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Calderón-Garcidueñas L, Stommel EW, Torres-Jardón R, Hernández-Luna J, Aiello-Mora M, González-Maciel A, Reynoso-Robles R, Pérez-Guillé B, Silva-Pereyra HG, Tehuacanero-Cuapa S, Rodríguez-Gómez A, Lachmann I, Galaz-Montoya C, Doty RL, Roy A, Mukherjee PS. Alzheimer and Parkinson diseases, frontotemporal lobar degeneration and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis overlapping neuropathology start in the first two decades of life in pollution exposed urbanites and brain ultrafine particulate matter and industrial nanoparticles, including Fe, Ti, Al, V, Ni, Hg, Co, Cu, Zn, Ag, Pt, Ce, La, Pr and W are key players. Metropolitan Mexico City health crisis is in progress. Front Hum Neurosci 2024; 17:1297467. [PMID: 38283093 PMCID: PMC10811680 DOI: 10.3389/fnhum.2023.1297467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2023] [Accepted: 12/08/2023] [Indexed: 01/30/2024] Open
Abstract
The neuropathological hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease (AD), Parkinson's disease (PD), frontotemporal lobar degeneration (FTLD), and amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) are present in urban children exposed to fine particulate matter (PM2.5), combustion and friction ultrafine PM (UFPM), and industrial nanoparticles (NPs). Metropolitan Mexico City (MMC) forensic autopsies strongly suggest that anthropogenic UFPM and industrial NPs reach the brain through the nasal/olfactory, lung, gastrointestinal tract, skin, and placental barriers. Diesel-heavy unregulated vehicles are a key UFPM source for 21.8 million MMC residents. We found that hyperphosphorylated tau, beta amyloid1-42, α-synuclein, and TAR DNA-binding protein-43 were associated with NPs in 186 forensic autopsies (mean age 27.45 ± 11.89 years). The neurovascular unit is an early NPs anatomical target, and the first two decades of life are critical: 100% of 57 children aged 14.8 ± 5.2 years had AD pathology; 25 (43.9%) AD+TDP-43; 11 (19.3%) AD + PD + TDP-43; and 2 (3.56%) AD +PD. Fe, Ti, Hg, Ni, Co, Cu, Zn, Cd, Al, Mg, Ag, Ce, La, Pr, W, Ca, Cl, K, Si, S, Na, and C NPs are seen in frontal and temporal lobes, olfactory bulb, caudate, substantia nigra, locus coeruleus, medulla, cerebellum, and/or motor cortical and spinal regions. Endothelial, neuronal, and glial damages are extensive, with NPs in mitochondria, rough endoplasmic reticulum, the Golgi apparatus, and lysosomes. Autophagy, cell and nuclear membrane damage, disruption of nuclear pores and heterochromatin, and cell death are present. Metals associated with abrasion and deterioration of automobile catalysts and electronic waste and rare earth elements, i.e., lanthanum, cerium, and praseodymium, are entering young brains. Exposure to environmental UFPM and industrial NPs in the first two decades of life are prime candidates for initiating the early stages of fatal neurodegenerative diseases. MMC children and young adults-surrogates for children in polluted areas around the world-exhibit early AD, PD, FTLD, and ALS neuropathological hallmarks forecasting serious health, social, economic, academic, and judicial societal detrimental impact. Neurodegeneration prevention should be a public health priority as the problem of human exposure to particle pollution is solvable. We are knowledgeable of the main emission sources and the technological options to control them. What are we waiting for?
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Elijah W. Stommel
- Department of Neurology, Geisel School of Medicine at Dartmouth, Hanover, NH, United States
| | - Ricardo Torres-Jardón
- Instituto de Ciencias de la Atmósfera y Cambio Climático, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Mexico City, Mexico
| | | | - Mario Aiello-Mora
- Otorrinolaryngology Department, Instituto Nacional de Cardiología, Mexico City, Mexico
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Richard L. Doty
- Perelman School of Medicine, Smell and Taste Center, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia, PA, United States
| | - Anik Roy
- Interdisciplinary Statistical Research Unit, Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata, India
| | - Partha S. Mukherjee
- Interdisciplinary Statistical Research Unit, Indian Statistical Institute, Kolkata, India
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Zilberter Y, Tabuena DR, Zilberter M. NOX-induced oxidative stress is a primary trigger of major neurodegenerative disorders. Prog Neurobiol 2023; 231:102539. [PMID: 37838279 DOI: 10.1016/j.pneurobio.2023.102539] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2023] [Accepted: 10/10/2023] [Indexed: 10/16/2023]
Abstract
Neurodegenerative diseases (NDDs) causing cognitive impairment and dementia are difficult to treat due to the lack of understanding of primary initiating factors. Meanwhile, major sporadic NDDs share many risk factors and exhibit similar pathologies in their early stages, indicating the existence of common initiation pathways. Glucose hypometabolism associated with oxidative stress is one such primary, early and shared pathology, and a likely major cause of detrimental disease-associated cascades; targeting this common pathology may therefore be an effective preventative strategy for most sporadic NDDs. However, its exact cause and trigger remain unclear. Recent research suggests that early oxidative stress caused by NADPH oxidase (NOX) activation is a shared initiating mechanism among major sporadic NDDs and could prove to be the long-sought ubiquitous NDD trigger. We focus on two major NDDs - Alzheimer's disease (AD) and Parkinson's disease (PD), as well as on acquired epilepsy which is an increasingly recognized comorbidity in NDDs. We also discuss available data suggesting the relevance of the proposed mechanisms to other NDDs. We delve into the commonalities among these NDDs in neuroinflammation and NOX involvement to identify potential therapeutic targets and gain a deeper understanding of the underlying causes of NDDs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuri Zilberter
- Aix-Marseille Université, INSERM UMR1106, Institut de Neurosciences des Systèmes, Marseille, France
| | - Dennis R Tabuena
- Gladstone Institute of Neurological Disease, San Francisco, CA, USA
| | - Misha Zilberter
- Gladstone Institute of Neurological Disease, San Francisco, CA, USA.
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Trolese MC, Scarpa C, Melfi V, Fabbrizio P, Sironi F, Rossi M, Bendotti C, Nardo G. Boosting the peripheral immune response in the skeletal muscles improved motor function in ALS transgenic mice. Mol Ther 2022; 30:2760-2784. [PMID: 35477657 PMCID: PMC9372324 DOI: 10.1016/j.ymthe.2022.04.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/19/2021] [Revised: 04/15/2022] [Accepted: 04/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Monocyte chemoattractant protein-1 (MCP1) is one of the most powerful pro-inflammatory chemokines. However, its signalling is pivotal in driving injured axon and muscle regeneration.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Chiara Trolese
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology, Department of Neuroscience, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri Mario Negri IRCCS, Via Mario Negri 2, 20156 Milan, Italy
| | - Carlotta Scarpa
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology, Department of Neuroscience, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri Mario Negri IRCCS, Via Mario Negri 2, 20156 Milan, Italy
| | - Valentina Melfi
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology, Department of Neuroscience, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri Mario Negri IRCCS, Via Mario Negri 2, 20156 Milan, Italy
| | - Paola Fabbrizio
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology, Department of Neuroscience, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri Mario Negri IRCCS, Via Mario Negri 2, 20156 Milan, Italy
| | - Francesca Sironi
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology, Department of Neuroscience, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri Mario Negri IRCCS, Via Mario Negri 2, 20156 Milan, Italy
| | - Martina Rossi
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology, Department of Neuroscience, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri Mario Negri IRCCS, Via Mario Negri 2, 20156 Milan, Italy
| | - Caterina Bendotti
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology, Department of Neuroscience, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri Mario Negri IRCCS, Via Mario Negri 2, 20156 Milan, Italy;.
| | - Giovanni Nardo
- Laboratory of Molecular Neurobiology, Department of Neuroscience, Istituto di Ricerche Farmacologiche Mario Negri Mario Negri IRCCS, Via Mario Negri 2, 20156 Milan, Italy;.
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Zhao Y, Zhang X, Guo N, Tian D, Zhang C, Mu C, Han C, Zhu R, Zhang J, Liu X. Genetically Predicted Levels of Circulating Inflammatory Cytokines and the Risk and Age at Onset of Parkinson’s Disease: A Two-Sample Mendelian Randomization Study. Front Aging Neurosci 2022; 14:811059. [PMID: 35299944 PMCID: PMC8923644 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2022.811059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2021] [Accepted: 01/31/2022] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Parkinson’s disease (PD) is widely considered to be a disabling neurodegenerative disorder, which has been ranked second worldwide just after Alzheimer’s disease. Until present, a wide range of studies has focused on the role of circulating inflammatory cytokines in the development of PD. However, the causal relationship between circulating inflammatory cytokines and the risk and age at the onset of PD has not been elucidated. Hence, to evaluate the effects of circulating inflammatory cytokines on the risk or age at the onset of PD more accurately, we conducted this two-sample Mendelian randomization (MR) study involving summary statistics from genome-wide association studies (GWASs). Totally, we included a GWAS for inflammatory cytokines (8,293 participants), a meta-analysis of GWASs for PD risk (482,730 participants), and a GWAS dataset for age at the onset of PD (17,996 patients with PD). A total of 149 and 131 polymorphisms for exploring relationships between 19 inflammatory cytokines and the risk and age at the onset of PD were obtained as instrumental variants. Then, we used a total of five MR methods, including inverse-variance weighted (IVW), Wald ratio, MR Egger regression, weighted median, and MR-pleiotropy residual sum and outlier (MR-PRESSO) methods. Finally, we found a causal association between circulating levels of macrophage inflammatory protein-1 beta (MIP1b) and PD risk in the IVW method (OR: 1.06; 95% CI: 1.02–1.10; P = 0.001). Meanwhile, other MR estimates by weighted median and MR-PRESSO methods yielded similar effect estimates. Besides, we identified a suggestive association of interleukin-16 (IL-16) levels with PD risk (OR: 1.08; 95% CI: 1.00–1.17; P = 0.037). For age at PD onset, there was no evidence supporting its correlation with inflammatory cytokines. Our findings implied that MIP1b and IL-16 may be novel biomarkers and promising therapeutic targets for PD development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yating Zhao
- Department of Neurology, First Affiliated Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Xiaoqian Zhang
- Department of Neurology, First Affiliated Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Na Guo
- Department of Neurology, First Affiliated Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Dandan Tian
- Department of Neurology, First Affiliated Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Chenguang Zhang
- Department of Neurology, First Affiliated Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Changqing Mu
- Department of Neurology, First Affiliated Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Chen Han
- Department of Neurology, First Affiliated Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Ruixia Zhu
- Department of Neurology, First Affiliated Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Jian Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Cell Biology, Ministry of Public Health, Department of Cell Biology, China Medical University, Shenyang, China
- Key Laboratory of Medical Cell Biology, Ministry of Education, China Medical University, Shenyang, China
| | - Xu Liu
- Department of Neurology, First Affiliated Hospital of China Medical University, Shenyang, China
- *Correspondence: Xu Liu,
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Old and New Biomarkers for Infection, Inflammation, and Autoimmunity in Treatment-Resistant Affective and Schizophrenic Spectrum Disorders. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2022; 15:ph15030299. [PMID: 35337097 PMCID: PMC8949012 DOI: 10.3390/ph15030299] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2022] [Revised: 02/24/2022] [Accepted: 02/24/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Affective (AF) and Schizophrenic (SZ) Spectrum disorders manifest with risk factors, involving inflammatory processes linked to infections and autoimmunity. This study searched for novel biomarkers in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and peripheral blood. A total of 29 AF and 39 SZ patients with treatment-resistant disease were included. In CSF, the chemokine IL-8 was significantly elevated in AF and SZ patients. IL-8 promotes chemotaxis by neutrophils and may originate from different tissues. S100B, a glia-derived brain damage marker, was higher in CSF from AF than SZ patients. Among the plasma-derived biomarkers, ferritin was elevated in AF and SZ. Soluble CD25, indicating Treg dysfunction, was higher in SZ than in AF patients. Interferon-γ, implying virus-specific immune activation, was positive in selective AF patients, only. Both groups showed elevated expression of immunosuppressive CD33 on monocytes, but higher amounts of CD123+ plasmacytoid dendritic cells were restricted to SZ. In conclusion, chemotactic IL-8 indicates neuronal stress and inflammation in the CSF of both groups. Novel plasma-derived biomarkers such as sCD25 and monocytic CD33 distinguish SZ from AF with an autoimmune phenotype.
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Aberrations in Oxidative Stress Markers in Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis: A Systematic Review and Meta-Analysis. OXIDATIVE MEDICINE AND CELLULAR LONGEVITY 2019; 2019:1712323. [PMID: 31281567 PMCID: PMC6590548 DOI: 10.1155/2019/1712323] [Citation(s) in RCA: 31] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/01/2019] [Accepted: 05/20/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
Abstract
Oxidative stress has been reported to be involved in the onset and development of amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS). Data from clinical studies have highlighted increased peripheral blood oxidative stress markers in patients with ALS, but results are inconsistent. Therefore, we quantitatively pooled data on levels of blood oxidative stress markers in ALS patients from the literature using a meta-analytic technique. A systematic search was performed on PubMed and Web of Science, and we included studies analyzing blood oxidative stress marker levels in patients with ALS and normal controls. We included 41 studies with 4,588 ALS patients and 6,344 control subjects, and 15 oxidative stress marker levels were subjected to random-effects meta-analysis. The results demonstrated that malondialdehyde (Hedges' g, 1.168; 95% CI, 0.812 to 1.523; P < 0.001), 8-hydroxyguanosine (Hedges' g, 2.194; 95% CI, 0.554 to 3.835; P = 0.009), and Advanced Oxidation Protein Product (Hedges' g, 0.555; 95% CI, 0.317 to 0.792; P < 0.001) levels were significantly increased in patients with ALS when compared with control subjects. Uric acid (Hedges' g, -0.798; 95% CI, -1.117 to -0.479; P < 0.001) and glutathione (Hedges' g, -1.636; 95% CI, -3.020 to -0.252; P = 0.02) levels were significantly reduced in ALS patients. In contrast, blood Cu, superoxide dismutase, glutathione peroxidase, ceruloplasmin, triglycerides, total cholesterol, low-density lipoprotein, high-density lipoprotein, coenzyme-Q10, and transferrin levels were not significantly different between cases and controls. Taken together, our results showed significantly increased blood levels of 8-hydroxyguanosine, malondialdehyde, and Advanced Oxidation Protein Product and decreased glutathione and uric acid levels in the peripheral blood of ALS patients. This meta-analysis helps to clarify the oxidative stress marker profile in ALS patients, supporting the hypothesis that oxidative stress is a central component underpinning ALS pathogenesis.
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Moreno-Martinez L, Calvo AC, Muñoz MJ, Osta R. Are Circulating Cytokines Reliable Biomarkers for Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis? Int J Mol Sci 2019; 20:ijms20112759. [PMID: 31195629 PMCID: PMC6600567 DOI: 10.3390/ijms20112759] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2019] [Revised: 05/30/2019] [Accepted: 06/03/2019] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is a fatal neurodegenerative disease that has no effective treatment. The lack of any specific biomarker that can help in the diagnosis or prognosis of ALS has made the identification of biomarkers an urgent challenge. Multiple panels have shown alterations in levels of numerous cytokines in ALS, supporting the contribution of neuroinflammation to the progressive motor neuron loss. However, none of them is fully sensitive and specific enough to become a universal biomarker for ALS. This review gathers the numerous circulating cytokines that have been found dysregulated in both ALS animal models and patients. Particularly, it highlights the opposing results found in the literature to date, and points out another potential application of inflammatory cytokines as therapeutic targets.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Moreno-Martinez
- Laboratory of Genetics and Biochemistry (LAGENBIO), Faculty of Veterinary-IIS Aragón, IA2-CITA, CIBERNED, University of Zaragoza, Miguel Servet 177, 50013 Zaragoza, Spain.
| | - Ana Cristina Calvo
- Laboratory of Genetics and Biochemistry (LAGENBIO), Faculty of Veterinary-IIS Aragón, IA2-CITA, CIBERNED, University of Zaragoza, Miguel Servet 177, 50013 Zaragoza, Spain.
| | - María Jesús Muñoz
- Laboratory of Genetics and Biochemistry (LAGENBIO), Faculty of Veterinary-IIS Aragón, IA2-CITA, CIBERNED, University of Zaragoza, Miguel Servet 177, 50013 Zaragoza, Spain.
| | - Rosario Osta
- Laboratory of Genetics and Biochemistry (LAGENBIO), Faculty of Veterinary-IIS Aragón, IA2-CITA, CIBERNED, University of Zaragoza, Miguel Servet 177, 50013 Zaragoza, Spain.
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Adipsin, MIP-1b, and IL-8 as CSF Biomarker Panels for ALS Diagnosis. DISEASE MARKERS 2018; 2018:3023826. [PMID: 30405855 PMCID: PMC6199888 DOI: 10.1155/2018/3023826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/13/2018] [Revised: 08/15/2018] [Accepted: 08/28/2018] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) is an aggressive neurodegenerative disorder that selectively attacks motor neurons in the brain and spinal cord. Despite important advances in the knowledge of the etiology and progression of the disease, there are still no solid grounds in which a clinician could make an early objective and reliable diagnosis from which patients could benefit. Diagnosis is difficult and basically made by clinical rating scales (ALSRs and El Escorial). The possible finding of biomarkers to aid in the early diagnosis and rate of disease progression could serve for future innovative therapeutic approaches. Recently, it has been suggested that ALS has an important immune component that could represent either the cause or the consequence of the disease. In this report, we analyzed 19 different cytokines and growth factors in the cerebrospinal fluid of 77 ALS patients and 13 controls by decision tree and PanelomiX program. Results showed an increase of Adipsin, MIP-1b, and IL-6, associated with a decrease of IL-8 thresholds, related with ALS patients. This biomarker panel analysis could represent an important aid for diagnosis of ALS alongside the clinical and neurophysiological criteria.
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Andrés-Benito P, Domínguez R, Colomina MJ, Llorens F, Povedano M, Ferrer I. YKL40 in sporadic amyotrophic lateral sclerosis: cerebrospinal fluid levels as a prognosis marker of disease progression. Aging (Albany NY) 2018; 10:2367-2382. [PMID: 30215603 PMCID: PMC6188478 DOI: 10.18632/aging.101551] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2018] [Accepted: 09/14/2018] [Indexed: 04/08/2023]
Abstract
Amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) has variable clinical course and fatal outcome. Since inflammation plays a role in the pathogenesis of ALS, chitinase-3-like protein 1 or YKL40 has been assessed as putative biomarker of disease progression. YKL40 mRNA levels are increased in anterior horn of the spinal cord (P=0.004) in sporadic ALS (sALS) cases when compared with age-matched controls. These correlate with increased mRNA expression of microglial markers AIF1 and CD68 in the spinal cord in sALS (P=0.044 and P=0.000, respectively). YKL40 mRNA and protein expression had a tendency to increase in post-mortem frontal cortex area 8 (P=0.06 and P=0.08, respectively). Yet YKL40 immunoreactivity is restricted to a subpopulation of astrocytes in these regions. YKL40 protein levels, as revealed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay (ELISA), are significantly increased in the CSF in sALS (n=86) compared with age-matched controls (n=21) (P=0.045). Higher levels are found in patients with fast progression when compared with patients with slow and normal progression (P=0.008 and P=0.004, respectively), and correlates with ALS-FRS-R slope (P=0.000). Additionally, increased protein levels of neurofilament light chain (NF-L) are also found in sALS (P=0.000); highest values are found in patients with fast progression when compared with cases with slow and normal progression (P=0.005 and P=0.000, respectively), and also correlate with ALS-FRS-R slope (P=0.000). Pearson's correlation test linked positively the increased levels of YKL40 with increased NF-L levels (P=0.013). These data point to YKL40 and NF-L protein levels in the CSF as a good biomarker combination of disease progression in sALS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pol Andrés-Benito
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, University of Barcelona, L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain
- Biomedical Network Research Center on Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Institute Carlos III, L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain
- Bellvitge Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBELL), L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Raúl Domínguez
- Functional Unit of Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (UFELA), Service of Neurology, Bellvitge University Hospital, L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Maria J Colomina
- Anesthesia and Critical Care Department, Bellvitge University Hospital - University of Barcelona L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Franc Llorens
- Biomedical Network Research Center on Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Institute Carlos III, L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain
- Bellvitge Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBELL), L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Mònica Povedano
- Functional Unit of Amyotrophic Lateral Sclerosis (UFELA), Service of Neurology, Bellvitge University Hospital, L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Isidre Ferrer
- Department of Pathology and Experimental Therapeutics, University of Barcelona, L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain
- Biomedical Network Research Center on Neurodegenerative Diseases (CIBERNED), Institute Carlos III, L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain
- Bellvitge Biomedical Research Institute (IDIBELL), L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain
- Neuropathology, Pathologic Anatomy Service, Bellvitge University Hospital, IDIBELL, L'Hospitalet de Llobregat, Barcelona, Spain
- Institute of Neurosciences, University of Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
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