-GABA combinatorial neurons, and some GABA neurons, we found enrichment of genes involved in Pi3k-Akt signaling. In glutamate neurons, we found enrichment of genes involved in cholinergic signaling. We identified transcriptional regulators for the differentially expressed genes in each neuron cluster, including downregulation of transcriptional repressor Bcl6, and upregulation of Wnt signaling partner Tcf4. We also compared the fentanyl-induced gene expression changes identified in mouse VTA with a published rat dataset in bulk VTA, and found overlap in genes related to GABAergic signaling and extracellular matrix interaction. Together, we provide a comprehensive picture of how fentanyl self-administration alters the transcriptional landscape of the mouse VTA, that serves for the foundation for future mechanistic studies.
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5
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Kielbinski M, Bernacka J, Zajda K, Wawrzczak-Bargieła A, Maćkowiak M, Przewlocki R, Solecki W. Acute stress modulates noradrenergic signaling in the ventral tegmental area-amygdalar circuit. J Neurochem 2023; 164:598-612. [PMID: 36161462 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.15698] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2022] [Revised: 09/09/2022] [Accepted: 09/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Noradrenergic neurotransmission is a critical mediator of stress responses. In turn, exposure to stress induces noradrenergic system adaptations, some of which are implicated in the etiology of stress-related disorders. Adrenergic receptors (ARs) in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) have been demonstrated to regulate phasic dopamine (DA) release in the forebrain, necessary for behavioral responses to conditional cues. However, the impact of stress on noradrenergic modulation of the VTA has not been previously explored. We demonstrate that ARs in the VTA regulate dopaminergic activity in the VTA-BLA (basolateral amygdala) circuit, a key system for processing stress-related stimuli; and that such control is altered by acute stress. We utilized fast-scan cyclic voltammetry to assess the effects of intra-VTA microinfusion of α1 -AR and α2 -AR antagonists (terazosin and RX-821002, respectively), on electrically evoked phasic DA release in the BLA in stress-naïve and stressed (unavoidable electric shocks - UES) anesthetized male Sprague-Dawley rats. In addition, we used western blotting to explore UES-induced alterations in AR protein level in the VTA. Intra-VTA terazosin or RX-821002 dose-dependently attenuated DA release in the BLA. Interestingly, UES decreased the effects of intra-VTA α2 -AR blockade on DA release (24 h but not 7 days after stress), while the effects of terazosin were unchanged. Despite changes in α2 -AR physiological function in the VTA, UES did not alter α2 -AR protein levels in either intracellular or membrane fractions. These findings demonstrate that NA-ergic modulation of the VTA-BLA circuit undergoes significant alterations in response to acute stress, with α2 -AR signaling indicated as a key target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michal Kielbinski
- Department of Neurobiology and Neuropsychology, Jagiellonian University, Institute of Applied Psychology, Krakow, Poland
| | - Joanna Bernacka
- Department of Neurobiology and Neuropsychology, Jagiellonian University, Institute of Applied Psychology, Krakow, Poland.,Department of Pharmacology, Laboratory of Pharmacology and Brain Biostructure, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Krakow, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Zajda
- Department of Neurobiology and Neuropsychology, Jagiellonian University, Institute of Applied Psychology, Krakow, Poland
| | - Agnieszka Wawrzczak-Bargieła
- Department of Pharmacology, Laboratory of Pharmacology and Brain Biostructure, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Krakow, Poland
| | - Marzena Maćkowiak
- Department of Pharmacology, Laboratory of Pharmacology and Brain Biostructure, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Krakow, Poland
| | - Ryszard Przewlocki
- Department of Molecular Neuropharmacology, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Krakow, Poland
| | - Wojciech Solecki
- Department of Neurobiology and Neuropsychology, Jagiellonian University, Institute of Applied Psychology, Krakow, Poland
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Chakraborty P, Dey A, Gopalakrishnan AV, Swati K, Ojha S, Prakash A, Kumar D, Ambasta RK, Jha NK, Jha SK, Dewanjee S. Glutamatergic neurotransmission: A potential pharmacotherapeutic target for the treatment of cognitive disorders. Ageing Res Rev 2023; 85:101838. [PMID: 36610558 DOI: 10.1016/j.arr.2022.101838] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/03/2022] [Revised: 12/27/2022] [Accepted: 12/29/2022] [Indexed: 01/06/2023]
Abstract
In the mammalian brain, glutamate is regarded to be the primary excitatory neurotransmitter due to its widespread distribution and wide range of metabolic functions. Glutamate plays key roles in regulating neurogenesis, synaptogenesis, neurite outgrowth, and neuron survival in the brain. Ionotropic and metabotropic glutamate receptors, neurotransmitters, neurotensin, neurosteroids, and others co-ordinately formulate a complex glutamatergic network in the brain that maintains optimal excitatory neurotransmission. Cognitive activities are potentially synchronized by the glutamatergic activities in the brain via restoring synaptic plasticity. Dysfunctional glutamate receptors and other glutamatergic components are responsible for the aberrant glutamatergic activity in the brain that cause cognitive impairments, loss of synaptic plasticity, and neuronal damage. Thus, controlling the brain's glutamatergic transmission and modifying glutamate receptor function could be a potential therapeutic strategy for cognitive disorders. Certain drugs that regulate glutamate receptor activities have shown therapeutic promise in improving cognitive functions in preclinical and clinical studies. However, several issues regarding precise functional information of glutamatergic activity are yet to be comprehensively understood. The present article discusses the scope of developing glutamatergic systems as prospective pharmacotherapeutic targets to treat cognitive disorders. Special attention has been given to recent developments, challenges, and future prospects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pratik Chakraborty
- Advanced Pharmacognosy Research Laboratory, Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Jadavpur University, Kolkata 700032, India
| | - Abhijit Dey
- Department of Life Sciences, Presidency University, Kolkata 700073, West Bengal, India
| | - Abilash Valsala Gopalakrishnan
- Department of Biomedical Sciences, School of Bio Sciences and Technology, Vellore Institute of Technology (VIT), Vellore, Tamil Nadu 632014, India
| | - Kumari Swati
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Life Science, Mahatma Gandhi Central University, Motihari, Bihar, India
| | - Shreesh Ojha
- Department of Pharmacology and Therapeutics, College of Medicine and Health Sciences, United Arab Emirates University, Al Ain, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates
| | - Anand Prakash
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Life Science, Mahatma Gandhi Central University, Motihari, Bihar, India
| | - Dhruv Kumar
- School of Health Sciences & Technology, UPES University, Dehradun, Uttarakhand 248007, India
| | - Rashmi K Ambasta
- Molecular Neuroscience and Functional Genomics Laboratory, Department of Biotechnology, Delhi Technological University (Formerly DCE), Delhi 110042, India
| | - Niraj Kumar Jha
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Engineering and Technology, Sharda University, Greater Noida 201310, UP, India; School of Bioengineering & Biosciences, Lovely Professional University, Phagwara, Punjab 144411, India.
| | - Saurabh Kumar Jha
- Department of Biotechnology, School of Engineering and Technology, Sharda University, Greater Noida 201310, UP, India; Department of Biotechnology Engineering and Food Technology, Chandigarh University, Mohali 140413, India; Department of Biotechnology, School of Applied & Life Sciences (SALS), Uttaranchal University, Dehradun 248007, India.
| | - Saikat Dewanjee
- Advanced Pharmacognosy Research Laboratory, Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Jadavpur University, Kolkata 700032, India.
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Joanna B, Michal K, Agnieszka WB, Katarzyna Z, Marzena M, Ryszard P, Wojciech S. Alpha-2A but not 2B/C noradrenergic receptors in ventral tegmental area regulate phasic dopamine release in nucleus accumbens core. Neuropharmacology 2022; 220:109258. [PMID: 36116534 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2022.109258] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2022] [Revised: 09/09/2022] [Accepted: 09/11/2022] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
Abstract
Adrenergic receptors (AR) in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) modulate local neuronal activity and, as a consequence, dopamine (DA) release in the mesolimbic forebrain. Such modulation has functional significance: intra-VTA blockade of α1-AR attenuates behavioral responses to salient environmental stimuli in rat models of drug seeking and conditioned fear as well as phasic DA release in the nucleus accumbens (NAc). In contrast, α2-AR in the VTA has been suggested to act primarily as autoreceptors, limiting local noradrenergic input. The regulation of noradrenaline efflux by α2-AR could be of clinical interest, as α2-AR agonists are proposed as promising pharmacological tools in the treatment of PTSD and substance use disorder. Thus, the aim of our study was to determine the subtype-specificity of α2-ARs in the VTA capable of modulating phasic DA release. We used fast scan cyclic voltammetry (FSCV) in anaesthetized male rats to measure DA release in the NAc after combined electrical stimulation and infusion of selected α2-AR antagonists into the VTA. Intra-VTA microinfusion of idazoxan - a non-subtype-specific α2-AR antagonist, as well as BRL-44408 - a selective α2A-AR antagonist, attenuated electrically-evoked DA in the NAc. In contrast, local administration of JP-1302 or imiloxan (α2B- and α2C-AR antagonists, respectively) had no effect. The effect of BRL-44408 on DA release was attenuated by intra-VTA DA D2 antagonist (raclopride) pre-administration. Finally, we confirmed the presence of α2A-AR protein in the VTA using western blotting. In conclusion, these data specify α2A-, but not α2B- or α2C-AR as the receptor subtype controlling NA release in the VTA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bernacka Joanna
- Jagiellonian University, Institute of Applied Psychology, Department of Neurobiology and Neuropsychology, Łojasiewicza Str. 4, 30-348, Krakow, Poland; Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Department of Pharmacology, Laboratory of Pharmacology and Brain Biostructure, Smętna Str. 12, 31-343, Krakow, Poland
| | - Kielbinski Michal
- Jagiellonian University, Institute of Applied Psychology, Department of Neurobiology and Neuropsychology, Łojasiewicza Str. 4, 30-348, Krakow, Poland
| | - Wawrzczak-Bargieła Agnieszka
- Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Department of Pharmacology, Laboratory of Pharmacology and Brain Biostructure, Smętna Str. 12, 31-343, Krakow, Poland
| | - Zajda Katarzyna
- Jagiellonian University, Institute of Applied Psychology, Department of Neurobiology and Neuropsychology, Łojasiewicza Str. 4, 30-348, Krakow, Poland
| | - Maćkowiak Marzena
- Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Department of Pharmacology, Laboratory of Pharmacology and Brain Biostructure, Smętna Str. 12, 31-343, Krakow, Poland
| | - Przewlocki Ryszard
- Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Department of Molecular Neuropharmacology, Smętna Str. 12, 31-343, Krakow, Poland
| | - Solecki Wojciech
- Jagiellonian University, Institute of Applied Psychology, Department of Neurobiology and Neuropsychology, Łojasiewicza Str. 4, 30-348, Krakow, Poland.
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Solecki WB, Kielbinski M, Wilczkowski M, Zajda K, Karwowska K, Joanna B, Rajfur Z, Przewłocki R. Regulation of cocaine seeking behavior by locus coeruleus noradrenergic activity in the ventral tegmental area is time- and contingency-dependent. Front Neurosci 2022; 16:967969. [PMID: 35992934 PMCID: PMC9388848 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2022.967969] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2022] [Accepted: 07/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Substance use disorder is linked to impairments in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) dopamine (DA) reward system. Noradrenergic (NA) inputs from locus coeruleus (LC) into VTA have been shown to modulate VTA neuronal activity, and are implicated in psychostimulant effects. Phasic LC activity controls time- and context-sensitive processes: decision making, cognitive flexibility, motivation and attention. However, it is not yet known how such temporally-distinct LC activity contributes to cocaine seeking. In a previous study we demonstrated that pharmacological inhibition of NA signaling in VTA specifically attenuates cocaine-seeking. Here, we used virally-delivered opsins to target LC neurons for inhibition or excitation, delivered onto afferents in VTA of male rats seeking cocaine under extinction conditions. Optogenetic stimulation or inhibition was delivered in distinct conditions: upon active lever press, contingently with discreet cues; or non-contingently, i.e., throughout the cocaine seeking session. Non-contingent inhibition of LC noradrenergic terminals in VTA attenuated cocaine seeking under extinction conditions. In contrast, contingent inhibition increased, while contingent stimulation reduced cocaine seeking. These findings were specific for cocaine, but not natural reward (food) seeking. Our results show that NA release in VTA drives behavior depending on timing and contingency between stimuli – context, discreet conditioned cues and reinforcer availability. We show that, depending on those factors, noradrenergic signaling in VTA has opposing roles, either driving CS-induced drug seeking, or contributing to behavioral flexibility and thus extinction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wojciech B. Solecki
- Department of Neurobiology and Neuropsychology, Institute of Applied Psychology, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland
- *Correspondence: Wojciech B. Solecki,
| | - Michał Kielbinski
- Department of Neurobiology and Neuropsychology, Institute of Applied Psychology, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland
| | - Michał Wilczkowski
- Department of Neurobiology and Neuropsychology, Institute of Applied Psychology, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland
- Department of Brain Biochemistry, Maj Institute of Pharmacology Polish Academy of Sciences, Kraków, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Zajda
- Department of Neurobiology and Neuropsychology, Institute of Applied Psychology, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland
| | - Karolina Karwowska
- Department of Neurobiology and Neuropsychology, Institute of Applied Psychology, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland
| | - Bernacka Joanna
- Laboratory of Pharmacology and Brain Biostructure, Department of Pharmacology, Maj Institute of Pharmacology Polish Academy of Sciences, Kraków, Poland
| | - Zenon Rajfur
- Department of Biosystems Physics, Institute of Physics, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland
| | - Ryszard Przewłocki
- Department of Molecular Neuropharmacology, Maj Institute of Pharmacology Polish Academy of Sciences, Kraków, Poland
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9
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Slater C, Liu Y, Weiss E, Yu K, Wang Q. The Neuromodulatory Role of the Noradrenergic and Cholinergic Systems and Their Interplay in Cognitive Functions: A Focused Review. Brain Sci 2022; 12:890. [PMID: 35884697 PMCID: PMC9320657 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci12070890] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2022] [Revised: 06/28/2022] [Accepted: 06/30/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
The noradrenergic and cholinergic modulation of functionally distinct regions of the brain has become one of the primary organizational principles behind understanding the contribution of each system to the diversity of neural computation in the central nervous system. Decades of work has shown that a diverse family of receptors, stratified across different brain regions, and circuit-specific afferent and efferent projections play a critical role in helping such widespread neuromodulatory systems obtain substantial heterogeneity in neural information processing. This review briefly discusses the anatomical layout of both the noradrenergic and cholinergic systems, as well as the types and distributions of relevant receptors for each system. Previous work characterizing the direct and indirect interaction between these two systems is discussed, especially in the context of higher order cognitive functions such as attention, learning, and the decision-making process. Though a substantial amount of work has been done to characterize the role of each neuromodulator, a cohesive understanding of the region-specific cooperation of these two systems is not yet fully realized. For the field to progress, new experiments will need to be conducted that capitalize on the modular subdivisions of the brain and systematically explore the role of norepinephrine and acetylcholine in each of these subunits and across the full range of receptors expressed in different cell types in these regions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cody Slater
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Columbia University, ET 351, 500 W. 120th Street, New York, NY 10027, USA; (C.S.); (Y.L.); (E.W.); (K.Y.)
- Vagelos College of Physicians and Surgeons, Columbia University, 630 West 168th Street, New York, NY 10032, USA
| | - Yuxiang Liu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Columbia University, ET 351, 500 W. 120th Street, New York, NY 10027, USA; (C.S.); (Y.L.); (E.W.); (K.Y.)
| | - Evan Weiss
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Columbia University, ET 351, 500 W. 120th Street, New York, NY 10027, USA; (C.S.); (Y.L.); (E.W.); (K.Y.)
| | - Kunpeng Yu
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Columbia University, ET 351, 500 W. 120th Street, New York, NY 10027, USA; (C.S.); (Y.L.); (E.W.); (K.Y.)
| | - Qi Wang
- Department of Biomedical Engineering, Columbia University, ET 351, 500 W. 120th Street, New York, NY 10027, USA; (C.S.); (Y.L.); (E.W.); (K.Y.)
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10
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Solecki WB, Kielbinski M, Bernacka J, Gralec K, Klasa A, Pradel K, Rojek-Sito K, Przewłocki R. Alpha 1-adrenergic receptor blockade in the ventral tegmental area attenuates acquisition of cocaine-induced pavlovian associative learning. Front Behav Neurosci 2022; 16:969104. [PMID: 35990723 PMCID: PMC9386374 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2022.969104] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2022] [Accepted: 07/18/2022] [Indexed: 11/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Activity of the alpha1-adrenergic receptor (α1-AR) in the ventral tegmental area (VTA) modulates dopaminergic activity, implying its modulatory role in the behavioral functions of the dopamine (DA) system. Indeed, intra-VTA α1-AR blockade attenuates conditioned stimulus dependent behaviors such as drug seeking responses signifying a role of the noradrenergic signaling in the VTA in conditioned behaviors. Importantly, the role of the VTA α1-AR activity in Pavlovian associative learning with positive outcomes remains unknown. Here, we aimed to examine how intra-VTA α1-AR blockade affects acquisition of cocaine-induced Pavlovian associative learning in the conditioned place preference (CPP) paradigm. The impact of α1-AR blockade on cocaine-reinforced operant responding and cocaine-evoked ultrasonic vocalizations (USVs) was also studied. In addition, both α1-AR immunoreactivity in the VTA and its role in phasic DA release in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) were assessed. We demonstrated cellular localization of α1-AR expression in the VTA, providing a neuroanatomical substrate for the α1-AR mechanism. We showed that prazosin (α1-AR selective antagonist; 1 μg/0.5 μl) microinfusion attenuated electrically evoked DA transients in the NAc and dose-dependently (0.1-1 μg/0.5 μl) prevented the acquisition of cocaine CPP but did not affect cocaine-reinforced operant responding nor cocaine-induced positive affective state (measured as USVs). We propose that the VTA α1-AR signaling is necessary for the acquisition of Pavlovian associative learning but does not encode hedonic value. Thus, α1-AR signaling in the VTA might underlie salience encoding of environmental stimuli and reflect an ability of alerting/orienting functions, originating from bottom-up information processing to guide behaviors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wojciech B Solecki
- Department of Neurobiology and Neuropsychology, Institute of Applied Psychology, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland
| | - Michał Kielbinski
- Department of Neurobiology and Neuropsychology, Institute of Applied Psychology, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland
| | - Joanna Bernacka
- Department of Neurobiology and Neuropsychology, Institute of Applied Psychology, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland.,Laboratory of Pharmacology and Brain Biostructure, Department of Pharmacology, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kraków, Poland
| | - Katarzyna Gralec
- Department of Molecular Neuropharmacology, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kraków, Poland
| | - Adam Klasa
- Department of Neurobiology and Neuropsychology, Institute of Applied Psychology, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland
| | - Kamil Pradel
- Department of Neurophysiology and Chronobiology, Institute of Zoology and Biomedical Research, Jagiellonian University, Kraków, Poland
| | - Karolina Rojek-Sito
- Department of Behavioral Neuroscience and Drug Development, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kraków, Poland
| | - Ryszard Przewłocki
- Department of Molecular Neuropharmacology, Maj Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences, Kraków, Poland
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11
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Modulation of the Rat Intergeniculate Leaflet of the Thalamus Network by Norepinephrine. Neuroscience 2021; 469:1-16. [PMID: 34174371 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2021.06.027] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2021] [Revised: 06/11/2021] [Accepted: 06/18/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
Circadian rhythms are regulated by a set of brain structures, one of which is the Intergeniculate Leaflet of the Thalamus (IGL). The most recognised role of the IGL is the integration of a variety of stimuli affecting rhythmicity, such as lighting conditions, received by the eye, or light-independent (non-photic) cues, the information about which is delivered via the activation of the non-specific projections. One of them is the norepinephrinergic system originating in the brainstem Locus Coeruleus (LC). In order to investigate the effect of norepinephrine (NE) on the IGL neurons we have performed ex vivo recordings using the extracellular multi-electrode array technique as well as the intracellular whole-cell patch clamp. Using both agonists and antagonists of specific NE receptor subtypes, we confirmed the presence of functional α1-, α2- and β-adrenergic receptors within the investigated structure, allowing NE to exert multiple types of effects on different IGL neurons, mainly depolarisation of the neurons projecting to the Suprachiasmatic Nuclei - the master circadian pacemaker, and various responses exhibited by the cells creating the connection with the contralateral IGL. Moreover, NE was shown to affect IGL cells both directly and via modulation of the synaptic network, in particular the miniature inhibitory postsynaptic currents. To the best of our knowledge, these are the first studies to confirm the effects of NE on the activity of the IGL network.
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12
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Limanaqi F, Busceti CL, Celli R, Biagioni F, Fornai F. Autophagy as a gateway for the effects of methamphetamine: From neurotransmitter release and synaptic plasticity to psychiatric and neurodegenerative disorders. Prog Neurobiol 2021; 204:102112. [PMID: 34171442 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2021.102112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2020] [Revised: 02/27/2021] [Accepted: 06/18/2021] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
As a major eukaryotic cell clearing machinery, autophagy grants cell proteostasis, which is key for neurotransmitter release, synaptic plasticity, and neuronal survival. In line with this, besides neuropathological events, autophagy dysfunctions are bound to synaptic alterations that occur in mental disorders, and early on, in neurodegenerative diseases. This is also the case of methamphetamine (METH) abuse, which leads to psychiatric disturbances and neurotoxicity. While consistently altering the autophagy machinery, METH produces behavioral and neurotoxic effects through molecular and biochemical events that can be recapitulated by autophagy blockade. These consist of altered physiological dopamine (DA) release, abnormal stimulation of DA and glutamate receptors, as well as oxidative, excitotoxic, and neuroinflammatory events. Recent molecular insights suggest that METH early impairs the autophagy machinery, though its functional significance remains to be investigated. Here we discuss evidence suggesting that alterations of DA transmission and autophagy are intermingled within a chain of events underlying behavioral alterations and neurodegenerative phenomena produced by METH. Understanding how METH alters the autophagy machinery is expected to provide novel insights into the neurobiology of METH addiction sharing some features with psychiatric disorders and parkinsonism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fiona Limanaqi
- Department of Translational Research and New Technologies in Medicine and Surgery, University of Pisa, Via Roma, 55, 56126, Pisa, PI, Italy
| | | | - Roberta Celli
- IRCCS Neuromed, Via Atinense 18, 86077 Pozzilli, IS, Italy
| | | | - Francesco Fornai
- Department of Translational Research and New Technologies in Medicine and Surgery, University of Pisa, Via Roma, 55, 56126, Pisa, PI, Italy; IRCCS Neuromed, Via Atinense 18, 86077 Pozzilli, IS, Italy.
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13
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Perez DM. Current Developments on the Role of α 1-Adrenergic Receptors in Cognition, Cardioprotection, and Metabolism. Front Cell Dev Biol 2021; 9:652152. [PMID: 34113612 PMCID: PMC8185284 DOI: 10.3389/fcell.2021.652152] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/11/2021] [Accepted: 04/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
The α1-adrenergic receptors (ARs) are G-protein coupled receptors that bind the endogenous catecholamines, norepinephrine, and epinephrine. They play a key role in the regulation of the sympathetic nervous system along with β and α2-AR family members. While all of the adrenergic receptors bind with similar affinity to the catecholamines, they can regulate different physiologies and pathophysiologies in the body because they couple to different G-proteins and signal transduction pathways, commonly in opposition to one another. While α1-AR subtypes (α1A, α1B, α1C) have long been known to be primary regulators of vascular smooth muscle contraction, blood pressure, and cardiac hypertrophy, their role in neurotransmission, improving cognition, protecting the heart during ischemia and failure, and regulating whole body and organ metabolism are not well known and are more recent developments. These advancements have been made possible through the development of transgenic and knockout mouse models and more selective ligands to advance their research. Here, we will review the recent literature to provide new insights into these physiological functions and possible use as a therapeutic target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dianne M Perez
- The Lerner Research Institute, The Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, OH, United States
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14
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Ghosh A, Massaeli F, Power KD, Omoluabi T, Torraville SE, Pritchett JB, Sepahvand T, Strong VD, Reinhardt C, Chen X, Martin GM, Harley CW, Yuan Q. Locus Coeruleus Activation Patterns Differentially Modulate Odor Discrimination Learning and Odor Valence in Rats. Cereb Cortex Commun 2021; 2:tgab026. [PMID: 34296171 PMCID: PMC8152946 DOI: 10.1093/texcom/tgab026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/31/2021] [Revised: 03/25/2021] [Accepted: 03/30/2021] [Indexed: 12/04/2022] Open
Abstract
The locus coeruleus (LC) produces phasic and tonic firing patterns that are theorized to have distinct functional consequences. However, how different firing modes affect learning and valence encoding of sensory information are unknown. Here, we show bilateral optogenetic activation of rat LC neurons using 10-Hz phasic trains of either 300 ms or 10 s accelerated acquisition of a similar odor discrimination. Similar odor discrimination learning was impaired by noradrenergic blockade in the piriform cortex (PC). However, 10-Hz phasic light-mediated learning facilitation was prevented by a dopaminergic antagonist in the PC, or by ventral tegmental area (VTA) silencing with lidocaine, suggesting a LC–VTA–PC dopamine circuitry involvement. Ten-hertz tonic stimulation did not alter odor discrimination acquisition, and was ineffective in activating VTA DA neurons. For valence encoding, tonic stimulation at 25 Hz induced conditioned odor aversion, whereas 10-Hz phasic stimulations produced an odor preference. Both conditionings were prevented by noradrenergic blockade in the basolateral amygdala (BLA). Cholera Toxin B retro-labeling showed larger engagement of nucleus accumbens-projecting neurons in the BLA with 10-Hz phasic activation, and larger engagement of central amygdala projecting cells with 25-Hz tonic light. These outcomes argue that the LC activation patterns differentially influence both target networks and behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abhinaba Ghosh
- Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL A1B 3V6, Canada
| | - Faghihe Massaeli
- Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL A1B 3V6, Canada
| | - Kyron D Power
- Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL A1B 3V6, Canada
| | - Tamunotonye Omoluabi
- Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL A1B 3V6, Canada
| | - Sarah E Torraville
- Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL A1B 3V6, Canada
| | - Julia B Pritchett
- Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL A1B 3V6, Canada.,Psychology Department, Faculty of Science, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL A1B 3X9, Canada
| | - Tayebeh Sepahvand
- Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL A1B 3V6, Canada
| | - Vanessa D Strong
- Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL A1B 3V6, Canada
| | - Camila Reinhardt
- Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL A1B 3V6, Canada
| | - Xihua Chen
- Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL A1B 3V6, Canada
| | - Gerard M Martin
- Psychology Department, Faculty of Science, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL A1B 3X9, Canada
| | - Carolyn W Harley
- Psychology Department, Faculty of Science, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL A1B 3X9, Canada
| | - Qi Yuan
- Biomedical Sciences, Faculty of Medicine, Memorial University of Newfoundland, St. John's, NL A1B 3V6, Canada
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15
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Cheng YJ, Lin CH, Lane HY. Involvement of Cholinergic, Adrenergic, and Glutamatergic Network Modulation with Cognitive Dysfunction in Alzheimer's Disease. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:2283. [PMID: 33668976 PMCID: PMC7956475 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22052283] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/07/2021] [Revised: 02/19/2021] [Accepted: 02/22/2021] [Indexed: 01/21/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD), the most common cause of dementia, is a progressive neurodegenerative disease. The number of AD cases has been rapidly growing worldwide. Several the related etiological hypotheses include atypical amyloid β (Aβ) deposition, neurofibrillary tangles of tau proteins inside neurons, disturbed neurotransmission, inflammation, and oxidative stress. During AD progression, aberrations in neurotransmission cause cognitive decline-the main symptom of AD. Here, we review the aberrant neurotransmission systems, including cholinergic, adrenergic, and glutamatergic network, and the interactions among these systems as they pertain to AD. We also discuss the key role of N-methyl-d-aspartate receptor (NMDAR) dysfunction in AD-associated cognitive impairment. Furthermore, we summarize the results of recent studies indicating that increasing glutamatergic neurotransmission through the alteration of NMDARs shows potential for treating cognitive decline in mild cognitive impairment or early stage AD. Future studies on the long-term efficiency of NMDA-enhancing strategies in the treatment of AD are warranted.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yu-Jung Cheng
- Department of Physical Therapy and Graduate Institute of Rehabilitation Science, China Medical University, Taichung 40402, Taiwan;
- Department of Rehabilitation, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung 40402, Taiwan
| | - Chieh-Hsin Lin
- Institute of Clinical Medical Science, China Medical University, Taichung 40402, Taiwan
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, China Medical University, Taichung 40402, Taiwan
- Kaohsiung Chang Gung Memorial Hospital, Chang Gung University College of Medicine, Kaohsiung 83301, Taiwan
- School of Medicine, Chang Gung University, Taoyuan 33302, Taiwan
| | - Hsien-Yuan Lane
- Institute of Clinical Medical Science, China Medical University, Taichung 40402, Taiwan
- Graduate Institute of Biomedical Sciences, China Medical University, Taichung 40402, Taiwan
- Department of Psychiatry & Brain Disease Research Center, China Medical University Hospital, Taichung 40402, Taiwan
- Department of Psychology, College of Medical and Health Sciences, Asia University, Taichung 41354, Taiwan
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16
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Autophagy status as a gateway for stress-induced catecholamine interplay in neurodegeneration. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2021; 123:238-256. [PMID: 33497785 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2021.01.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2020] [Revised: 01/08/2021] [Accepted: 01/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The catecholamine-containing brainstem nuclei locus coeruleus (LC) and ventral tegmental area (VTA) are critically involved in stress responses. Alterations of catecholamine systems during chronic stress may contribute to neurodegeneration, including cognitive decline. Stress-related catecholamine alterations, while contributing to anxiety and depression, might accelerate neuronal degeneration by increasing the formation of toxic dopamine and norepinephrine by-products. These, in turn, may impair proteostasis within a variety of cortical and subcortical areas. In particular, the molecular events governing neurotransmission, neuroplasticity, and proteostasis within LC and VTA affect a variety of brain areas. Therefore, we focus on alterations of autophagy machinery in these nuclei as a relevant trigger in this chain of events. In fact, these catecholamine-containing areas are mostly prone to autophagy-dependent neurodegeneration. Thus, we propose a dynamic hypothesis according to which stress-induced autophagy alterations within the LC-VTA network foster a cascade towards early neurodegeneration within these nuclei.
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17
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Perez DM. α 1-Adrenergic Receptors in Neurotransmission, Synaptic Plasticity, and Cognition. Front Pharmacol 2020; 11:581098. [PMID: 33117176 PMCID: PMC7553051 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2020.581098] [Citation(s) in RCA: 53] [Impact Index Per Article: 13.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/07/2020] [Accepted: 09/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
α1-adrenergic receptors are G-Protein Coupled Receptors that are involved in neurotransmission and regulate the sympathetic nervous system through binding and activating the neurotransmitter, norepinephrine, and the neurohormone, epinephrine. There are three α1-adrenergic receptor subtypes (α1A, α1B, α1D) that are known to play various roles in neurotransmission and cognition. They are related to two other adrenergic receptor families that also bind norepinephrine and epinephrine, the β- and α2-, each with three subtypes (β1, β2, β3, α2A, α2B, α2C). Previous studies assessing the roles of α1-adrenergic receptors in neurotransmission and cognition have been inconsistent. This was due to the use of poorly-selective ligands and many of these studies were published before the characterization of the cloned receptor subtypes and the subsequent development of animal models. With the availability of more-selective ligands and the development of animal models, a clearer picture of their role in cognition and neurotransmission can be assessed. In this review, we highlight the significant role that the α1-adrenergic receptor plays in regulating synaptic efficacy, both short and long-term synaptic plasticity, and its regulation of different types of memory. We will also present evidence that the α1-adrenergic receptors, and particularly the α1A-adrenergic receptor subtype, are a potentially good target to treat a wide variety of neurological conditions with diminished cognition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dianne M Perez
- The Lerner Research Institute, The Cleveland Clinic Foundation, Cleveland, OH, United States
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18
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Alijanpour S, Zarrindast MR. Potentiation of morphine-induced antinociception by harmaline: involvement of μ-opioid and ventral tegmental area NMDA receptors. Psychopharmacology (Berl) 2020; 237:557-570. [PMID: 31740992 DOI: 10.1007/s00213-019-05389-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2018] [Accepted: 11/04/2019] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
RATIONAL Morphine is one of the most well-known and potent analgesic agents; however, it can also induce various side effects. Thus, finding drugs and mechanisms which can potentiate the analgesic effects of low doses of morphine will be a good strategy for pain management. OBJECTIVE The involvement of μ-opioid receptors and ventral tegmental area (VTA) glutamatergic system in harmaline and morphine combination on the nociceptive response were investigated. Also, we examined reward efficacy and tolerance expression following the drugs. METHODS Animals were bilaterally cannulated in the VTA by stereotaxic instrument. A tail-flick (TF) apparatus and conditioned place preference (CPP) paradigm were used to measure nociceptive response and rewarding effects in male NMRI mice respectively. RESULTS Morphine (2 mg/kg, i.p.) had no effect in TF test. Also, harmaline (1.25 and 5 mg/kg, i.p.) could not change pain threshold. Combination of a non-effective dose of harmaline (5 mg/kg) and morphine (2 mg/kg) produced antinociception and also prevented morphine tolerance but had no effect on the acquisition of CPP. Systemic administration of naloxone (0.5 and 1 mg/kg) and intra-VTA microinjection of NMDA (0.06 and 0.1 μg/mouse) before harmaline (5 mg/kg) plus morphine (2 mg/kg) prevented antinociception induced by the drugs. D-AP5 (0.5 and 1 μg/mouse, intra-VTA) potentiated the effect of low-dose harmaline (1.25 mg/kg) and morphine (2 mg/kg) and induced antinociception. Microinjection of the same doses of NMDA or D-AP5 into the VTA alone had no effect on pain threshold. CONCLUSION The findings showed that harmaline potentiated the analgesic effect of morphine and reduced morphine tolerance. Glutamatergic and μ-opioidergic system interactions in the VTA seem to have a modulatory role in harmaline plus morphine-induced analgesia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sakineh Alijanpour
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, Gonbad Kavous University, P. O. Box 163, Gonbad Kavous, Iran.
| | - Mohammad-Reza Zarrindast
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Medicine, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.,Iranian National Center for Addiction Studies, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran.,Endocrinology and Metabolism Research Center, Endocrinology and Metabolism Clinical Sciences Institute, Tehran University of Medical Sciences, Tehran, Iran
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19
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Velasquez-Martinez MC, Santos-Vera B, Velez-Hernandez ME, Vazquez-Torres R, Jimenez-Rivera CA. Alpha-1 Adrenergic Receptors Modulate Glutamate and GABA Neurotransmission onto Ventral Tegmental Dopamine Neurons during Cocaine Sensitization. Int J Mol Sci 2020; 21:E790. [PMID: 31991781 PMCID: PMC7036981 DOI: 10.3390/ijms21030790] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/18/2019] [Revised: 01/16/2020] [Accepted: 01/20/2020] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
The ventral tegmental area (VTA) plays an important role in the reward and motivational processes that facilitate the development of drug addiction. Presynaptic α1-AR activation modulates glutamate and Gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) release. This work elucidates the role of VTA presynaptic α1-ARs and their modulation on glutamatergic and GABAergic neurotransmission during cocaine sensitization. Excitatory and inhibitory currents (EPSCs and IPSCs) measured by a whole cell voltage clamp show that α1-ARs activation increases EPSCs amplitude after 1 day of cocaine treatment but not after 5 days of cocaine injections. The absence of a pharmacological response to an α1-ARs agonist highlights the desensitization of the receptor after repeated cocaine administration. The desensitization of α1-ARs persists after a 7-day withdrawal period. In contrast, the modulation of α1-ARs on GABA neurotransmission, shown by decreases in IPSCs' amplitude, is not affected by acute or chronic cocaine injections. Taken together, these data suggest that α1-ARs may enhance DA neuronal excitability after repeated cocaine administration through the reduction of GABA inhibition onto VTA dopamine (DA) neurons even in the absence of α1-ARs' function on glutamate release and protein kinase C (PKC) activation. α1-AR modulatory changes in cocaine sensitization increase our knowledge of the role of the noradrenergic system in cocaine addiction and may provide possible avenues for therapeutics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Carolina Velasquez-Martinez
- Grupo de Neurociencias y Comportamiento, Departamento de Ciencias Básicas, Facultad de Salud, Universidad Industrial de Santander, Bucaramanga 680006, Colombia;
| | - Bermary Santos-Vera
- Department of Biology, Cayey Campus, University of Puerto Rico, Cayey, PR 00737, USA;
| | - Maria E. Velez-Hernandez
- Department of Biological and Health Sciences, Texas A&M University-Kingsville, Kingsville, TX 78363, USA;
| | - Rafael Vazquez-Torres
- Department of Physiology, Medical Sciences Campus, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, PR 00925, USA;
| | - Carlos A. Jimenez-Rivera
- Department of Physiology, Medical Sciences Campus, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, PR 00925, USA;
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20
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Limanaqi F, Busceti CL, Biagioni F, Fornai F, Puglisi-Allegra S. Autophagy-Based Hypothesis on the Role of Brain Catecholamine Response During Stress. Front Psychiatry 2020; 11:569248. [PMID: 33093837 PMCID: PMC7527533 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2020.569248] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2020] [Accepted: 08/31/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Stressful events, similar to abused drugs, significantly affect the homeostatic balance of the catecholamine brain systems while activating compensation mechanisms to restore balance. In detail, norepinephrine (NE)- and dopamine (DA)-containing neurons within the locus coeruleus (LC) and ventral tegmental area (VTA), are readily and similarly activated by psychostimulants and stressful events involving neural processes related to perception, reward, cognitive evaluation, appraisal, and stress-dependent hormonal factors. Brain catecholamine response to stress results in time-dependent regulatory processes involving mesocorticolimbic circuits and networks, where LC-NE neurons respond more readily than VTA-DA neurons. LC-NE projections are dominant in controlling the forebrain DA-targeted areas, such as the nucleus accumbens (NAc) and medial pre-frontal cortex (mPFC). Heavy and persistent coping demand could lead to sustained LC-NE and VTA-DA neuronal activity, that, when persisting chronically, is supposed to alter LC-VTA synaptic connections. Increasing evidence has been provided indicating a role of autophagy in modulating DA neurotransmission and synaptic plasticity. This alters behavior, and emotional/cognitive experience in response to drug abuse and occasionally, to psychological stress. Thus, relevant information to address the role of stress and autophagy can be drawn from psychostimulants research. In the present mini-review we discuss the role of autophagy in brain catecholamine response to stress and its dysregulation. The findings here discussed suggest a crucial role of regulated autophagy in the response and adaptation of LC-NE and VTA-DA systems to stress.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fiona Limanaqi
- Department of Translational Research and New Technologies on Medicine and Surgery, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy
| | | | | | - Francesco Fornai
- Department of Translational Research and New Technologies on Medicine and Surgery, University of Pisa, Pisa, Italy.,IRCCS Neuromed, Pozzilli, Italy
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21
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Alpha1-adrenergic receptor blockade in the ventral tegmental area modulates conditional stimulus-induced cocaine seeking. Neuropharmacology 2019; 158:107680. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2019.107680] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2018] [Revised: 05/31/2019] [Accepted: 06/20/2019] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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22
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Kielbinski M, Bernacka J, Solecki WB. Differential regulation of phasic dopamine release in the forebrain by the VTA noradrenergic receptor signaling. J Neurochem 2019; 149:747-759. [PMID: 31001835 DOI: 10.1111/jnc.14706] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2018] [Revised: 03/07/2019] [Accepted: 04/10/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
Phasic dopamine (DA) release from the ventral tegmental area (VTA) into forebrain structures is implicated in associative learning and conditional stimulus (CS)-evoked behavioral responses. Mounting evidence points to noradrenaline signaling in the VTA as an important regulatory input. Accordingly, adrenergic receptor (AR) blockade in the VTA has been shown to modulate CS-dependent behaviors. Here, we hypothesized that α1 - and α2 -AR (but not β-AR) activity preferentially modulates phasic, in contrast to tonic, DA release. In addition, these effects could differ between forebrain targets. We used fast-scan cyclic voltammetric measurements in rats to assess the effects of intra-VTA microinfusion of terazosin, a selective α1 -AR antagonist, on electrically evoked phasic DA release in the nucleus accumbens (NAc) core and medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC). Terazosin dose-dependently attenuated phasic, but not tonic, DA release in the NAc core, but not in the mPFC. Next, we measured the effects of intra-VTA administration of the α2 -AR selective antagonist RX-821002 on evoked DA in the NAc core. Similar to the effects of α1 -AR blockade, intra-VTA α2 -AR blockade with RX-0821002 strongly and dose-dependently attenuated phasic, but not tonic, DA release. In contrast, no regulation by RX-821002 was observed in the mPFC. This effect was sensitive to intra-VTA blockade of D2 receptors with raclopride. Finally, the β-AR antagonist propranolol ineffectively modulated DA release in the NAc core. These findings revealed both α1 - and α2 -ARs in the VTA as selective regulators of phasic DA release. Importantly, we demonstrated that AR blockade modulated mesolimbic, in contrast to mesocortical, DA release in previously unstudied heterogeneity in AR regulation of forebrain phasic DA.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michał Kielbinski
- Department of Neurobiology and Neuropsychology, Institute of Applied Psychology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | - Joanna Bernacka
- Department of Neurobiology and Neuropsychology, Institute of Applied Psychology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
| | - Wojciech B Solecki
- Department of Neurobiology and Neuropsychology, Institute of Applied Psychology, Jagiellonian University, Krakow, Poland
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McMorris T, Barwood M, Corbett J. Central fatigue theory and endurance exercise: Toward an interoceptive model. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2018; 93:93-107. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.03.024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 55] [Impact Index Per Article: 9.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/14/2017] [Revised: 02/15/2018] [Accepted: 03/22/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
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Adrenergic Receptor Agonists’ Modulation of Dopaminergic and Non-dopaminergic Neurons in the Ventral Tegmental Area. Neuroscience 2018; 375:119-134. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2017.11.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/03/2017] [Revised: 10/30/2017] [Accepted: 11/01/2017] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
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Solecki WB, Szklarczyk K, Pradel K, Kwiatkowska K, Dobrzański G, Przewłocki R. Noradrenergic signaling in the VTA modulates cocaine craving. Addict Biol 2018. [PMID: 28635140 DOI: 10.1111/adb.12514] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
Abstract
Exposure to drug-associated cues evokes drug-seeking behavior and is regarded as a major cause of relapse. Conditional stimulus upregulates noradrenaline (NA) system activity, but the drug-seeking behavior depends particularly on phasic dopamine signaling downstream from the ventral tegmental area (VTA). The VTA dopamine-ergic activity is regulated via the signaling of alpha1 -adrenergic and alpha2 -adrenergic receptors (α1 -ARs and α2 -ARs); thus, the impact of the conditional stimulus on drug-seeking behavior might involve NAergic signaling in the VTA. To date, the role of VTA ARs in regulating cocaine seeking was not studied. We found that cocaine seeking under extinction conditions in male Sprague-Dawley rats was attenuated by intra-VTA prazosin or terazosin-two selective α1 -AR antagonists. In contrast, cocaine seeking was facilitated by intra-VTA administration of the selective α1 -AR agonist phenylephrine as well as α2 -AR antagonist RX 821002, whereas the selective β-AR antagonist propranolol had no effects. In addition, blockade of α1 -AR in the VTA prevented α2 -AR antagonist-induced enhancement of cocaine seeking. Importantly, the potential non-specific effects of the VTA AR blockade on cocaine seeking could be excluded, because none of the AR antagonists influenced sucrose seeking under extinction conditions or locomotor activity in the open field test. These results demonstrate that NAergic signaling potently and selectively regulates cocaine seeking during early cocaine withdrawal via VTA α1 -AR and α2 -AR but not β-AR. Our findings provide new insight into the NAergic mechanisms that underlie cocaine craving.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wojciech Barnaba Solecki
- Department of Neurobiology and Neuropsychology; Institute of Applied Psychology, Jagiellonian University; Poland
- Department of Molecular Neuropharmacology; Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences; Poland
| | - Klaudia Szklarczyk
- Department of Neurobiology and Neuropsychology; Institute of Applied Psychology, Jagiellonian University; Poland
| | - Kamil Pradel
- Department of Molecular Neuropharmacology; Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences; Poland
| | - Krystyna Kwiatkowska
- Department of Molecular Neuropharmacology; Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences; Poland
| | - Grzegorz Dobrzański
- Department of Molecular Neuropharmacology; Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences; Poland
| | - Ryszard Przewłocki
- Department of Molecular Neuropharmacology; Institute of Pharmacology, Polish Academy of Sciences; Poland
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Scaplen KM, Kaun KR. Reward from bugs to bipeds: a comparative approach to understanding how reward circuits function. J Neurogenet 2017; 30:133-48. [PMID: 27328845 PMCID: PMC4926782 DOI: 10.1080/01677063.2016.1180385] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/09/2023]
Abstract
In a complex environment, animals learn from their responses to stimuli and events. Appropriate response to reward and punishment can promote survival, reproduction and increase evolutionary fitness. Interestingly, the neural processes underlying these responses are remarkably similar across phyla. In all species, dopamine is central to encoding reward and directing motivated behaviors, however, a comprehensive understanding of how circuits encode reward and direct motivated behaviors is still lacking. In part, this is a result of the sheer diversity of neurons, the heterogeneity of their responses and the complexity of neural circuits within which they are found. We argue that general features of reward circuitry are common across model organisms, and thus principles learned from invertebrate model organisms can inform research across species. In particular, we discuss circuit motifs that appear to be functionally equivalent from flies to primates. We argue that a comparative approach to studying and understanding reward circuit function provides a more comprehensive understanding of reward circuitry, and informs disorders that affect the brain’s reward circuitry.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kristin M Scaplen
- a Department of Neuroscience , Brown University , Providence , RI , USA
| | - Karla R Kaun
- a Department of Neuroscience , Brown University , Providence , RI , USA
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Park JW, Bhimani RV, Park J. Noradrenergic Modulation of Dopamine Transmission Evoked by Electrical Stimulation of the Locus Coeruleus in the Rat Brain. ACS Chem Neurosci 2017; 8:1913-1924. [PMID: 28594540 DOI: 10.1021/acschemneuro.7b00078] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/03/2023] Open
Abstract
Central norepinephrine (NE) and dopamine (DA) are involved in a variety of physiological functions and behaviors. Accumulating evidence suggests that NE neurons originating from the locus coeruleus (LC) innervate DA neurons of the ventral tegmental area (VTA) and influence VTA-DA neural activity. However, the underlying mechanisms of how LC-NE regulates DA transmission via VTA-DA neurons remain largely unexplored. Herein, we investigated how electrical stimulation of the LC modulates VTA-DA neurotransmission in the nucleus accumbens (NAc). For this study, catecholamine release in the NAc and VTA evoked by electrical stimulation of the LC in urethane-anesthetized rats was simultaneously monitored with carbon-fiber microelectrodes using in vivo multichannel fast-scan cyclic voltammetry for comparison of its extracellular regulation. Pharmacological, anatomical, and electrochemical evidence suggest that electrical stimulation of the LC evokes NE release in the VTA and activates VTA-DA neurons, resulting in DA release in the NAc. The electrically evoked DA in the NAc was regulated by D2 receptors and DA transporters (DAT) as well as α1-adrenergic receptors in the VTA, whereas NE release in the VTA was regulated by α2-adrenergic receptors and NE transporters (NET) not by D2 receptors or DAT. These results suggest that electrical stimulation of LC modulates VTA-DA neurons and DA transmission in the NAc via NE receptors.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jin W. Park
- Department
of Biotechnical and Clinical Laboratory Sciences and ‡Neuroscience
Program, University at Buffalo, State University of New York, Buffalo, New York 14214-3005, United States
| | - Rohan V. Bhimani
- Department
of Biotechnical and Clinical Laboratory Sciences and ‡Neuroscience
Program, University at Buffalo, State University of New York, Buffalo, New York 14214-3005, United States
| | - Jinwoo Park
- Department
of Biotechnical and Clinical Laboratory Sciences and ‡Neuroscience
Program, University at Buffalo, State University of New York, Buffalo, New York 14214-3005, United States
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28
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Schmidt KT, Schroeder JP, Foster SL, Squires K, Smith BM, Pitts EG, Epstein MP, Weinshenker D. Norepinephrine regulates cocaine-primed reinstatement via α1-adrenergic receptors in the medial prefrontal cortex. Neuropharmacology 2017; 119:134-140. [PMID: 28392265 PMCID: PMC5495469 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.04.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 18] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/03/2016] [Revised: 03/15/2017] [Accepted: 04/05/2017] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
Drug-primed reinstatement of cocaine seeking in rats is thought to reflect relapse-like behavior and is mediated by the integration of signals from mesocorticolimbic dopaminergic projections and corticostriatal glutamatergic innervation. Cocaine-primed reinstatement can also be attenuated by systemic administration of dopamine β-hydroxylase (DBH) inhibitors, which prevent norepinephrine (NE) synthesis, or by α1-adrenergic receptor (α1AR) antagonists, indicating functional modulation by the noradrenergic system. In the present study, we sought to further discern the role of NE in cocaine-seeking behavior by determining whether α1AR activation can induce reinstatement on its own or is sufficient to permit cocaine-primed reinstatement in the absence of all other AR signaling, and identifying the neuroanatomical substrate within the mesocorticolimbic reward system harboring the critical α1ARs. We found that while intracerebroventricular infusion of the α1AR agonist phenylephrine did not induce reinstatement on its own, it did overcome the blockade of cocaine-primed reinstatement by the DBH inhibitor nepicastat. Furthermore, administration of the α1AR antagonist terazosin in the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), but not the ventral tegmental area (VTA) or nucleus accumbens (NAc) shell, attenuated cocaine-primed reinstatement. Combined, these data indicate that α1AR activation in the mPFC is required for cocaine-primed reinstatement, and suggest that α1AR antagonists merit further investigation as pharmacotherapies for cocaine dependence.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karl T Schmidt
- Department of Human Genetics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Jason P Schroeder
- Department of Human Genetics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | | | - Katherine Squires
- Department of Human Genetics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Brilee M Smith
- Department of Human Genetics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Elizabeth G Pitts
- Department of Human Genetics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - Michael P Epstein
- Department of Human Genetics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA
| | - David Weinshenker
- Department of Human Genetics, Emory University, Atlanta, GA, 30322, USA.
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Reproductive steroid receptors and actions in the locus coeruleus of male macaques: Part of an aggression circuit? Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2016; 71:210-22. [PMID: 27083854 PMCID: PMC4996758 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2016.04.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/24/2016] [Revised: 03/29/2016] [Accepted: 04/06/2016] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
Abstract
This study was initiated to determine whether the noradrenergic (NE) neurons of the locus coeruleus (LC) could mediate the stimulatory action of androgens on serotonin-related gene expression in male macaques. These experiments follow our observations that serotonin neurons lack androgen receptors (ARs), and yet respond to androgens. Male Japanese macaques (Macaca fuscata) were castrated for 5-7months and then treated for 3months with [1] placebo, [2] T (testosterone), [3] DHT (dihydrotestosterone; non-aromatizable androgen) plus ATD (steroidal aromatase inhibitor), or [4] FLUT (Flutamide; androgen antagonist) plus ATD (n=5/group). The noradrenergic (NE) innervation of the raphe was determined with immunolabeling of axons with an antibody to dopamine-β-hydroxylase (DBH). Immunolabeling of tyrosine hydroxylase (TH) dendrites and corticotropin releasing hormone (CRH) axons innervating the LC was also determined. Due to the longer treatment period employed, the expression of the cognate nuclear receptors was sought. Androgen receptor (AR), estrogen receptor alpha (ERα) and estrogen receptor beta (ERβ) immunostaining was accomplished. Quantitative image analysis was applied and immunopositive neurons or axons with boutons were measured. Double-label of NE neurons for each receptor plus TH determined whether the receptors were localized in NE neurons. Androgens with or without aromatase activity significantly stimulated DBH axon density in the raphe (ANOVA, p=0.006), and LC dendritic TH (ANOVA, p<0.0001), similar to serotonin-related mRNA expression in the raphe. There were significantly more AR-positive neurons in T- and DHT+ATD-treated groups compared to placebo or FLUT+ATD-treated groups (ANOVA, p=0.0014). There was no difference in the number of positive-neurons stained for ERα or ERβ. The CRH axon density in the LC was significantly reduced with aromatase inhibition, suggesting that CRH depends on estrogen, not androgens (ANOVA, p=0.0023). Double-immunohistochemistry revealed that NE neurons did not contain AR. Rather, AR-positive nuclei were found in neighboring cells that are likely neurons. However, >80% of LC NE neurons contained ERα or ERβ. In conclusion, the LC NE neurons may transduce the stimulatory effect of androgens on serotonin-related gene expression. Since LC NE neurons lack AR, the androgenic stimulation of dendritic TH and axonal DBH may be indirectly mediated by other neurons. Estrogen, either from metabolism of T or from de novo synthesis, appears necessary for robust CRH innervation of the LC, which differs from female macaques.
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Mejias-Aponte CA. Specificity and impact of adrenergic projections to the midbrain dopamine system. Brain Res 2016; 1641:258-73. [PMID: 26820641 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2016.01.036] [Citation(s) in RCA: 43] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/08/2015] [Revised: 01/11/2016] [Accepted: 01/20/2016] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Dopamine (DA) is a neuromodulator that regulates different brain circuits involved in cognitive functions, motor coordination, and emotions. Dysregulation of DA is associated with many neurological and psychiatric disorders such as Parkinson's disease and substance abuse. Several lines of research have shown that the midbrain DA system is regulated by the central adrenergic system. This review focuses on adrenergic interactions with midbrain DA neurons. It discusses the current neuroanatomy including source of adrenergic innervation, type of synapses, and adrenoceptors expression. It also discusses adrenergic regulation of DA cell activity and neurotransmitter release. Finally, it reviews several neurological and psychiatric disorders where changes in adrenergic system are associated with dysregulation of the midbrain DA system. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled SI: Noradrenergic System.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos A Mejias-Aponte
- National Institute on Drug Abuse Histology Core, Neuronal Networks Section, Integrative Neuroscience Research Branch, National Institute on Drug Abuse, Biomedical Research Center, 251 Bayview Blvd, Suite 200, Baltimore, MD 21224, USA.
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31
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Weinshenker D, Holmes PV. Regulation of neurological and neuropsychiatric phenotypes by locus coeruleus-derived galanin. Brain Res 2015; 1641:320-37. [PMID: 26607256 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2015.11.025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2015] [Revised: 10/27/2015] [Accepted: 11/12/2015] [Indexed: 12/28/2022]
Abstract
Decades of research confirm that noradrenergic locus coeruleus (LC) neurons are essential for arousal, attention, motivation, and stress responses. While most studies on LC transmission focused unsurprisingly on norepinephrine (NE), adrenergic signaling cannot account for all the consequences of LC activation. Galanin coexists with NE in the vast majority of LC neurons, yet the precise function of this neuropeptide has proved to be surprisingly elusive given our solid understanding of the LC system. To elucidate the contribution of galanin to LC physiology, here we briefly summarize the nature of stimuli that drive LC activity from a neuroanatomical perspective. We go on to describe the LC pathways in which galanin most likely exerts its effects on behavior, with a focus on addiction, depression, epilepsy, stress, and Alzheimer׳s disease. We propose a model in which LC-derived galanin has two distinct functions: as a neuromodulator, primarily acting via the galanin 1 receptor (GAL1), and as a trophic factor, primarily acting via galanin receptor 2 (GAL2). Finally, we discuss how the recent advances in neuropeptide detection, optogenetics and chemical genetics, and galanin receptor pharmacology can be harnessed to identify the roles of LC-derived galanin definitively. This article is part of a Special Issue entitled SI: Noradrenergic System.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Weinshenker
- Department of Human Genetics, Emory University School of Medicine, 615 Michael St., Whitehead 301, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA.
| | - Philip V Holmes
- Neuroscience Program, Biomedical and Health Sciences Institute and Psychology Department, University of Georgia, Athens, GA 30602, USA.
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Ge D, Yan X, Guo Y, Chen X, Guan R, Chen Y, Qiu D, Wang J. Activation of α1-adrenoceptors facilitates excitatory inputs to medullary airway vagal preganglionic neurons. J Appl Physiol (1985) 2015. [PMID: 26205539 DOI: 10.1152/japplphysiol.00045.2015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/30/2023] Open
Abstract
In mammals, the neural control of airway smooth muscle is dominated by a subset of airway vagal preganglionic neurons in the ventrolateral medulla. These neurons are physiologically modulated by adrenergic/noradrenergic projections, and weakened α₂-adrenergic inhibition of them is indicated to participate in the pathogenesis and exacerbation of asthma. This study tests whether these neurons are modulated by α₁-adrenoceptors, and if so, how. In anesthetized adult rats, microinjection of the α₁A-adrenoceptor agonist A61603 (1 pmol) unilaterally into the medullary region containing these neurons caused a significant increase in airway resistance, which was prevented by intraperitoneal atropine (0.5 mg/kg). In rhythmically firing medullary slices of newborn rats, A61603 (10 nM) caused depolarization in both the inspiratory-activated and inspiratory-inhibited airway vagal preganglionic neurons that were retrogradely labeled, and a significant increase in the spontaneous firing rate. Under voltage clamp, A61603 significantly enhanced the spontaneous excitatory inputs to both types of neurons and caused a tonic inward current in the inspiratory-activated neurons along with significantly increased peak amplitude of the inspiratory inward currents. The responses in vitro were prevented by α₁A-adrenoceptor antagonist RS100329 (1 μM), which alone significantly inhibited the spontaneous excitatory inputs to both types of the neurons. After pretreatment with tetrodotoxin (1 μM), A61603 (10 or 100 nM) had no effect on either type of neuron. We conclude that in rats, activation of α₁-adrenoceptors in the medullary region containing airway vagal preganglionic neurons increases airway vagal tone, and that this effect is primarily mediated by facilitation of the excitatory inputs to the preganglionic neurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dengyun Ge
- Department of Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xianxia Yan
- Department of Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yuhong Guo
- Department of Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xingxin Chen
- Department of Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Ruijuan Guan
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China; and
| | - Yonghua Chen
- Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China; and
| | - Dongying Qiu
- Department of Gerontology, Zhongshan Hospital, Fudan University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jijiang Wang
- Department of Neurobiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China; Department of Physiology and Pathophysiology, School of Basic Medical Sciences, Fudan University, Shanghai, China; and
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Abstract
The ventral tegmental area (VTA) is required for the rewarding and motivational actions of opioids and activation of dopamine neurons has been implicated in these effects. The canonical model posits that opioid activation of VTA dopamine neurons is indirect, through inhibition of GABAergic inputs. However, VTA dopamine neurons also express postsynaptic μ-opioid peptide (MOP) receptors. We report here that in Sprague Dawley rat, the MOP receptor-selective agonist DAMGO (0.5-3 μM) depolarized or increased the firing rate of 87 of 451 VTA neurons (including 22 of 110 dopamine neurons). This DAMGO excitation occurs in the presence of GABAA receptor blockade and its EC50 value is two orders of magnitude lower than for presynaptic inhibition of GABA release on to VTA neurons. Consistent with a postsynaptic channel opening, excitations were accompanied by a decrease in input resistance. Excitations were blocked by CdCl2 (100 μM, n = 5) and ω-agatoxin-IVA (100 nM, n = 3), nonselective and Cav2.1 Ca(2+) channel blockers, respectively. DAMGO also produced a postsynaptic inhibition in 233 of 451 VTA neurons, including 45 of 110 dopamine neurons. The mean reversal potential of the inhibitory current was -78 ± 7 mV and inhibitions were blocked by the K(+) channel blocker BaCl2 (100 μM, n = 7). Blockade of either excitation or inhibition unmasked the opposite effect, suggesting that MOP receptors activate concurrent postsynaptic excitatory and inhibitory processes in most VTA neurons. These results provide a novel direct mechanism for MOP receptor control of VTA dopamine neurons.
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Velásquez-Martínez MC, Vázquez-Torres R, Rojas LV, Sanabria P, Jiménez-Rivera CA. Alpha-1 adrenoreceptors modulate GABA release onto ventral tegmental area dopamine neurons. Neuropharmacology 2014; 88:110-21. [PMID: 25261018 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2014.09.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2014] [Revised: 08/29/2014] [Accepted: 09/01/2014] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Abstract
The ventral tegmental area (VTA) plays an important role in reward and motivational processes involved in drug addiction. Previous studies have shown that alpha1-adrenoreceptors (α1-AR) are primarily found pre-synaptically at this area. We hypothesized that GABA released onto VTA-dopamine (DA) cells is modulated by pre-synaptic α1-AR. Recordings were obtained from putative VTA-DA cells of male Sprague-Dawley rats (28-50 days postnatal) using whole-cell voltage clamp technique. Phenylephrine (10 μM; α1-AR agonist) decreased the amplitude of GABAA receptor-mediated inhibitory postsynaptic currents (IPSCs) evoked by electrical stimulation of afferent fibers (n = 7; p < 0.05). Prazosin (1 μM, α1-AR antagonist), blocked this effect. Paired-pulse ratios were increased by phenylephrine application (n = 13; p < 0.05) indicating a presynaptic site of action. Spontaneous IPSCs frequency but not amplitude, were decreased in the presence of phenylephrine (n = 7; p < 0.05). However, frequency or amplitude of miniature IPSCs were not changed (n = 9; p > 0.05). Phenylephrine in low Ca(2+) (1 mM) medium decreased IPSC amplitude (n = 7; p < 0.05). Chelerythrine (a protein kinase C inhibitor) blocked the α1-AR action on IPSC amplitude (n = 6; p < 0.05). Phenylephrine failed to decrease IPSCs amplitude in the presence of paxilline, a BK channel blocker (n = 7; p < 0.05). Taken together, these results demonstrate that α1-ARs at presynaptic terminals can modulate GABA release onto VTA-DA cells. Drug-induced changes in α1-AR could contribute to the modifications occurring in the VTA during the addiction process.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria C Velásquez-Martínez
- Department of Physiology, Medical Sciences Campus, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, PR, USA; Laboratorio de Neurociencias y Comportamiento, Departamento de Ciencias Básicas, Facultad de Salud, Universidad Industrial de Santander, Bucaramanga, Colombia
| | - Rafael Vázquez-Torres
- Department of Physiology, Medical Sciences Campus, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, PR, USA
| | - Legier V Rojas
- Department of Physiology, Universidad Central del Caribe, Bayamón, PR, USA
| | - Priscila Sanabria
- Department of Physiology, Universidad Central del Caribe, Bayamón, PR, USA
| | - Carlos A Jiménez-Rivera
- Department of Physiology, Medical Sciences Campus, University of Puerto Rico, San Juan, PR, USA.
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Vélez-Hernández ME, Padilla E, Gonzalez-Lima F, Jiménez-Rivera CA. Cocaine reduces cytochrome oxidase activity in the prefrontal cortex and modifies its functional connectivity with brainstem nuclei. Brain Res 2014; 1542:56-69. [PMID: 24505625 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2013.10.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Cocaine-induced psychomotor stimulation may be mediated by metabolic hypofrontality and modification of brain functional connectivity. Functional connectivity refers to the pattern of relationships among brain regions, and one way to evaluate this pattern is using interactivity correlations of the metabolic marker cytochrome oxidase among different regions. This is the first study of how repeated cocaine modifies: (1) mean cytochrome oxidase activity in neural areas using quantitative enzyme histochemistry, and (2) functional connectivity among brain regions using inter-correlations of cytochrome oxidase activity. Rats were injected with 15 mg/kg i.p. cocaine or saline for 5 days, which lead to cocaine-enhanced total locomotion. Mean cytochrome oxidase activity was significantly decreased in cocaine-treated animals in the superficial dorsal and lateral frontal cortical association areas Fr2 and Fr3 when compared to saline-treated animals. Functional connectivity showed that the cytochrome oxidase activity of the noradrenergic locus coeruleus and the infralimbic cortex were positively inter-correlated in cocaine but not in control rats. Positive cytochrome oxidase activity inter-correlations were also observed between the dopaminergic substantia nigra compacta and Fr2 and Fr3 areas and the lateral orbital cortex in cocaine-treated animals. In contrast, cytochrome oxidase activity in the interpeduncular nucleus was negatively correlated with that of Fr2, anterior insular cortex, and lateral orbital cortex in saline but not in cocaine groups. After repeated cocaine specific prefrontal areas became hypometabolic and their functional connectivity changed in networks involving noradrenergic and dopaminergic brainstem nuclei. We suggest that this pattern of hypofrontality and altered functional connectivity may contribute to cocaine-induced psychomotor stimulation.
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Excitatory drive onto dopaminergic neurons in the rostral linear nucleus is enhanced by norepinephrine in an α1 adrenergic receptor-dependent manner. Neuropharmacology 2014; 86:116-24. [PMID: 25018040 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2014.07.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/15/2014] [Revised: 06/09/2014] [Accepted: 07/01/2014] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
Dopaminergic innervation of the extended amygdala regulates anxiety-like behavior and stress responsivity. A portion of this dopamine input arises from dopamine neurons located in the ventral lateral periaqueductal gray (vlPAG) and rostral (RLi) and caudal linear nuclei of the raphe (CLi). These neurons receive substantial norepinephrine input, which may prime them for involvement in stress responses. Using a mouse line that expresses eGFP under control of the tyrosine hydroxylase promoter, we explored the physiology and responsiveness to norepinephrine of these neurons. We find that RLi dopamine neurons differ from VTA dopamine neurons with respect to membrane resistance, capacitance and the hyperpolarization-activated current, Ih. Further, we found that norepinephrine increased the frequency of spontaneous excitatory postsynaptic currents (sEPSCs) on RLi dopamine neurons. This effect was mediated through the α1 adrenergic receptor (AR), as the actions of norepinephrine were mimicked by the α1-AR agonist methoxamine and blocked by the α1-AR antagonist prazosin. This action of norepinephrine on sEPSCs was transient, as it did not persist in the presence of prazosin. Methoxamine also increased the frequency of miniature EPSCs, indicating that the α1-AR action on glutamatergic transmission likely has a presynaptic mechanism. There was also a modest decrease in sEPSC frequency with the application of the α2-AR agonist UK-14,304. These studies illustrate a potential mechanism through which norepinephrine could recruit the activity of this population of dopaminergic neurons.
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Kim AK, Souza-Formigoni MLO. Alpha1-adrenergic drugs affect the development and expression of ethanol-induced behavioral sensitization. Behav Brain Res 2013; 256:646-54. [PMID: 24036170 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2013.09.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2012] [Revised: 09/01/2013] [Accepted: 09/06/2013] [Indexed: 01/11/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND According to the incentive sensitization theory, addiction is caused primarily by drug-induced sensitization in the brain mesocorticolimbic systems. After repeated ethanol administration, some animals develop psychomotor sensitization, a phenomenon which occurs simultaneously with the incentive sensitization. Recent evidence suggests the involvement of norepinephrine (NE) in drug addiction, with a critical role in the ethanol reinforcing properties. In this study we evaluated the influence of an agonist (phenylephrine) and an antagonist (prazosin) of alpha1-adrenergic receptors on the development and expression of behavioral sensitization to ethanol. Male Swiss mice, previously treated with ethanol or saline, were challenged with the combined administration of ethanol (or saline) with alpha1-adrenergic drugs. Prazosin (0.1; 0.5 and 1.0 mg/kg) and phenylephrine (1.0 and 2.0 mg/kg) administration blocked the expression of behavioral sensitization to ethanol. In another set of experiments, mice treated with 0.5mg/kg of prazosin+ethanol did not present the development of behavioral sensitization. However, when challenged with ethanol alone, they showed the same sensitized levels of locomotor activity of those presented by mice previously treated with ethanol and saline. Phenylephrine (1.0 mg/kg) treatment did not affect the development of behavioral sensitization. Based on this data, we concluded that the alteration of alpha1-adrenergic receptors functioning, by the administration agonists or antagonists, affected the locomotor sensitization to the stimulant effect of ethanol, suggesting that the normal functioning of the noradrenergic system is essential to its development and expression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrezza Kyunmi Kim
- Departamento de Psicobiologia, Escola Paulista de Medicina, Universidade Federal de São Paulo (UNIFESP), Rua Napoleao de Barros, 925, São Paulo 04024-002, Brazil
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Schroeder JP, Alisha Epps S, Grice TW, Weinshenker D. The selective dopamine β-hydroxylase inhibitor nepicastat attenuates multiple aspects of cocaine-seeking behavior. Neuropsychopharmacology 2013; 38:1032-8. [PMID: 23303068 PMCID: PMC3629392 DOI: 10.1038/npp.2012.267] [Citation(s) in RCA: 59] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Although norepinephrine (NE) does not typically modulate cocaine self-administration under traditional schedules of reinforcement, it is required for different inducers of the reinstatement of cocaine-seeking behavior via activation of multiple adrenergic receptor subtypes. We predicted that blockade of NE synthesis would attenuate all known modalities of reinstatement and showed previously that the selective dopamine β-hydroxylase inhibitor, nepicastat, had no effect on either maintenance of operant cocaine self-administration maintained on a fixed-ratio 1 schedule or reinstatement of food seeking but did abolish cocaine-primed reinstatement. In the present series of studies, we first evaluated the dose-dependent effect of nepicastat (5, 50, or 100 mg/kg) on novelty-induced locomotor activity and found that it blunted exploration only at the highest dose. Next, we assessed the ability of nepicastat (50 mg/kg) to reduce breakpoint responding for cocaine on a progressive ratio schedule and reinstatement induced by drug-associated cues and stress. We found that nepicastat significantly lowered the breakpoint for cocaine, but not for regular chow or sucrose, and attenuated cue-, footshock-, and yohimbine-induced reinstatement. Combined, these results indicate that nepicastat can reduce the reinforcing properties of cocaine under a stringent schedule and can attenuate relapse-like behavior produced by cocaine, formerly cocaine-paired cues, and physiological and pharmacological stressors. Thus, nepicastat is one of those rare compounds that can reduce reinforced cocaine seeking as well as all three reinstatement modalities, while sparing exploratory behavior and natural reward seeking, making it a promising pharmacotherapy for cocaine addiction.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jason P Schroeder
- Department of Human Genetics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - S Alisha Epps
- Department of Human Genetics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - Taylor W Grice
- Department of Human Genetics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA
| | - David Weinshenker
- Department of Human Genetics, Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, GA, USA,Department of Human Genetics, Emory University School of Medicine, Whitehead 301, 615 Michael Street, Atlanta, GA 30322, USA, Tel: +1 404 727 3106, Fax 1 404 727 3949, E-mail:
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The α1 Antagonist Doxazosin Alters the Behavioral Effects of Cocaine in Rats. Brain Sci 2012; 2:619-33. [PMID: 24961263 PMCID: PMC4061810 DOI: 10.3390/brainsci2040619] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2012] [Revised: 10/26/2012] [Accepted: 11/08/2012] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Medications that target norepinephrine (NE) neurotransmission alter the behavioral effects of cocaine and may be beneficial for stimulant-use disorders. We showed previously that the short-acting, α1-adrenergic antagonist, prazosin, blocked drug-induced reinstatement of cocaine-seeking in rats and doxazosin (DOX), a longer-acting α1 antagonist blocked cocaine’s subjective effects in cocaine-dependent volunteers. To further characterize DOX as a possible pharmacotherapy for cocaine dependence, we assessed its impact on the development and expression of cocaine-induced locomotor sensitization in rats. Rats (n = 6–8) were administered saline, cocaine (COC, 10 mg/kg) or DOX (0.3 or 1.0 mg/kg) alone or in combination for 5 consecutive days (development). Following 10-days of drug withdrawal, all rats were administered COC and locomotor activity was again assessed (expression). COC increased locomotor activity across days indicative of sensitization. The high dose (1.0 mg/kg), but not the low dose (0.3 mg/kg) of DOX significantly decreased the development and expression of COC sensitization. DOX alone did not differ from saline. These results are consistent with studies showing that α1 receptors are essential for the development and expression of cocaine’s behavioral effects. Results also suggest that blockade of both the development and expression of locomotor sensitization may be important characteristics of possible pharmacotherapies for cocaine dependence in humans.
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