Signal transduction mechanisms within the entorhinal cortex that support latent inhibition of cued fear conditioning

Behavioral tagging underlies memory reconsolidation

Memory reconsolidation occurs when a retrieving event destabilizes transiently a consolidated memory, triggering thereby a new process of restabilization that ensures memory persistence. Although this phenomenon has received wide attention, the effect of new information cooccurring with the reconsolidation process has been less explored. Here we demonstrate that a memory-retrieving event sets a neural tag, which enables the reconsolidation of memory after binding proteins provided by the original or a different contiguous experience. We characterized the specific temporal window during which this association is effective and identified the protein kinase A (PKA) and the extracellular signal-regulated kinase 1 and 2 (ERK 1/2) pathways as the mechanisms related to the setting of the reconsolidation tag and the synthesis of proteins. Our results show, therefore, that memory reconsolidation is mediated by a "behavioral tagging" process, which is common to different memory forms. They represent a significant advance in understanding the fate of memories reconsolidated while being adjacent to other events, and provide a tool for designing noninvasive strategies to attenuate (pathological/traumatic) or improve (education-related) memories.

Cognitive deficits in the Snord116 deletion mouse model for Prader-Willi syndrome

Prader-Willi syndrome (PWS) is an imprinted neurodevelopmental disease caused by a loss of paternal genes on chromosome 15q11-q13. It is characterized by cognitive impairments, developmental delay, sleep abnormalities, and hyperphagia often leading to obesity. Clinical research has shown that a lack of expression of SNORD116, a paternally expressed imprinted gene cluster that encodes multiple copies of a small nucleolar RNA (snoRNA) in both humans and mice, is most likely responsible for many PWS symptoms seen in humans. The majority of previous research using PWS preclinical models focused on characterization of the hyperphagic and metabolic phenotypes. However, a crucial understudied clinical phenotype is cognitive impairments and thus we investigated the learning and memory abilities using a model of PWS, with a heterozygous deletion in Snord116. We utilized the novel object recognition task, which doesn't require external motivation, or exhaustive swim training. Automated findings were further confirmed with manual scoring by a highly trained blinded investigator. We discovered deficits in Snord116+/- mutant mice in the novel object recognition, location memory and tone cue fear conditioning assays when compared to age-, sex- matched, littermate control Snord116+/+ mice. Further, we confirmed that despite physical neo-natal developmental delays, Snord116+/- mice had normal exploratory and motor abilities. These results show that the Snord116+/- deletion murine model is a valuable preclinical model for investigating learning and memory impairments in individuals with PWS without common confounding phenotypes.

Prefrontal cortical GABA transmission modulates discrimination and latent inhibition of conditioned fear: relevance for schizophrenia

Inhibitory gamma-aminobutyric acid (GABA) transmission within the prefrontal cortex (PFC) regulates numerous functions, and perturbations in GABAergic transmission within this region have been proposed to contribute to some of the cognitive and behavioral abnormalities associated with disorders such as schizophrenia. These abnormalities include deficits in emotional regulation and aberrant attributions of affective salience. Yet, how PFC GABA regulates these types of emotional processes are unclear. To address this issue, we investigated the contribution of PFC GABA transmission to different aspects of Pavlovian emotional learning in rats using translational discriminative fear conditioning and latent inhibition (LI) assays. Reducing prelimbic PFC GABAA transmission via infusions of the antagonist bicuculline before the acquisition or expression of fear conditioning eliminated the ability to discriminate between an aversive conditioned stimulus (CS+) paired with footshock vs a neutral CS-, resembling similar deficits observed in schizophrenic patients. In a separate experiment, blockade of PFC GABAA receptors before CS preexposure (PE) and conditioning did not affect subsequent expression of LI, but did enhance fear in rats that were not preexposed to the CS. In contrast, PFC GABA-blockade before a fear expression test disrupted the recall of learned irrelevance and abolished LI. These data suggest that normal PFC GABA transmission is critical for regulating and mitigating multiple aspects of aversive learning, including discrimination between fear vs safety signals and recall of information about the irrelevance of stimuli. Furthermore, they suggest that similar deficits in emotional regulation observed in schizophrenia may be driven in part by deficient PFC GABA activity.

Bridging the interval: theory and neurobiology of trace conditioning

An early finding in the behavioral analysis of learning was that conditioned responding weakens as the conditioned stimulus (CS) and unconditioned stimulus (US) are separated in time. This "trace" conditioning effect has been the focus of years of research in associative learning. Theoretical accounts of trace conditioning have focused on mechanisms that allow associative learning to occur across long intervals between the CS and US. These accounts have emphasized degraded contingency effects, timing mechanisms, and inhibitory learning. More recently, study of the neurobiology of trace conditioning has shown that even a short interval between the CS and US alters the circuitry recruited for learning. Here, we review some of the theoretical and neurobiological mechanisms underlying trace conditioning with an emphasis on recent studies of trace fear conditioning. Findings across many studies have implications not just for how we think about time and conditioning, but also for how we conceptualize fear conditioning in general, suggesting that circuitry beyond the usual suspects needs to be incorporated into current thinking about fear, learning, and anxiety.

GABA, glutamate, dopamine and serotonin transporters expression on memory formation and amnesia

Notwithstanding several neurotransmission systems are frequently related to memory formation, amnesia and/or therapeutic targets for memory alterations, the role of transporters γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA, GAT1), glutamate (neuronal glutamate transporter excitatory amino acid carrier; EACC1), dopamine (DAT) and serotonin (SERT) is poorly understood. Hence, in this paper Western-blot analysis was used to evaluate expression changes on them during memory formation in trained and untrained rats treated with the selective serotonin transporter inhibitor fluoxetine, the amnesic drug d-methamphetamine (METH) and fluoxetine plus METH. Transporters expression was evaluated in the hippocampus, prefrontal cortex and striatum. Data indicated that in addition of memory performance other behavioral parameters (e.g., explorative behavior, food-intake, etc.) that memory formation was recorded. Thus, memory formation in a Pavlovian/instrumental autoshaping was associated to up-regulation of prefrontal cortex GAT1 and EAAC1, striatal SERT, DAT and EACC1; while, hippocampal EACC1, GAT1 and SERT were down-regulated. METH impaired short (STM) and long-term memory (LTM), at 24 or 48h. The METH-induced amnesia down-regulated SERT, DAT, EACC1 and GAT1 in hippocampus and the GAT1 in striatum; no-changes were observed in prefrontal cortex. Post-training administration of fluoxetine improved LTM (48h), which was associated to DAT, GAT1 (prefrontal cortex) up-regulation, but GAT1 (striatum) and SERT (hippocampus) down-regulation. Fluoxetine plus METH administration was able to prevent amnesia, which was associated to DAT, EACC1 and GAT1 (prefrontal cortex), SERT and DAT (hippocampus) and EACC1 or DAT (striatal) up-regulation. Together these data show that memory formation, amnesia and anti-amnesic effects are associated to specific patters of transporters expression.

Nicotine ameliorates NMDA receptor antagonist-induced deficits in contextual fear conditioning through high-affinity nicotinic acetylcholine receptors in the hippocampus

NMDA glutamate receptors (NMDARs) and nicotinic acetylcholine receptors (nAChRs) are both involved in learning and synaptic plasticity. Increasing evidence suggests processes mediated by these receptors may interact to modulate learning; however, little is known about the neural substrates involved in these interactive processes. The present studies investigated the effects of nicotine on MK-801 hydrogen maleate (MK-801) and DL-2-Amino-5-phosphonovaleric acid (APV)-induced disruption of contextual fear conditioning in male C57BL/6J mice, using direct drug infusion and selective nAChR antagonists to define the brain regions and the nAChR subtypes involved. Mice treated with MK-801 showed a deficit in contextual fear conditioning that was ameliorated by nicotine. Direct drug infusion demonstrated that the NMDAR antagonists disrupted hippocampal function and that nicotine acted in the dorsal hippocampus to ameliorate the deficit in learning. The high-affinity nAChR antagonist Dihydro-β-erythroidine hydrobromide (DhβE) blocked the effects of nicotine on MK-801-induced deficits while the α7 nAChR antagonist methyllycaconitine citrate salt hydrate (MLA) did not. These results suggest that NMDARs and nAChRs may mediate similar hippocampal processes involved in contextual fear conditioning. Furthermore, these results may have implications for developing effective therapeutics for the cognitive deficits associated with schizophrenia because a large subset of patients with schizophrenia exhibit cognitive deficits that may be related to NMDAR dysfunction and smoke at much higher rates than the healthy population, which may be an attempt to ameliorate cognitive deficits.

Hippocampal CARP over-expression solidifies consolidation of contextual fear memories

The Doublecortin-Like Kinase (DCLK) gene is involved in neuronal migration during development. Through alternative splicing the DCLK gene also produces a transcript called Ca(2+)/calmodulin dependent protein kinase (CaMK)-related peptide (CARP) that is expressed exclusively during adulthood in response to neuronal activity. The function of CARP, however, is poorly understood. To study CARP function, we have generated transgenic mice with over-expression of the CARP transcript in, amongst other brain areas, the hippocampus. We aimed to characterize possible behavioral adaptations of these mice by using a Pavlovian fear conditioning approach. This type of fear conditioning, in which both the hippocampus and amygdala are critically involved, allows studying the formation and extinction of fear related memories. We here report on the behavioral adaptations of two distinct transgenic lines: one with high levels of CARP in the hippocampus and amygdala, whilst the other has high levels of CARP in the hippocampal formation, but not in the amygdala. We tested both mouse lines separately by comparing them to their wild-type littermate controls. We provide evidence suggesting consolidation of contextual fear memories is strengthened in mice of both transgenic lines.

Differential role of muscarinic transmission within the entorhinal cortex and basolateral amygdala in the processing of irrelevant stimuli

Cholinergic projections to the entorhinal cortex (EC) and basolateral amygdala (BLA) mediate distinct cognitive processes through muscarinic acetylcholine receptors (mAChRs). In this study, we sought to further differentiate the role of muscarinic transmission in these regions in cognition, using the latent inhibition (LI) phenomenon. LI is a cross-species phenomenon manifested as poorer conditioning to a stimulus experienced as irrelevant during an earlier stage of repeated non-reinforced pre-exposure to that stimulus, and is considered to index the ability to ignore, or to in-attend to, irrelevant stimuli. Given our recent findings that systemic administration of the mAChR antagonist scopolamine can produce two contrasting LI abnormalities in rats, ie, abolish LI under conditions yielding LI in non-treated controls, or produce abnormally persistent LI under conditions preventing its expression in non-treated controls, we tested whether mAChR blockade in the EC and BLA would induce LI abolition and persistence, respectively. We found that intra-EC scopolamine infusion (1, 10 mug per hemisphere) abolished LI when infused in pre-exposure or both pre-exposure and conditioning, but not in conditioning alone, whereas intra-BLA scopolamine infusion led to persistent LI when infused in conditioning or both stages, but not in pre-exposure alone. Although cholinergic innervation of the EC and BLA has long been implicated in attention to novel stimuli and in processing of motivationally significant stimuli, respectively, our results provide evidence that EC mAChRs also have a role in the development of inattention to stimuli, whereas BLA mAChRs have a role in re-attending to previously irrelevant stimuli that became motivationally relevant.

Effect of stimulus pre-exposure on inhibitory avoidance retrieval-associated changes in the phosphorylated form of the extracellular signal-regulated kinase-1 and -2 (pERK1/2)

One goal of the present study was to determine how pre-exposure to a set of contextual cues affected subsequent reinforced inhibitory avoidance task performance using those cues (latent inhibition model). In addition, immunohistochemical assessment of the phosphorylated (activated) form of the extracellular signal-regulated kinase-1 and -2 (pERK1/2) was examined. Adult, male Long Evans rats were randomly assigned into either pre-exposure (PE) or different pre-exposure (DPE) groups. All rats received 3days of contextual pre-exposure (same or different context as that used for reinforced training) and were trained, 24h later, on an inhibitory avoidance task (with or without shock). Rats were euthanized 24h after training; half with a retention test and half without. Behaviorally, the PE group showed reduced latencies to enter the dark/shock compartment during the retention test compared to the DPE group showing the latent inhibition phenomenon. Compared to the shocked and tested DPE group, the shocked and tested PE group showed fewer pERK1/2-ir neurons in the secondary motor cortex, the anterior cingulate, the pre- and infra-limbic cortices, and the central nucleus of the amygdala. These regions showed similar numbers of pERK1/2-labeled neurons when comparing the shocked and tested PE group with the nonshocked and tested PE group. This suggests the possibility that brain regions showing decreased pERK1/2 levels in association with attenuated inhibitory avoidance performance may be involved in different aspects of the memory retrieval process.

A role for the extracellular signal-regulated kinase signal pathway in depressive-like behavior

Our recent research demonstrates that the extracellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK) signal pathway is impaired in depressed animals, and such disruption is effectively reversed following antidepressant treatment. These results indicate that the ERK pathway may participate in the molecular mechanism of depression. To provide direct evidence for the potential role of the ERK pathway in depression, the present study using a sub-chronic regimen of ERK inhibition investigated the disparate role for the ERK cascade in two specific brain areas, the dorsal hippocampus (dHP) and the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), in the pathophysiology of depressive-like behavior. Rats were bilaterally implanted with cannulas in the dHP or mPFC and were microinjected with U0126, a specific inhibitor of ERK upstream activator, or vehicle for 7 consecutive days. The behavioral effects of the ERK pathway inhibition were examined in the open field, elevated plus maze, and saccharin preference test. The results showed that the inhibition of the ERK pathway in dHP resulted in anhedonia and anxiety-like behavior, and the ERK pathway inhibition in the mPFC induced anhedonia and locomotor impairment in rats. The phosphorylation of the cyclic AMP-responsive-element-binding protein (CREB) was decreased following the ERK pathway inhibition either in dHP or mPFC. These findings demonstrate that the ERK pathway in either the dHP or mPFC participates in the pathophysiology of the depressive-like behavior, and may have pivotal role in human depression.

Differential influence of the ventral subiculum on dopaminergic responses observed in core and dorsomedial shell subregions of the nucleus accumbens in latent inhibition

It has previously been reported that dopamine (DA) responses observed in the core and dorsomedial shell parts of the nucleus accumbens (Nacc) in latent inhibition (LI) are dependent on the left entorhinal cortex (ENT). The present study was designed to investigate the influence of the left ventral subiculum (SUB) closely linked to the ENT on the DA responses obtained in the Nacc during LI, using an aversive conditioned olfactory paradigm and in vivo voltammetry in freely moving rats. In the first (pre-exposure) session, functional blockade of the left SUB was achieved by local microinjection of tetrodotoxin (TTX). In the second session, rats were aversively conditioned to banana odor, the conditional stimulus (CS). In the retention (test) session the results were as follows: (1) pre-exposed (PE) conditioned animals microinjected with TTX, displayed aversion toward the CS; (2) in the core part of the Nacc, for PE-TTX-conditioned rats as for non-pre-exposed (NPE) conditioned animals, DA levels remained close to the baseline whereas DA variations in both groups were significantly different from the DA increases observed in PE-conditioned rats microinjected with the solvent (phosphate-buffered saline (PBS)); (3) in the shell part of the Nacc, for PE-TTX-conditioned rats, DA variations were close to or above the baseline. They were situated between the rapid DA increases observed in NPE-conditioned animals and the transient DA decreases obtained in PE-PBS-conditioned animals. These findings suggest that, in parallel to the left ENT, the left SUB controls DA LI-related responses in the Nacc. The present data may also offer new insight into the pathophysiology of schizophrenia.