Effect of CSF1R inhibitor on glial cells population and remyelination in the cuprizone model

The phenotypic changes of Schwann cells promote the functional repair of nerve injury

Functional recovery after nerve injury is a significant challenge due to the complex nature of nerve injury repair and the non-regeneration of neurons. Schwann cells (SCs), play a crucial role in the nerve injury repair process because of their high plasticity, secretion, and migration abilities. Upon nerve injury, SCs undergo a phenotypic change and redifferentiate into a repair phenotype, which helps in healing by recruiting phagocytes, removing myelin fragments, promoting axon regeneration, and facilitating myelin formation. However, the repair phenotype can be unstable, limiting the effectiveness of the repair. Recent research has found that transplantation of SCs can be an effective treatment option, therefore, it is essential to comprehend the phenotypic changes of SCs and clarify the related mechanisms to develop the transplantation therapy further.

Repurposing of pexidartinib for microglia depletion and renewal

Pexidartinib (PLX3397) is a small molecule receptor tyrosine kinase inhibitor of colony stimulating factor 1 receptor (CSF1R) with moderate selectivity over other members of the platelet derived growth factor receptor family. It is approved for treatment of tenosynovial giant cell tumors (TGCT). CSF1R is highly expressed by microglia, which are macrophages of the central nervous system (CNS) that defend the CNS against injury and pathogens and contribute to synapse development and plasticity. Challenged by pathogens, apoptotic cells, debris, or inflammatory molecules they adopt a responsive state to propagate the inflammation and eventually return to a homeostatic state. The phenotypic switch may fail, and disease-associated microglia contribute to the pathophysiology in neurodegenerative or neuropsychiatric diseases or long-lasting detrimental brain inflammation after brain, spinal cord or nerve injury or ischemia/hemorrhage. Microglia also contribute to the growth permissive tumor microenvironment of glioblastoma (GBM). In rodents, continuous treatment for 1-2 weeks via pexidartinib food pellets leads to a depletion of microglia and subsequent repopulation from the remaining fraction, which is aided by peripheral monocytes that search empty niches for engraftment. The putative therapeutic benefit of such microglia depletion or forced renewal has been assessed in almost any rodent model of CNS disease or injury or GBM with heterogeneous outcomes, but a tendency of partial beneficial effects. So far, microglia monitoring e.g. via positron emission imaging is not standard of care for patients receiving Pexidartinib (e.g. for TGCT), so that the depletion and repopulation efficiency in humans is still largely unknown. Considering the virtuous functions of microglia, continuous depletion is likely no therapeutic option but short-lasting transient partial depletion to stimulate microglia renewal or replace microglia in genetic disease in combination with e.g. stem cell transplantation or as part of a multimodal concept in treatment of glioblastoma appears feasible. The present review provides an overview of the preclinical evidence pro and contra microglia depletion as a therapeutic approach.

Anti-inflammatory Effects of Umbilical Cord Mesenchymal Stem Cell and Autologous Conditioned Serum on Oligodendrocyte, Astrocyte, and Microglial Specific Gene in Cuprizone Animal Model

BACKGROUND

Inflammation, myelin loss, astrocytosis, and microgliosis are pathological signs of the autoimmune and demyelinating disease known as multiple sclerosis (MS). Axonal and neuronal degenerations have basic molecular pathways. The remyelination process can be influenced by the secretome of mesenchymal stem cells due to their capacity for immunomodulation, differentiation, and neuroprotection. Microglial cells are divided into two subgroups: M1 and M2 phenotypes. A crucial component of the microglial function is the colony stimulating factor 1 receptor (CSF1R). We aimed to evaluate the immunomodulating effects of secretome and conditioned serum on the microglial phenotypes and improvement of demyelination in a cuprizone model of MS.

METHODS

The study used 48 male C57BL/6 mice, which were randomly distributed into 6 subgroups (n = 8), i.e., control, cuprizone, MSC (confluency 40% and 80%) secretome group, and blood derived conditioned serum (autologous and humanized). The animals were fed with 0.2% cuprizone diet for 12 weeks. Supplements were injected into the lateral tail vein using a 27-gauge needle every 3 days 500 μl per injection.

RESULTS

At 14 days after transplantation, animals from each group were sacrificed and analyzed by Real time PCR. The results showed that the administration of MSC secretome can efficiently reduce expression of pro-inflammatory cytokines (IL-1, IL6 and TNF-α) in the corpus callosum; also, conditioned serum downregulated IL-1. Moreover, the oligodendrocyte-specific gene was upregulated by secretome and conditioned serum treatment. Also, the expression of microglial- specific gene was reduced after treatment.

CONCLUSION

These findings demonstrated that the secretome isolated from MSCs used as a therapy decreased and increased the M1 and M2 levels, respectively, to control neuroinflammation in CPZ mice. In conclusion, the current study showed the viability of devising a method to prepare suitable MSCs and secreted factor to cure neurodegenerative diseases, as well as the capability of regulating MSC secretome patterns by manipulating the cell density.

Microglia in Central Control of Metabolism

Beyond their role as brain immune cells, microglia act as metabolic sensors in response to changes in nutrient availability, thus playing a role in energy homeostasis. This review highlights the evidence and challenges of studying the role of microglia in metabolism regulation.

Microglia promote remyelination independent of their role in clearing myelin debris

Multiple sclerosis (MS) is an inflammatory disease characterized by myelin loss. While therapies exist to slow MS progression, no treatment currently exists for remyelination. Remyelination, linked to reduced disability in MS, relies on microglia and monocyte-derived macrophages (MDMs). This study aims to understand the role of microglia during remyelination by lineage tracing and depleting them. Microglial lineage tracing reveals that both microglia and MDMs initially accumulate, but microglia later dominate the lesion. Microglia and MDMs engulf equal amounts of inhibitory myelin debris, but after microglial depletion, MDMs compensate by engulfing more myelin debris. Microglial depletion does, however, reduce the recruitment and proliferation of oligodendrocyte progenitor cells (OPCs) and impairs their subsequent differentiation and remyelination. These findings underscore the essential role of microglia during remyelination and offer insights for enhancing this process by understanding microglial regulation of remyelination.

Microglial depletion exacerbates axonal damage and motor dysfunction in mice with cuprizone-induced demyelination

The cuprizone (CPZ)-induced demyelination model, an animal model of Multiple sclerosis (MS), is characterized by demyelination and motor dysfunction due to microglial-mediated neuroinflammation. To determine the contribution of microglia to motor function during CPZ-induced demyelination, the microglia of mice in the CPZ-model were depleted using PLX3397 (PLX), an orally bioavailable selective colony stimulating factor 1 receptor inhibitor. PLX treatment aggravated motor dysfunction as shown by the pole, beam walk, ladder walk, and rotarod tests. PLX treatment removed microglia from the superior cerebellar peduncle (SCP), but not from the corpus callosum (CC). Although PLX treatment did not affect the degree of demyelination in both of CC and SCP, the expression of axonal damage marker APP (amyloid precursor protein) was increased. Increased TNF-α, IL-1β, and iNOS expressions were observed in PLX-treated mice. These results suggest that microglial depletion exacerbates axonal damage and motor dysfunction in CPZ model mice. In this study, we found that microglia contribute to motor function and axon-protective effects in CPZ-induced demyelination.

Microglia depletion prevents lactation by inhibition of prolactin secretion

Microglial cells were eliminated from the brain with sustained 3-4 weeks long inhibition of colony stimulating factor 1 receptor by Pexidartinib 3397 (PLX3397). The prepartum treated mice mothers did not feed their pups after parturition. The pups of mothers treated orally only in the postpartum period starting immediately after parturition showed reduced body weight by 15.5 ± 0.22 postnatal days as the treatment progressed without the mothers showing altered caring behaviors. The apparent weight gain of foster pups during a suckling bout was reduced in mother mice fed by PLX3397-containing diet and also in rat dams following sustained intracerebroventricular infusion of PLX3397 in a separate experiment suggesting that lactation was affected by the reduced number of microglia. Prolactin secretion and signaling were markedly reduced in PLX3397-treated mothers. The results suggest that microglial cells are required for prolactin secretion and lactation whereas maternal motivation may not be directly affected by microglia.

Colony-stimulating factor-1 receptor inhibition attenuates microgliosis and myelin loss but exacerbates neurodegeneration in the chronic cuprizone model

Multiple sclerosis (MS), especially in its progressive phase, involves early axonal and neuronal damage resulting from a combination of inflammatory mediators, demyelination, and loss of trophic support. During progressive disease stages, a microenvironment is created within the central nervous system (CNS) favoring the arrival and retention of inflammatory cells. Active demyelination and neurodegeneration have also been linked to microglia (MG) and astrocyte (AST)-activation in early lesions. While reactive MG can damage tissue, exacerbate deleterious effects, and contribute to neurodegeneration, it should be noted that activated MG possess neuroprotective functions as well, including debris phagocytosis and growth factor secretion. The progressive form of MS can be modelled by the prolonged administration to cuprizone (CPZ) in adult mice, as CPZ induces highly reproducible demyelination of different brain regions through oligodendrocyte (OLG) apoptosis, accompanied by MG and AST activation and axonal damage. Therefore, our goal was to evaluate the effects of a reduction in microglial activation through orally administered brain-penetrant colony-stimulating factor-1 receptor (CSF-1R) inhibitor BLZ945 (BLZ) on neurodegeneration and its correlation with demyelination, astroglial activation and behavior in a chronic CPZ-induced demyelination model. Our results show that BLZ treatment successfully reduced the microglial population and myelin loss. However, no correlation was found between myelin preservation and neurodegeneration, as axonal degeneration was more prominent upon BLZ treatment. Concomitantly, BLZ failed to significantly offset CPZ-induced astroglial activation and behavioral alterations. These results should be taken into account when proposing the modulation of microglial activation in the design of therapies relevant for demyelinating diseases.