Nuclear factor kappa B-dependent Zif268 expression in hippocampus is required for recognition memory in mice

CB1 receptor expression and signaling are required for dexamethasone-induced aversive memory consolidation

The molecular processes that underlie long-term memory formation involve signaling pathway activation by neurotransmitter release, which induces the expression of immediate early genes, such as Zif268, having a key role in memory formation. In this work, we show that the cannabinoid CB1 receptor signaling is necessary for the effects of dexamethasone on the behavioral response in an inhibitory avoidance task, on dexamethasone-induced ERK phosphorylation, and on dexamethasone-dependent Zif268 expression. Furthermore, we provide primary evidence for the mechanism responsible for this crosstalk between cannabinoid and glucocorticoid-mediated signaling pathways, showing that dexamethasone regulates endocannabinoid metabolism by inhibiting the activity of the Fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH), an integral membrane enzyme that hydrolyzes endocannabinoids and related amidated signaling lipids. Our results provide novel evidence regarding the role of the endocannabinoid system, and in particular of the CB1 receptor, as a mediator of the effects of glucocorticoids on the consolidation of aversive memories.

Transcriptome Profiling in the Hippocampi of Mice with Experimental Autoimmune Encephalomyelitis

Experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), an animal model of multiple sclerosis (MS), approximates the key histopathological, clinical, and immunological features of MS. Hippocampal dysfunction in MS and EAE causes varying degrees of cognitive and emotional impairments and synaptic abnormalities. However, the molecular alterations underlying hippocampal dysfunctions in MS and EAE are still under investigation. The purpose of this study was to identify differentially expressed genes (DEGs) in the hippocampus of mice with EAE in order to ascertain potential genes associated with hippocampal dysfunction. Gene expression in the hippocampus was analyzed by RNA-sequencing and validated by reverse transcription-quantitative polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR). Gene expression analysis revealed 1202 DEGs; 1023 were upregulated and 179 were downregulated in the hippocampus of mice with EAE (p-value < 0.05 and fold change >1.5). Gene ontology (GO) analysis showed that the upregulated genes in the hippocampi of mice with EAE were associated with immune system processes, defense responses, immune responses, and regulation of immune responses, whereas the downregulated genes were related to learning or memory, behavior, and nervous system processes in the GO biological process. The expressions of hub genes from the search tool for the retrieval of interacting genes/proteins (STRING) analysis were validated by RT-qPCR. Additionally, gene set enrichment analysis showed that the upregulated genes in the hippocampus were associated with inflammatory responses: interferon-γ responses, allograft rejection, interferon-α responses, IL6_JAK_STAT3 signaling, inflammatory responses, complement, IL2_STAT5 signaling, TNF-α signaling via NF-κB, and apoptosis, whereas the downregulated genes were related to synaptic plasticity, dendritic development, and development of dendritic spine. This study characterized the transcriptome pattern in the hippocampi of mice with EAE and signaling pathways underpinning hippocampal dysfunction. However, further investigation is needed to determine the applicability of these findings from this rodent model to patients with MS. Collectively, these results indicate directions for further research to understand the mechanisms behind hippocampal dysfunction in EAE.

A 3-month-delayed treatment with anatabine improves chronic outcomes in two different models of repetitive mild traumatic brain injury in hTau mice

To date, an overwhelming number of preclinical studies have addressed acute treatment in mild TBI (mTBI) and repetitive mTBI (r-mTBI), whereas, in humans, there often exists a significant time gap between the injury and the first medical intervention. Our study focused on a delayed treatment with anatabine, an anti-inflammatory compound, in hTau mice using two different models of r-mTBI. The rationale for using two models of the same impact but different frequencies (5 hit mTBI over 9 days and 24 hit mTBI over 90 days) was chosen to address the heterogeneity of r-mTBI in clinical population. Following the last injury in each model, three months elapsed before the initiation of treatment. Anatabine was administered in drinking water for 3 months thereafter. Our data demonstrated that a 3-month delayed treatment with anatabine mitigated astrogliosis in both TBI paradigms but improved cognitive functions only in more-frequently-injured mice (24 hit mTBI). We also found that anatabine decreased the phosphorylation of tau protein and NFκB, which were increased after r-mTBI in both models. The ability of anatabine to suppress these mechanisms suggests that delayed treatment can be effective for clinical population of r-mTBI. The discrepancy between the two models with regard to changes in cognitive performance suggests that r-mTBI heterogeneity may influence treatment efficiency and should be considered in therapeutic development.

Understanding the dynamic and destiny of memories

Memory formation enables the retention of life experiences overtime. Based on previously acquired information, organisms can anticipate future events and adjust their behaviors to maximize survival. However, in an ever-changing environment, a memory needs to be malleable to maintain its relevance. In fact, substantial evidence suggests that a consolidated memory can become labile and susceptible to modifications after being reactivated, a process termed reconsolidation. When an extinction process takes place, a memory can also be temporarily inhibited by a second memory that carries information with opposite meaning. In addition, a memory can fade and lose its significance in a process known as forgetting. Thus, following retrieval, new life experiences can be integrated with the original memory trace to maintain its predictive value. In this review, we explore the determining factors that regulate the fate of a memory after its reactivation. We focus on three post-retrieval memory destinies (reconsolidation, extinction, and forgetting) and discuss recent rodent studies investigating the biological functions and neural mechanisms underlying each of these processes.

The medial prefrontal cortex - hippocampus circuit that integrates information of object, place and time to construct episodic memory in rodents: Behavioral, anatomical and neurochemical properties

Rats and mice have been demonstrated to show episodic-like memory, a prototype of episodic memory, as defined by an integrated memory of the experience of an object or event, in a particular place and time. Such memory can be assessed via the use of spontaneous object exploration paradigms, variably designed to measure memory for object, place, temporal order and object-location inter-relationships. We review the methodological properties of these tests, the neurobiology about time and discuss the evidence for the involvement of the medial prefrontal cortex (mPFC), entorhinal cortex (EC) and hippocampus, with respect to their anatomy, neurotransmitter systems and functional circuits. The systematic analysis suggests that a specific circuit between the mPFC, lateral EC and hippocampus encodes the information for event, place and time of occurrence into the complex episodic-like memory, as a top-down regulation from the mPFC onto the hippocampus. This circuit can be distinguished from the neuronal component memory systems for processing the individual information of object, time and place.

Immediate Early Genes, Memory and Psychiatric Disorders: Focus on c-Fos, Egr1 and Arc

Many psychiatric disorders, despite their specific characteristics, share deficits in the cognitive domain including executive functions, emotional control and memory. However, memory deficits have been in many cases undervalued compared with other characteristics. The expression of Immediate Early Genes (IEGs) such as, c-fos, Egr1 and arc are selectively and promptly upregulated in learning and memory among neuronal subpopulations in regions associated with these processes. Changes in expression in these genes have been observed in recognition, working and fear related memories across the brain. Despite the enormous amount of data supporting changes in their expression during learning and memory and the importance of those cognitive processes in psychiatric conditions, there are very few studies analyzing the direct implication of the IEGs in mental illnesses. In this review, we discuss the role of some of the most relevant IEGs in relation with memory processes affected in psychiatric conditions.

Chronic dietary creatine enhances hippocampal-dependent spatial memory, bioenergetics, and levels of plasticity-related proteins associated with NF-κB

The brain has a high demand for energy, of which creatine (Cr) is an important regulator. Studies document neurocognitive benefits of oral Cr in mammals, yet little is known regarding their physiological basis. This study investigated the effects of Cr supplementation (3%, w/w) on hippocampal function in male C57BL/6 mice, including spatial learning and memory in the Morris water maze and oxygen consumption rates from isolated mitochondria in real time. Levels of transcription factors and related proteins (CREB, Egr1, and IκB to indicate NF-κB activity), proteins implicated in cognition (CaMKII, PSD-95, and Egr2), and mitochondrial proteins (electron transport chain Complex I, mitochondrial fission protein Drp1) were probed with Western blotting. Dietary Cr decreased escape latency/time to locate the platform (P < 0.05) and increased the time spent in the target quadrant (P < 0.01) in the Morris water maze. This was accompanied by increased coupled respiration (P < 0.05) in isolated hippocampal mitochondria. Protein levels of CaMKII, PSD-95, and Complex 1 were increased in Cr-fed mice, whereas IκB was decreased. These data demonstrate that dietary supplementation with Cr can improve learning, memory, and mitochondrial function and have important implications for the treatment of diseases affecting memory and energy homeostasis.

Mechanisms of dietary flavonoid action in neuronal function and neuroinflammation

Flavonoids are a class of plant-derived dietary polyphenols that have attracted attention for their pro-cognitive and anti-inflammatory effects. The diversity of flavonoids and their extensive in vivo metabolism suggest that a variety of cellular targets in the brain are likely to be impacted by flavonoid consumption. Initially characterized as antioxidants, flavonoids are now believed to act directly on neurons and glia via the interaction with major signal transduction cascades, as well as indirectly via interaction with the blood-brain barrier and cerebral vasculature. This review discusses potential mechanisms of flavonoid action in the brain, with a focus on two critical transcription factors: cAMP response element-binding protein (CREB) and nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells (NF-κB). To advance beyond current understanding of cellular targets, critical bioavailability studies need to be performed to verify the identity and concentration of flavonoid metabolites reaching the brain after ingestion and to validate that these metabolites are produced not just in rodent models but also in humans. Recent advances in human induced pluripotent stem cell (iPSC) differentiation protocols to generate human neuronal and glial cell types could also provide a unique tool for clinically relevant in vitro investigation of the mechanisms of action of bioavailable flavonoid metabolites in humans.

Requirement of NF-kappa B Activation in Different Mice Brain Areas during Long-Term Memory Consolidation in Two Contextual One-Trial Tasks with Opposing Valences

NF-kappa B is a transcription factor whose activation has been shown to be necessary for long-term memory consolidation in several species. NF-kappa B is activated and translocates to the nucleus of cells in a specific temporal window during consolidation. Our work focuses on a one trial learning tasks associated to the inhibitory avoidance (IA) setting. Mice were trained either receiving or not a footshock when entering a dark compartment (aversive vs. appetitive learning). Regardless of training condition (appetitive or aversive), latencies to step-through during testing were significantly different to those measured during training. Additionally, these testing latencies were also different from those of a control group that only received a shock unrelated to context. Moreover, nuclear NF-kappa B DNA-binding activity was augmented in the aversive and the appetitive tasks when compared with control and naïve animals. NF-kappa B inhibition by Sulfasalazine injected either in the Hippocampus, Amygdala or Nucleus accumbens immediately after training was able to impair retention in both training versions. Our results suggest that NF-kappa B is a critical molecular step, in different brain areas on memory consolidation. This was the case for both the IA task and also the modified version of the same task where the footshock was omitted during training. This work aims to further investigate how appetitive and aversive memories are consolidated.

Neuronal Gene Targets of NF-κB and Their Dysregulation in Alzheimer's Disease

Although, better known for its role in inflammation, the transcription factor nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) has more recently been implicated in synaptic plasticity, learning, and memory. This has been, in part, to the discovery of its localization not just in glia, cells that are integral to mediating the inflammatory process in the brain, but also neurons. Several effectors of neuronal NF-κB have been identified, including calcium, inflammatory cytokines (i.e., tumor necrosis factor alpha), and the induction of experimental paradigms thought to reflect learning and memory at the cellular level (i.e., long-term potentiation). NF-κB is also activated after learning and memory formation in vivo. In turn, activation of NF-κB can elicit either suppression or activation of other genes. Studies are only beginning to elucidate the multitude of neuronal gene targets of NF-κB in the normal brain, but research to date has confirmed targets involved in a wide array of cellular processes, including cell signaling and growth, neurotransmission, redox signaling, and gene regulation. Further, several lines of research confirm dysregulation of NF-κB in Alzheimer's disease (AD), a disorder characterized clinically by a profound deficit in the ability to form new memories. AD-related neuropathology includes the characteristic amyloid beta plaque formation and neurofibrillary tangles. Although, such neuropathological findings have been hypothesized to contribute to memory deficits in AD, research has identified perturbations at the cellular and synaptic level that occur even prior to more gross pathologies, including transcriptional dysregulation. Indeed, synaptic disturbances appear to be a significant correlate of cognitive deficits in AD. Given the more recently identified role for NF-κB in memory and synaptic transmission in the normal brain, the expansive network of gene targets of NF-κB, and its dysregulation in AD, a thorough understanding of NF-κB-related signaling in AD is warranted and may have important implications for uncovering treatments for the disease. This review aims to provide a comprehensive view of our current understanding of the gene targets of this transcription factor in neurons in the intact brain and provide an overview of studies investigating NF-κB signaling, including its downstream targets, in the AD brain as a means of uncovering the basic physiological mechanisms by which memory becomes fragile in the disease.

Heterozygous Che-1 KO mice show deficiencies in object recognition memory persistence

Transcriptional regulation is a key process in the formation of long-term memories. Che-1 is a protein involved in the regulation of gene transcription that has recently been proved to bind the transcription factor NF-κB, which is known to be involved in many memory-related molecular events. This evidence prompted us to investigate the putative role of Che-1 in memory processes. For this study we newly generated a line of Che-1(+/-) heterozygous mice. Che-1 homozygous KO mouse is lethal during development, but Che-1(+/-) heterozygous mouse is normal in its general anatomical and physiological characteristics. We analyzed the behavioral characteristic and memory performance of Che-1(+/-) mice in two NF-κB dependent types of memory. We found that Che-1(+/-) mice show similar locomotor activity and thigmotactic behavior than wild type (WT) mice in an open field. In a similar way, no differences were found in anxiety-like behavior between Che-1(+/-) and WT mice in an elevated plus maze as well as in fear response in a contextual fear conditioning (CFC) and object exploration in a novel object recognition (NOR) task. No differences were found between WT and Che-1(+/-) mice performance in CFC training and when tested at 24h or 7days after training. Similar performance was found between groups in NOR task, both in training and 24h testing performance. However, we found that object recognition memory persistence at 7days was impaired in Che-1(+/-) heterozygous mice. This is the first evidence showing that Che-1 is involved in memory processes.

Pro-cognitive action of CART is mediated via ERK in the hippocampus

Although cocaine- and amphetamine-regulated transcript peptide (CART) is detected in several cortical and subcortical areas, its role in higher functions has been largely ignored. We examined the significance of CART in memory formation and tested if the downstream actions of CART involve N-methyl-d-aspartate (NMDA) activated extra-cellular signal-regulated kinase (ERK). Newly formed memory was evaluated using novel object recognition test consisting of familiarization (T1) and choice trials (T2). The choice trials were performed at two time points: 30-min (T230-min ) and 24-h (T224-h ) postacquisition. In choice trial (T230-min ), vehicle control rats explored the novel object for significantly longer duration than the familiar object indicating intact memory formation. However, CART-antibody, U0126 [ERK antagonist, both via intracerebroventricular (icv) or intrahippocampal (ih) route] or MK-801 (NMDA antagonist; intraperitoneal) treated rats spent less time exploring novel objects; CART peptide (icv or ih) was ineffective. During choice trial at T224-h , a significant decrease in novel object exploration time was noticed in vehicle control rats suggesting amnesia. However, treatment with CART, prior to familiarization trial (T1), promoted exploration of the novel object even at T224-h . Pretreatment with U0126 or MK-801 blocked pro-cognitive-like effect of CART suggesting involvement of NMDA-ERK pathway in CART's action. Animals subjected to the object familiarization trial showed a drastic increase in the CART-immunoreactivity in the cells of cornu ammonis 3 and polymorph layer of dentate gyrus, and fibers within ento- (ENT) and peri-rhinal (PRH) cortices. Western blot analysis revealed that CART treatment significantly up-regulated the expression of phospo-ERK1/2 in hippocampus, ENT and PRH. This effect was attenuated following pretreatment with U0126 or MK-801, suggesting the activation of ERK signaling cascade through NMDA receptors. Thus, CART system seems to play an important role in recognition memory and that these effects may be mediated by NMDA receptors-ERK signaling in the ENT/PRH-hippocampal circuit. © 2016 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.

NF-κB mediates Gadd45β expression and DNA demethylation in the hippocampus during fear memory formation

Gadd45-mediated DNA demethylation mechanisms have been implicated in the process of memory formation. However, the transcriptional mechanisms involved in the regulation of Gadd45 gene expression during memory formation remain unexplored. NF-κB (nuclear factor kappa-light-chain-enhancer of activated B cells) controls transcription of genes in neurons and is a critical regulator of synaptic plasticity and memory formation. In silico analysis revealed several NF-κB (p65/RelA and cRel) consensus sequences within the Gadd45β gene promoter. Whether NF-κB activity regulates Gadd45 expression and associated DNA demethylation in neurons during memory formation is unknown. Here, we found that learning in a fear conditioning paradigm increased Gadd45β gene expression and brain-derivedneurotrophic factor (BDNF) DNA demethylation in area CA1 of the hippocampus, both of which were prevented with pharmacological inhibition of NF-κB activity. Further experiments found that conditional mutations in p65/RelA impaired fear memory formation but did not alter changes in Gadd45β expression. The learning-induced increases in Gadd45β mRNA levels, Gadd45β binding at the BDNF gene and BDNF DNA demethylation were blocked in area CA1 of the c-rel knockout mice. Additionally, local siRNA-mediated knockdown of c-rel in area CA1 prevented fear conditioning-induced increases in Gadd45β expression and BDNF DNA demethylation, suggesting that c-Rel containing NF-κB transcription factor complex is responsible for Gadd45β regulation during memory formation. Together, these results support a novel transcriptional role for NF-κB in regulation of Gadd45β expression and DNA demethylation in hippocampal neurons during fear memory.

NF-κB transcription factor role in consolidation and reconsolidation of persistent memories

Transcriptional regulation is an important molecular process required for long-term neural plasticity and long-term memory (LTM) formation. Thus, one main interest in molecular neuroscience in the last decades has been the identification of transcription factors that are involved in memory processes. Among them, the nuclear factor κB (NF-κB) family of transcription factors has gained interest due to a significant body of evidence that supports a key role of these proteins in synaptic plasticity and memory. In recent years, the interest was particularly reinforced because NF-κB was characterized as an important regulator of synaptogenesis. This function may be explained by its participation in synapse to nucleus communication, as well as a possible local role at the synapse. This review provides an overview of experimental work obtained in the last years, showing the essential role of this transcription factor in memory processes in different learning tasks in mammals. We focus the review on the consolidation and reconsolidation memory phases as well as on the regulation of immediate-early and late genes by epigenetic mechanisms that determine enduring forms of memories.