1
|
Asiedu K. Neurophysiology of corneal neuropathic pain and emerging pharmacotherapeutics. J Neurosci Res 2024; 102:e25285. [PMID: 38284865 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.25285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/09/2023] [Revised: 11/12/2023] [Accepted: 12/02/2023] [Indexed: 01/30/2024]
Abstract
The altered activity generated by corneal neuronal injury can result in morphological and physiological changes in the architecture of synaptic connections in the nervous system. These changes can alter the sensitivity of neurons (both second-order and higher-order projection) projecting pain signals. A complex process involving different cell types, molecules, nerves, dendritic cells, neurokines, neuropeptides, and axon guidance molecules causes a high level of sensory rearrangement, which is germane to all the phases in the pathomechanism of corneal neuropathic pain. Immune cells migrating to the region of nerve injury assist in pain generation by secreting neurokines that ensure nerve depolarization. Furthermore, excitability in the central pain pathway is perpetuated by local activation of microglia in the trigeminal ganglion and alterations of the descending inhibitory modulation for corneal pain arriving from central nervous system. Corneal neuropathic pain may be facilitated by dysfunctional structures in the central somatosensory nervous system due to a lesion, altered synaptogenesis, or genetic abnormality. Understanding these important pathways will provide novel therapeutic insight.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Kofi Asiedu
- School of Optometry & Vision Science, University of New South Wales, Sydney, New South Wales, Australia
| |
Collapse
|
2
|
Platzl C, Kaser-Eichberger A, Wolfmeier H, Trost A, Schroedl F. Human intrinsic choroidal neurons do not alter the expression of intrinsic markers in response to pressure. Br J Ophthalmol 2023; 107:1209-1215. [PMID: 34933896 DOI: 10.1136/bjophthalmol-2021-320211] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2021] [Accepted: 11/30/2021] [Indexed: 02/03/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The choroid is densely innervated by all parts of the autonomic nervous system and further harbours a network of local nerve cells, the intrinsic choroidal neurons (ICN). Their function in ocular control is currently unknown. While morphological data assume a role in intraocular pressure regulation, we here test if increased pressure on isolated choroids may activate ICN. METHODS Donor tissue was transferred into a pressurisable tissue culture chamber, and nasal and temporal choroid halves incubated for 1 or 4 hours, with pressures set to 15 or 50 mm Hg, followed by qRT-PCR expression analysis of the ICN-specific markers VIP, UCN, NOS1, UCH-L1. POL2-normalised data in the different pressure settings, incubation times and localisations were statistically analysed. RESULTS The presence of the ICN-specific markers VIP, UCN, NOS1, UCH-L1 was confirmed using immunohistochemistry, and mRNA of all markers was detected in all experimental conditions. Marker analysis revealed no significant changes of mRNA expression levels between 15 and 50 mm Hg in the different incubation times. When comparing all samples over all experimental conditions, a significant increase of VIP and NOS1 mRNA was detected in temporal versus nasal choroids. CONCLUSION In this functional analysis of human ICN in vitro, higher amounts of VIP and NOS1 mRNA were detected in the temporal choroid, that is, the choroidal site with ICN accumulation. Further, our data indicate that elevated pressure is apparently not able to trigger ICN responses via the investigated markers. Alternative markers and stimuli need to be investigated in upcoming studies in order to unravel ICN function.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Christian Platzl
- Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology - Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Alexandra Kaser-Eichberger
- Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology - Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Heidi Wolfmeier
- Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology - Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Andrea Trost
- University Clinic of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Research Program for Ophthalmology and Glaucoma Research, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Falk Schroedl
- Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology - Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| |
Collapse
|
3
|
Michalickova D, Kramarikova I, Ozturk HK, Kucera T, Vacik T, Hrncir T, Kutinova Canova N, Sima M, Slanar O. Detection of galanin receptors in the spinal cord in experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis. Biomed Pap Med Fac Univ Palacky Olomouc Czech Repub 2023; 167:36-42. [PMID: 35147137 DOI: 10.5507/bp.2022.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/01/2021] [Accepted: 01/28/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
AIMS The neuropeptide galanin is a widely distributed neurotransmitter/neuromodulator that regulates a variety of physiological processes and also participates in the regulation of stress responses. The aims of the present study were to investigate the expression of galanin receptors (GalR1, GalR2, GalR3) in the spinal cords in a murine model of multiple sclerosis, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE) using qPCR analysis and to determine GalR1 cellular localization (oligodendrocytes, microglia, astrocytes, ependymal cells, and endothelial cells in the capillaries) by immunohistochemistry. METHODS Twelve samples from the EAE group and 14 samples from the control group were analyzed. Spinal cords samples were obtained at the peak of the EAE disease. RESULTS The GalR1 mRNA level was significantly decreased in the EAE mice compared with the controls (P=0.016), whereas the mRNA levels of GalR2 and GalR3 were not significantly different for the EAE and the control mice. No significant correlations were found between the severity of the EAE disease and the mRNA levels of GalR1, GalR2 and GalR3. Immunochemical detection of the GalR1 revealed its expression in the ependymal and endothelial cells. Additionally, a weak GalR1 immunoreactivity was occasionally detected in the oligodendrocytes. CONCLUSION This study provides additional evidence of galanin involvement in EAE pathophysiology, but this has to be further investigated.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Danica Michalickova
- Institute of Pharmacology, First Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and General University Hospital in Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Ivana Kramarikova
- Institute of Pharmacology, First Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and General University Hospital in Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Hatice Kubra Ozturk
- Institute of Pharmacology, First Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and General University Hospital in Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Tomas Kucera
- Institute of Histology and Embryology, First Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and General University Hospital in Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Tomas Vacik
- Institute of Biology and Medical Genetics, First Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and General University Hospital in Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Tomas Hrncir
- Institute of Microbiology, Czech Academy of Sciences, Novy Hradek, Czech Republic
| | - Nikolina Kutinova Canova
- Institute of Pharmacology, First Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and General University Hospital in Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Martin Sima
- Institute of Pharmacology, First Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and General University Hospital in Prague, Czech Republic
| | - Ondrej Slanar
- Institute of Pharmacology, First Faculty of Medicine, Charles University and General University Hospital in Prague, Czech Republic
| |
Collapse
|
4
|
Wolfmeier H, Heindl S, Platzl C, Kaser-Eichberger A, Nematian-Ardestani E, Strohmaier C, Pruszak J, Schroedl F. Targeted surface marker screening on neuronal structures in the human choroid. Exp Eye Res 2023; 227:109368. [PMID: 36586549 DOI: 10.1016/j.exer.2022.109368] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2022] [Revised: 12/23/2022] [Accepted: 12/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/30/2022]
Abstract
While choroidal neuronal control is known to be essential for retinal and ocular health, its mechanisms are not understood. Especially, the local choroidal innervation mediated by intrinsic choroidal neurons (ICN) remains enigmatic. Neuronal functionality depends on the synaptic neurotransmitters and neuroregulatory peptides involved as well as from membrane components presented on the cell surface. Since the neuronal surface molecular expression patterns in the choroid are currently unknown, we sought to determine the presence of various cluster-of-differentiation (CD) antigens in choroidal neuronal structures with a particular focus on ICN. Human choroids were prepared for immunohistochemistry and the pan-neuronal marker PGP9.5 was combined with CD15, CD24, CD29, CD34, CD46, CD49b, CD49e, CD56, CD58, CD59, CD71, CD81, CD90, CD146, CD147, CD151, CD165, CD171, CD184, CD200, CD271 and fluorescence- and confocal laser scanning-microscopy was used for documentation. The following antigens were found to be co-localized in PGP.9.5+ nerve fibers and ICN perikarya: CD29, CD34, CD56, CD81, CD90, CD146, CD147, CD151, CD171, CD200 and CD271, while all other CD markers where not detectable. Whereas CD24- and CD59- immunoreactivity was clearly absent in ICN perikarya, some neural processes of the choroidal stroma displayed CD24 and CD59 immunopositivity. While a multitude of the aforementioned CD-markers were indeed detected in nervous structures of the choroid, the CD24+ and CD59+ nerve fibers most likely have extrinsic origin from cranial ganglia since ICN cell bodies were found to lack both markers. These findings illustrate how the detailed analysis of CD molecules described here opens novel avenues for future functional studies on choroidal innervation and its control.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- H Wolfmeier
- Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology - Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - S Heindl
- Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology - Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - C Platzl
- Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology - Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - A Kaser-Eichberger
- Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology - Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - E Nematian-Ardestani
- Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology - Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - C Strohmaier
- Department of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Johannes Kepler University, Linz, Austria
| | - J Pruszak
- Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology - Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - F Schroedl
- Center for Anatomy and Cell Biology, Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology - Salzburg, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria.
| |
Collapse
|
5
|
Ortega JT, Parmar T, Jastrzebska B. Galanin receptor 3 - A new pharmacological target in retina degeneration. Pharmacol Res 2023; 188:106675. [PMID: 36693600 PMCID: PMC9918719 DOI: 10.1016/j.phrs.2023.106675] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/10/2022] [Revised: 01/16/2023] [Accepted: 01/20/2023] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
The neuropeptide galanin receptor 3 (GALR3) is a class A G protein-coupled receptor (GPCR) broadly expressed in the nervous system, including the retina. GALR3 is involved in the modulation of immune and inflammatory responses. Tight control of these processes is critical for maintaining homeostasis in the retina and is required to sustain vision. Here, we investigated the role of GALR3 in retina pathologies triggered by bright light and P23H mutation in the rhodopsin (RHO) gene, associated with the activation of oxidative stress and inflammatory responses. We used a multiphase approach involving pharmacological inhibition of GALR3 with its antagonist SNAP-37889 and genetic depletion of GALR3 to modulate the GALR3 signaling. Our in vitro experiments in the retinal pigment epithelium-derived cells (ARPE19) susceptible to all-trans-retinal toxicity indicated that GALR3 could be involved in the cellular stress response to this phototoxic product. Indeed, blocking the GALR3 signaling in Abca4-/-/Rdh8-/- and wild-type Balb/cJ mice, sensitive to bright light-induced retina damage, protected retina health in these mice exposed to light. The retina morphology and function were substantially improved, and stress response processes were reduced in these mouse models compared to the controls. Furthermore, in P23H Rho knock-in mice, a model of retinitis pigmentosa (RP), both pharmacological inhibition and genetic ablation of GALR3 prolonged the survival of photoreceptors. These results indicate that GALR3 signaling contributes to acute light-induced and chronic RP-linked retinopathies. Together, this work provides the pharmacological knowledge base to evaluate GALR3 as a potential target for developing novel therapies to combat retinal degeneration.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Joseph T Ortega
- Department of Pharmacology and Cleveland Center for Membrane and Structural Biology, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, 10900 Euclid Ave., Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
| | - Tanu Parmar
- Department of Pharmacology and Cleveland Center for Membrane and Structural Biology, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, 10900 Euclid Ave., Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
| | - Beata Jastrzebska
- Department of Pharmacology and Cleveland Center for Membrane and Structural Biology, School of Medicine, Case Western Reserve University, 10900 Euclid Ave., Cleveland, OH 44106, USA.
| |
Collapse
|
6
|
Qin YJ, Xiao K, Zhong Z, Zhao Y, Zhang YL, Sun XF. Markers of the sympathetic, parasympathetic and sensory nervous system are altered in the human diabetic choroid. Peptides 2021; 146:170661. [PMID: 34571056 DOI: 10.1016/j.peptides.2021.170661] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/02/2021] [Revised: 09/21/2021] [Accepted: 09/22/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND We sought to evaluate alterations in markers of the autonomic nervous system in human diabetic choroid. METHODS Eighteen eyeballs from subjects with diabetes and 22 eyeballs from subjects without diabetes were evaluated in this study. Synaptophysin, tyrosine hydroxylase (TH), dopamine beta-hydroxylase (DβH), neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS), choline acetyltransferase (ChAT), vesicular monoamine transporter II (VMAT-2), vesicular acetylcholine transporter (VAChT), vasoactive intestinal peptide (VIP), neuropeptide Y (NPY), and calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) levels were detected by western blot analysis and immunofluorescence was performed in some cases. Furthermore, differences in adrenergic (α1- and β2-subtypes) and cholinergic (M1 and M3) receptor levels between diabetic subjects and controls were noted. RESULTS Decreased synaptophysin levels were found in diabetic choroids by western blot analysis and a reduction of synaptophysin-immunoreactive nerves was also found by immunofluorescence. Furthermore, a decrease of the levels of the key enzyme (TH) and transporter (VMAT2) of norepinephrine was evident both by western blot analysis and immunofluorescence. Additionally, increased NPY, VAChT, nNOS, and CGRP levels were observed in diabetic choroids. The levels of adrenergic (β2 subtype) and acetylcholine (M1 subtype) receptors decreased in diabetic choroids, as shown by western blotting and although the differences in α1 and M3 were not significant, there was a downward trend. CONCLUSIONS In the diabetic choroid, the levels of neurotransmitters, enzymes, and receptors associated with choroidal blood flow regulation are altered. These changes may affect the regulation of choroidal blood flow and may be associated with impaired retinal function and retinal pathology.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Yuan-Jun Qin
- Department of Ophthalmology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 1095 Jie-fang Road, Wuhan, Hubei Province, People's Republic of China.
| | - Ke Xiao
- Department of Ophthalmology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 1095 Jie-fang Road, Wuhan, Hubei Province, People's Republic of China.
| | - Zheng Zhong
- Department of Ophthalmology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 1095 Jie-fang Road, Wuhan, Hubei Province, People's Republic of China.
| | - Yin Zhao
- Department of Ophthalmology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 1095 Jie-fang Road, Wuhan, Hubei Province, People's Republic of China.
| | - Yao-Li Zhang
- Department of Ophthalmology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 1095 Jie-fang Road, Wuhan, Hubei Province, People's Republic of China.
| | - Xu-Fang Sun
- Department of Ophthalmology, Tongji Hospital, Tongji Medical College, Huazhong University of Science and Technology, 1095 Jie-fang Road, Wuhan, Hubei Province, People's Republic of China.
| |
Collapse
|
7
|
Aketa N, Uchino M, Kawashima M, Uchino Y, Yuki K, Ozawa Y, Sasaki M, Yamagishi K, Sawada N, Tsugane S, Tsubota K, Iso H. Myopia, corneal endothelial cell density and morphology in a Japanese population-based cross-sectional study: the JPHC-NEXT Eye Study. Sci Rep 2021; 11:6366. [PMID: 33737603 PMCID: PMC7973534 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-021-85617-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2020] [Accepted: 03/03/2021] [Indexed: 01/27/2023] Open
Abstract
This population-based cross-sectional study was performed to determine the mean corneal endothelial cell density (ECD), coefficient of variation (CV), and hexagonality (HEX), and their associations with myopia in Japanese adults living in Chikusei city. Of 7109 participants with available data, 5713 (2331 male and 3382 female) participants were eligible for analysis. After assessing the relationship between participant characteristics and spherical equivalent refraction (SER), the association of SER with the abnormal value of ECD (< 2000 cells/mm), CV (≥ 0.40), and HEX (≤ 50%) were determined using the logistic regression models adjusting for potential confounders (age, intraocular pressure, keratometric power, height, and antihypertensive drug use). In male participants, there was no statistically significant relationships between SER and endothelial parameters. In female participants, compared to emmetropia, SER ≤ − 6 D had significantly higher odds ratio (OR) of having the abnormal value of CV (OR = 2.07, 95% confidence interval [CI] 1.39–3.10) and HEX (OR = 2.04, 95% CI 1.29–3.23), adjusted for potential confounders, indicating that the high myopia was associated with the abnormal values of CV and HEX. Further adjustment for contact lenses wear partly attenuated these associations. Association between the SER and ECD was not detected.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Naohiko Aketa
- Department of Ophthalmology, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, 160-8582, Japan
| | - Miki Uchino
- Department of Ophthalmology, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, 160-8582, Japan.
| | - Motoko Kawashima
- Department of Ophthalmology, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, 160-8582, Japan
| | - Yuichi Uchino
- Department of Ophthalmology, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, 160-8582, Japan
| | - Kenya Yuki
- Department of Ophthalmology, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, 160-8582, Japan
| | - Yoko Ozawa
- Department of Ophthalmology, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, 160-8582, Japan
| | - Mariko Sasaki
- Department of Ophthalmology, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, 160-8582, Japan
| | - Kazumasa Yamagishi
- Department of Public Health Medicine, Faculty of Medicine, and Health Services Research and Development Center, University of Tsukuba, Tsukuba, Japan. .,Ibaraki Western Medical Center, Chikusei, Japan.
| | - Norie Sawada
- Epidemiology and Prevention Group, Center for Public Health Sciences, National Cancer Center, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Shoichiro Tsugane
- Epidemiology and Prevention Group, Center for Public Health Sciences, National Cancer Center, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Kazuo Tsubota
- Department of Ophthalmology, Keio University School of Medicine, 35 Shinanomachi, Shinjuku-ku, Tokyo, 160-8582, Japan.,Tsubota Laboratory, Inc., Tokyo, Japan
| | - Hiroyasu Iso
- Department of Public Health, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Suita, Japan
| |
Collapse
|
8
|
Ruiz-Lozano RE, Hernandez-Camarena JC, Loya-Garcia D, Merayo-Lloves J, Rodriguez-Garcia A. The molecular basis of neurotrophic keratopathy: Diagnostic and therapeutic implications. A review. Ocul Surf 2021; 19:224-240. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jtos.2020.09.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2020] [Revised: 09/13/2020] [Accepted: 09/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
|
9
|
Ladek AM, Trost A, Bruckner D, Schroedl F, Kaser-Eichberger A, Lenzhofer M, Reitsamer HA, Strohmaier CA. Immunohistochemical Characterization of Neurotransmitters in the Episcleral Circulation in Rats. Invest Ophthalmol Vis Sci 2019; 60:3215-3220. [PMID: 31335947 DOI: 10.1167/iovs.19-27109] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Purpose Episcleral venous pressure (EVP) greatly influences steady-state IOP and recent evidence suggests a neuronal influence on EVP. Yet little is known about the innervation of the episcleral circulation and, more specifically, the neurotransmitters involved. We identify possible neurotransmitter candidates in the episcleral circulation of rats. Methods Eight immersion-fixated rat eyes taken from four animals were cut into serial sections, followed by standard immunohistochemistry. Antibodies against choline acetyltransferase, dopamine-β-hydroxylase, synaptophysine, PGP 9.5, VIP, neuronal nitric oxide synthase (nNOS), substance P, CGRP, and galanin were used. Additionally, colocalization experiments with smooth muscle actin and neurofilament (200 kDa) were performed. Results In all specimens, the episcleral vessels showed immunoreactivity for smooth muscle actin and were reached by neurofilament (200 kDa)-positive structures. Furthermore, these structures colocalized with immunoreactivity for PGP 9.5, synaptophysine, choline acetyl transferase (ChAT), dopamine-β-hydroxylase, VIP, CGRP, nNOS, substance P and galanin. Conclusions These findings indicate that there is neuronal input to the episcleral circulation. ChAT and VIP as well as dopamine-β-hydroxylase suggest parasympathetic and sympathetic innervation. Further studies are needed on whether the positively-stained structures are of functional significance for the regulation of the episcleral venous pressure and thereby IOP.
Collapse
Affiliation(s)
- Anja Maria Ladek
- Department of Ophthalmology/Optometry, Research Program for Experimental Ophthalmology and Glaucoma Research, Paracelsus Medical University/SALK, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Andrea Trost
- Department of Ophthalmology/Optometry, Research Program for Experimental Ophthalmology and Glaucoma Research, Paracelsus Medical University/SALK, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Daniela Bruckner
- Department of Ophthalmology/Optometry, Research Program for Experimental Ophthalmology and Glaucoma Research, Paracelsus Medical University/SALK, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Falk Schroedl
- Department of Ophthalmology/Optometry, Research Program for Experimental Ophthalmology and Glaucoma Research, Paracelsus Medical University/SALK, Salzburg, Austria.,Department of Anatomy, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Alexandra Kaser-Eichberger
- Department of Ophthalmology/Optometry, Research Program for Experimental Ophthalmology and Glaucoma Research, Paracelsus Medical University/SALK, Salzburg, Austria.,Department of Anatomy, Paracelsus Medical University, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Markus Lenzhofer
- Department of Ophthalmology/Optometry, Research Program for Experimental Ophthalmology and Glaucoma Research, Paracelsus Medical University/SALK, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Herbert Anton Reitsamer
- Department of Ophthalmology/Optometry, Research Program for Experimental Ophthalmology and Glaucoma Research, Paracelsus Medical University/SALK, Salzburg, Austria
| | - Clemens A Strohmaier
- Department of Ophthalmology/Optometry, Research Program for Experimental Ophthalmology and Glaucoma Research, Paracelsus Medical University/SALK, Salzburg, Austria.,Department of Ophthalmology and Optometry, Johannes Kepler University, Linz, Austria
| |
Collapse
|