Systemic treatment with neuropeptide Y receptor Y1-antagonist enhances atherosclerosis and stimulates IL-12 expression in ApoE deficient mice

Polymorphism of IL-12/IL-23 axis is associated with coronary heart disease

IL12B encodes the shared p40 subunit (IL-12p40) of IL-12 and IL-23, which have diverse immune functions and are closely related to the occurrence and development of atherosclerosis (AS). However, the exact role of IL12B in coronary heart disease (CHD) was still unknown. A case-control association analysis was performed between five single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) of IL12B (rs1003199, rs3212219, rs2569254, rs2853694 and rs3212227) and CHD in Chinese Han population (1824 patients with CHD vs. 2784 controls). Logistic regression analyses were used to study the relationships between SNPs and CHD, while multiple linear regression analyses were used to test the association between the SNP and the severity of CHD. In addition, the plasma IL12B concentration of CHD patients were detected by ELISA. We detected a significant association between one of the SNPs, rs2853694-G and CHD (padj  = 2.075 × 10-5 , OR, 0.773 [95% CI, 0.686-0.870]). Stratified analysis showed that rs2853694 was associated with CHD in both male and female populations and was significantly associated with both early- and late-onset CHD. In addition, rs2853694 is also related to the different types of CHD including clinical-CHD and anatomical-CHD. Moreover, there are significant differences in serum IL12B concentrations between rs2853694-TT carriers and rs2853694-GT carriers in CHD patients (p = 0.010). A common variant of IL12B was found significantly associated with CHD and its subgroups. As a shared subunit of IL-12 and IL-23, IL-12p40 may play a key role in IL-12/IL-23 axis mediated AS, which is expected to be an effective therapeutic target for CHD.

Deficiency of neuropeptide Y attenuates neointima formation after vascular injury in mice

BACKGROUND

Restenosis after percutaneous coronary intervention (PCI) limits therapeutic revascularization. Neuropeptide Y (NPY), co-stored and co-released with the sympathetic nervous system, is involved in this process, but its exact role and underlying mechanisms remain to be fully understood. This study aimed to investigate the role of NPY in neointima formation after vascular injury.

METHODS

Using the left carotid arteries of wild-type (WT, NPY-intact) and NPY-deficient (NPY^-/-) mice, ferric chloride-mediated carotid artery injury induced neointima formation. Three weeks after injury, the left injured carotid artery and contralateral uninjured carotid artery were collected for histological analysis and immunohistochemical staining. RT-qPCR was used to detect the mRNA expression of several key inflammatory markers and cell adhesion molecules in vascular samples. Raw264.7 cells were treated with NPY, lipopolysaccharide (LPS), and lipopolysaccharide-free, respectively, and RT-qPCR was used to detect the expression of these inflammatory mediators.

RESULTS

Compared with WT mice, NPY^-/- mice had significantly reduced neointimal formation three weeks after injury. Mechanistically, immunohistochemical analysis showed there were fewer macrophages and more vascular smooth muscle cells in the neointima of NPY^-/- mice. Moreover, the mRNA expression of key inflammatory markers such as interleukin-6 (IL-6), transforming growth factor-β1 (TGF-β1), and intercellular adhesion molecule-1 (ICAM-1) was significantly lower in the injured carotid arteries of NPY^-/- mice, compared to that in the injured carotid arteries of WT mice. In RAW264.7 macrophages, NPY significantly promoted TGF-β1 mRNA expression under unactivated but not LPS-stimulated condition.

CONCLUSIONS

Deletion of NPY attenuated neointima formation after artery injury, at least partly, through reducing the local inflammatory response, suggesting that NPY pathway may provide new insights into the mechanism of restenosis.

Neuropeptide Y Promotes Human M2 Macrophage Polarization and Enhances p62/SQSTM1-Dependent Autophagy and NRF2 Activation

Neuropeptide Y (NPY) is an abundantly expressed peptide capable of modulating innate and adaptive immune responses and regulating chemotaxis and cytokine secretion by macrophages. Abnormal regulation of NPY is involved in the development of atherosclerosis. The inflammatory infiltrate within atherosclerotic plaque is characterized by accumulation of macrophages, which are subject to reprogram their phenotypes in response to environmental signals. Macrophage number and phenotype influence plaque fate. Here, we investigated the effect of NPY on the changes in phenotype and functions of human macrophages, from the pro-inflammatory phenotype M1 to the reparative M2, indicative of atherosclerosis regression or stabilization. Human monocytes were differentiated in vitro into macrophages with M-CSF (M0) and polarized towards an M1 phenotype with IFN-γ plus LPS M(IFN-γ/LPS) or M2 with IL-10 (M IL-10) and further challenged with NPY (10-7-10-9 M) for 8-36 h. Cell phenotype and functions were analyzed by immunofluorescence and immunochemical analyses. NPY affected macrophage surface markers and secretome profile expression, thus shifting macrophages toward an M2-like phenotype. NPY also prevented the impairment of endocytosis triggered by the oxysterol 7-keto-cholesterol (7KC) and prevented 7KC-induced foam cell formation by reducing the lipid droplet accumulation in M0 macrophages. NPY-treated M0 macrophages enhanced the autophagosome formation by upregulating the cell content of the autophagy markers LC3-II and p62-SQSTM1, increased activation of the anti-oxidative transcription factor NRF2 (NF-E2-related factor 2), and subsequently induced its target gene HMOX1 that encodes heme oxygenase-1. Our findings indicate that NPY has a cytoprotective effect with respect to the progression of the inflammatory pathway, both enhancing p62/SQSTM1-dependent autophagy and the NRF2-antioxidant signaling pathway in macrophages. NPY signaling may have a crucial role in tissue homeostasis in host inflammatory responses through the regulation of macrophage balance and functions within atherosclerosis.

Psoriasis and Cardiometabolic Diseases: Shared Genetic and Molecular Pathways

A convincing deal of evidence supports the fact that severe psoriasis is associated with cardiovascular diseases. However, the precise underlying mechanisms linking psoriasis and cardiovascular diseases are not well defined. Psoriasis shares common pathophysiologic mechanisms with atherosclerosis and cardiovascular (CV) risk factors. In particular, polymorphism in the IL-23R and IL-23 genes, as well as other genes involved in lipid and fatty-acid metabolism, renin–angiotensin system and endothelial function, have been described in patients with psoriasis and with cardiovascular risk factors. Moreover, systemic inflammation in patients with psoriasis, including elevated serum proinflammatory cytokines (e.g., TNF-α, IL-17, and IL-23) may contribute to an increased risk of atherosclerosis, hypertension, alteration of serum lipid composition, and insulin resistance. The nonlinear and intricate interplay among various factors, impacting the molecular pathways in different cell types, probably contributes to the development of psoriasis and cardiovascular disease (CVD). Future research should, therefore, aim to fully unravel shared and differential molecular pathways underpinning the association between psoriasis and CVD.

Pharmacological management of severe plaque psoriasis in patients with cardiovascular disease

INTRODUCTION

There is compelling evidence about the independent association between psoriasis and an increased risk of cardiovascular diseases, in particular myocardial infarction, chronic heart failure and cardiac arrythmia. This is due to both the higher prevalence of traditional cardiovascular risk factors (including hypertension, diabetes, hyperlipidemia, obesity, and smoking) and an independent contribution of chronic systemic inflammation associated with psoriasis. Inflammation is not only important in atherosclerosis, but also is increasingly recognized as a contributing factor to heart failure and arrythmia through microvascular dysfunction and myocardial fibrosis. When treating a patient with severe psoriasis, it is recommended to take into consideration this enhanced cardiovascular risk. Moreover, the use of a systemic treatment in a patient with already existing cardiovascular comorbidities should always be considered with caution, assessing the pro and cons of these drugs.

AREAS COVERED

Herein, the authors review the pharmacological management of severe plaque psoriasis in patients with cardiovascular disease, providing their expert opinion and future perspectives on the subject.

EXPERT OPINION

Theoretically, anti-inflammatory drugs may not only dampen the systemic burden associated with psoriasis, but also potentially contribute to prevent long-term cardiovascular events in psoriasis. On the other hand, some treatments may also induce negative effects on the cardiovascular system.

Whether findings from observational studies or ones evaluating surrogates of cardiovascular risk translate into reductions in cardiovascular events needs to be investigated by long-term clinical trials with clinically meaningful endpoints.

Antibody-Based Therapeutics for Atherosclerosis and Cardiovascular Diseases

Cardiovascular disease is the leading cause of death worldwide, and its prevalence is increasing due to the aging of societies. Atherosclerosis, a type of chronic inflammatory disease that occurs in arteries, is considered to be the main cause of cardiovascular diseases such as ischemic heart disease or stroke. In addition, the inflammatory response caused by atherosclerosis confers a significant effect on chronic inflammatory diseases such as psoriasis and rheumatic arthritis. Here, we review the mechanism of action of the main causes of atherosclerosis such as plasma LDL level and inflammation; furthermore, we review the recent findings on the preclinical and clinical effects of antibodies that reduce the LDL level and those that neutralize the cytokines involved in inflammation. The apolipoprotein B autoantibody and anti-PCSK9 antibody reduced the level of LDL and plaques in animal studies, but failed to significantly reduce carotid inflammation plaques in clinical trials. The monoclonal antibodies against PCSK9 (alirocumab, evolocumab), which are used as a treatment for hyperlipidemia, lowered cholesterol levels and the incidence of cardiovascular diseases. Antibodies that neutralize inflammatory cytokines (TNF-α, IL-1β, IL-6, IL-17, and IL-12/23) have shown promising but contradictory results and thus warrant further research.

Neuropeptide Y Is an Immunomodulatory Factor: Direct and Indirect

Neuropeptide Y (NPY), which is widely distributed in the nervous system, is involved in regulating a variety of biological processes, including food intake, energy metabolism, and emotional expression. However, emerging evidence points to NPY also as a critical transmitter between the nervous system and immune system, as well as a mediator produced and released by immune cells. In vivo and in vitro studies based on gene-editing techniques and specific NPY receptor agonists and antagonists have demonstrated that NPY is responsible for multifarious direct modulations on immune cells by acting on NPY receptors. Moreover, via the central or peripheral nervous system, NPY is closely connected to body temperature regulation, obesity development, glucose metabolism, and emotional expression, which are all immunomodulatory factors for the immune system. In this review, we focus on the direct role of NPY in immune cells and particularly discuss its indirect impact on the immune response.

NPY stimulates cholesterol synthesis acutely by activating the SREBP2-HMGCR pathway through the Y1 and Y5 receptors in murine hepatocytes

AIMS

The development of non-alcoholic fatty liver disease (NAFLD) is partially attributed to disturbance in cholesterol metabolism and sympathetic overactivity. Excessive levels of the sympathetic neurotransmitter neuropeptide Y (NPY) positively correlated with both NAFLD and cholesterol accumulation. We wanted to determine, for the first time, whether NPY promotes cholesterol accumulation directly in hepatocytes and elucidate the underlying mechanism.

MAIN METHODS

In vivo, NPY was injected through the hepatic portal vein into SD rats. One hour later, serum and liver tissues were collected. In vitro, BRL-3A hepatocytes were treated with NPY, and with Y1, Y2, Y5, receptor antagonists as well as with extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase 1 and 2 (ERK1/2) antagonist, respectively. Cholesterol content was measured by coupled enzyme method. Precursor sterol-regulatory element binding protein 2 (pSREBP2), mature SREBP2 (mSREBP2), HMG-CoA reductase (HMGCR), ERK1/2, pERK1/2, cAMP-dependent protein kinase (PKA), and pPKA protein expression levels were examined by western blotting.

KEY FINDINGS

In rats, intraportal vein injection of NPY activates pSREBP2, mSREBP2, and HMGCR protein expression, and induces hepatic cholesterol accumulation. In BRL-3A cells, we observed that NPY increases cholesterogenic protein expression and cholesterol synthesis through Y1 and Y5 receptors. This effect is mediated by the activation of the ERK1/2 signaling pathway.

SIGNIFICANCE

We demonstrated, for the first time, that NPY can activate the cholesterogenic pathway and elucidated the underlying mechanism. Thus, NPY and NPY receptors might be new targets for the treatment of NAFLD and dyslipidemia.

Roles and Mechanisms of Interleukin-12 Family Members in Cardiovascular Diseases: Opportunities and Challenges

Cardiovascular diseases represent a complex group of clinical syndromes caused by a variety of interacting pathological factors. They include the most extensive disease population and rank first in all-cause mortality worldwide. Accumulating evidence demonstrates that cytokines play critical roles in the presence and development of cardiovascular diseases. Interleukin-12 family members, including IL-12, IL-23, IL-27 and IL-35, are a class of cytokines that regulate a variety of biological effects; they are closely related to the progression of various cardiovascular diseases, including atherosclerosis, hypertension, aortic dissection, cardiac hypertrophy, myocardial infarction, and acute cardiac injury. This paper mainly discusses the role of IL-12 family members in cardiovascular diseases, and the molecular and cellular mechanisms potentially involved in their action in order to identify possible intervention targets for the prevention and clinical treatment of cardiovascular diseases.

Inhibitory effect of D3 dopamine receptors on neuropeptide Y‑induced migration in vascular smooth muscle cells

Abnormal migration of vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMCs) serves an important role in hypertension, atherosclerosis and restenosis following angioplasty, which is regulated numerous hormonal and humoral factors, including neuropeptide Y (NPY) and dopamine. Dopamine and NPY are both sympathetic neurotransmitters, and a previous study reported that NPY increased VSMC proliferation, while dopamine receptor inhibited it. Therefore, the authors wondered whether or not there is an inhibitory effect of dopamine receptor on NPY‑mediated VSMC migration. The present study demonstrated that stimulation with NPY dose‑dependence (10‑10‑10‑7M, 24 h) increased VSMC migration, the stimulatory effect of NPY was via the Y1 receptor. This is because, in the presence of the Y1 receptor antagonist, BIBP3226 (10‑7 M), the stimulatory effect of NPY on VSMC migration was blocked. Activation of the D3 receptor by PD128907 dose‑dependence (10‑11‑10‑8 M) reduced the stimulatory effect of NPY on VSMC migration. The effect of PD128907 was via the D3 receptor, because the inhibitory effect of PD128907 on NPY‑mediated migration was blocked by the D3 receptor antagonist, U99194. The authors' further study suggested that the inhibitory effect of the D3 receptor was via the PKA signaling pathway, in the presence of the PKA inhibitor, 14‑22 (10‑6 M), the inhibitory effect of PD128907 on VSMC migration was blocked. Moreover, the inhibitory effect of PD128907 was imitated by PKA activator, Sp‑cAMP [S], in the presence of Sp‑cAMP [S], the NPY‑mediated stimulatory effect on VSMC migration was abolished. The present study indicated that activation of the D3 receptor inhibits NPY Y1‑mediated migration on VSMCs, PKA is involved in the signaling pathway.

Neuropeptide Y: An Anti-Aging Player?

Accumulating evidence suggests that neuropeptide Y (NPY) has a role in aging and lifespan determination. In this review, we critically discuss age-related changes in NPY levels in the brain, together with recent findings concerning the contribution of NPY to, and impact on, six hallmarks of aging, specifically: loss of proteostasis, stem cell exhaustion, altered intercellular communication, deregulated nutrient sensing, cellular senescence, and mitochondrial dysfunction. Understanding how NPY contributes to, and counteracts, these hallmarks of aging will open new avenues of research on limiting damage related to aging.

An association between neuropeptide Y levels and leukocyte subsets in stress-exacerbated asthmatic mice

Neuropeptide Y (NPY) was recently proposed to be associated with stress and airway inflammation; however, this has rarely been studied in animal models of asthma. Twenty-four C57BL/6 mice were randomly divided into 3 groups of 8 each: naive control group, asthma group (with an established asthma model), and stressed asthma group (with established asthma and stress models). Bronchoalveolar lavage (BAL) fluid was collected for total cell counts using a hemocytometer and for cytological examinations by Wright stain. Differential inflammatory cell counts were performed to identify eosinophils, macrophages, neutrophils, and lymphocytes. NPY and corticosterone serum levels were determined with enzyme immunoassay kits. Stress was associated with increased airway inflammatory response, which was manifested by the accumulation of total leukocytes and eosinophils in the BAL fluid in comparison with the asthma and the control groups. The levels of NPY (p<0.05) and corticosterone (p<0.01) were elevated in the stressed asthma group in comparison with the control and asthma groups. The concentration of NPY and corticosterone positively correlated with the total leukocyte count (r=0.892, p<0.05 and r=0.937, p<0.01 respectively) and eosinophil numbers (r=0.806, p=0.053 and r=0.885, p<0.01 respectively). Stress may be associated with elevated peripheral NPY level, which was observed to be associated with exacerbated airway inflammation in asthmatic mice.

The stress of maternal separation causes misprogramming in the postnatal maturation of rat resistance arteries

We examined the effect of stress in the first 2 wk of life induced by brief periods of daily maternal separation on developmental programming of rat small resistance mesenteric arteries (MAs). In MAs of littermate controls, mRNAs encoding mediators of vasoconstriction, including the α1a-adrenergic receptor, smooth muscle myosin heavy chain, and CPI-17, the inhibitory subunit of myosin phosphatase, increased from after birth through sexual [postnatal day (PND) 35] and full maturity, up to ∼80-fold, as measured by quantitative PCR. This was commensurate with two- to fivefold increases in maximum force production to KCl depolarization, calcium, and the α-adrenergic agonist phenylephrine, and increasing systolic blood pressure. Rats exposed to maternal separation stress as neonates had markedly accelerated trajectories of maturation of arterial contractile gene expression and function measured at PND14 or PND21 (weaning), 1 wk after the end of the stress protocol. This was suppressed by the α-adrenergic receptor blocker terazosin (0.5 mg·kg ip(-1)·day(-1)), indicating dependence on stress activation of sympathetic signaling. Due to the continued maturation of MAs in control rats, by sexual maturity (PND35) and into adulthood, no differences were observed in arterial function or response to a second stressor in rats stressed as neonates. Thus early life stress misprograms resistance artery smooth muscle, increasing vasoconstrictor function and blood pressure. This effect wanes in later stages, suggesting plasticity during arterial maturation. Further studies are indicated to determine whether stress in different periods of arterial maturation may cause misprogramming persisting through maturity and the potential salutary effect of α-adrenergic blockade in suppression of this response.

The potential role of IL-33/ST2 signaling in fibrotic diseases

IL-33, a new member of the IL-1F, is widely expressed throughout the body and can be up-regulated by stimulation with proinflammatory factors. It has been identified as a functional ligand for the plasma membrane receptor complex that is a heterodimer consisting of membrane-bound ST2L, which is a member of the IL-1R family, and IL-1RAcP. IL-33 is crucial for the induction of Th2 immune responses. Additionally, under other circumstances, it can also act as an endogenous danger signal. Recently, many studies have demonstrated that IL-33 may be related to the development and progression of fibrotic diseases. It has proinflammatory effects in some fibrotic diseases but has anti-inflammatory effects in others. In this review, the biologic characteristics of IL-33 and the role of the IL-33/ST2 signaling pathway in various fibrotic diseases will be discussed. We hope this overview will provide new insights for the treatment of these diseases.

The homeostatic role of neuropeptide Y in immune function and its impact on mood and behaviour

Neuropeptide Y (NPY), one of the most abundant peptides in the nervous system, exerts its effects via five receptor types, termed Y1, Y2, Y4, Y5 and Y6. NPY's pleiotropic functions comprise the regulation of brain activity, mood, stress coping, ingestion, digestion, metabolism, vascular and immune function. Nerve-derived NPY directly affects immune cells while NPY also acts as a paracrine and autocrine immune mediator, because immune cells themselves are capable of producing and releasing NPY. NPY is able to induce immune activation or suppression, depending on a myriad of factors such as the Y receptors activated and cell types involved. There is an intricate relationship between psychological stress, mood disorders and the immune system. While stress represents a risk factor for the development of mood disorders, it exhibits diverse actions on the immune system as well. Conversely, inflammation is regarded as an internal stressor and is increasingly recognized to contribute to the pathogenesis of mood and metabolic disorders. Intriguingly, the cerebral NPY system has been found to protect against distinct disturbances in response to immune challenge, attenuating the sickness response and preventing the development of depression. Thus, NPY plays an important homeostatic role in balancing disturbances of physiological systems caused by peripheral immune challenge. This implication is particularly evident in the brain in which NPY counteracts the negative impact of immune challenge on mood, emotional processing and stress resilience. NPY thus acts as a unique signalling molecule in the interaction of the immune system with the brain in health and disease.

Heterogeneity of Tregs and the complexity in the IL-12 cytokine family signaling in driving T-cell immune responses in atherosclerotic vessels

The importance of immune inflammation in the development and progression of atherosclerotic lesions is well recognized. Accumulated evidence shows striking features of heterogeneity of regulatory T cells (Tregs) and the importance of the IL-12 cytokine family in regulation of Tregs in atherogenesis. The present review briefly summarized the current knowledge about the impact of the IL-12 cytokine family in regulation of immune processes in atherogenesis.