1
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Ahmad MI, Refik R. “No Chit Chat!” A Warning From a Physical Versus Virtual Robot Invigilator: Which Matters Most? Front Robot AI 2022; 9:908013. [PMID: 35937616 PMCID: PMC9355029 DOI: 10.3389/frobt.2022.908013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2022] [Accepted: 06/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Past work has not considered social robots as proctors or monitors to prevent cheating or maintain discipline in the context of exam invigilation with adults. Further, we do not see an investigation into the role of invigilation for the robot presented in two different embodiments (physical vs. virtual). We demonstrate a system that enables a robot (physical and virtual) to act as an invigilator and deploy an exam setup with two participants completing a programming task. We conducted two studies (an online video-based survey and an in-person evaluation) to understand participants’ perceptions of the invigilator robot presented in two different embodiments. Additionally, we investigated whether participants showed cheating behaviours in one condition more than the other. The findings showed that participants’ ratings did not differ significantly. Further, participants were more talkative in the virtual robot condition compared to the physical robot condition. These findings are promising and call for further research into the invigilation role of social robots in more subtle and complex exam-like settings.
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2
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Speer SPH, Smidts A, Boksem MAS. Cognitive control and dishonesty. Trends Cogn Sci 2022; 26:796-808. [PMID: 35840475 DOI: 10.1016/j.tics.2022.06.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/25/2022] [Revised: 06/07/2022] [Accepted: 06/13/2022] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Dishonesty is ubiquitous and imposes substantial financial and social burdens on society. Intuitively, dishonesty results from a failure of willpower to control selfish behavior. However, recent research suggests that the role of cognitive control in dishonesty is more complex. We review evidence that cognitive control is not needed to be honest or dishonest per se, but that it depends on individual differences in what we call one's 'moral default': for those who are prone to dishonesty, cognitive control indeed aids in being honest, but for those who are already generally honest, cognitive control may help them cheat to occasionally profit from small acts of dishonesty. Thus, the role of cognitive control in (dis)honesty is to override the moral default.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sebastian P H Speer
- Rotterdam School of Management, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands; Social Brain Lab, Netherlands Institute for Neuroscience, Amsterdam, The Netherlands.
| | - Ale Smidts
- Rotterdam School of Management, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands
| | - Maarten A S Boksem
- Rotterdam School of Management, Erasmus University Rotterdam, Rotterdam, The Netherlands.
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3
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Sai L, Shang S, Zhao C, Liu X, Jiang Y, Compton BJ, Fu G, Heyman GD. The developmental origins of a default moral response: A shift from honesty to dishonesty. Child Dev 2022; 93:1154-1161. [PMID: 35312043 DOI: 10.1111/cdev.13755] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
People are sometimes tempted to lie for their own benefit if it would not harm others. For adults, dishonesty is the default response in these circumstances. The developmental origins of this phenomenon were investigated between 2019 and 2021 among 6- to 11-year-old Han Chinese children from China (N = 548, 49% female). Children had an opportunity to win prizes in a behavioral economics game (Experiment 1) or a temptation resistance game adapted from developmental psychology (Experiment 2). In each experiment, the youngest children showed a default tendency of honesty and there was an overall age-related shift toward a default tendency of dishonesty. These findings provide direct evidence of developmental change in the automatic and controlled processes that underlie moral behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
- Liyang Sai
- Department of Psychology, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China.,Center for Cognition and Brain Disorders, Affiliated Hospital of Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Siyuan Shang
- Department of Psychology, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China.,Center for Cognition and Brain Disorders, Affiliated Hospital of Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Changzhi Zhao
- Department of Psychology, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Xinchen Liu
- Department of Psychology, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Yuanyuan Jiang
- Department of Psychology, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Brian J Compton
- Department of Psychology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
| | - Genyue Fu
- Department of Psychology, Hangzhou Normal University, Hangzhou, China
| | - Gail D Heyman
- Department of Psychology, University of California San Diego, La Jolla, California, USA
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4
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Wu P, van der Linden D, Dunkel CS, Ding R, Li J, Li X, Harmon A, Born MP. A meta-analysis on the general factor of personality and its relation with leadership outcomes: Evidence from mainland China. PERSONALITY AND INDIVIDUAL DIFFERENCES 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.paid.2021.110953] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
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5
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Zhou Y, Zhao L, Yang Y, Liu X. Influence of Ego Depletion on Individual Forgiveness in Different Interpersonal Offense Situations. Front Psychol 2021; 12:631466. [PMID: 34366958 PMCID: PMC8339195 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2021.631466] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2020] [Accepted: 06/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Forgiveness, as an important content in the field of morality, means that the offended person overcomes the negative emotion, cognition, and behavior toward the offender and replaces it with positive emotion, cognition, and behavior. Based on the theory of the limitation of psychological resources, ego depletion (ED) will lead to the weakening of self-regulation function, thus making some immoral behaviors, which is not conducive to individual forgiveness. In order to explore the influence of ED on individual forgiveness in different interpersonal offense situations, this study used the Stroop task to manipulate the level of ED and used imaginary situations to distinguish offending situations. We found that the level of forgiveness in a serious offense situation was significantly lower than that in a mild offense situation, p < 0.001, partial η2 = 0.158. In different interpersonal offense situations, ED has different effects on forgiveness. In the severe offense situation, the forgiveness level of high-ED individuals was significantly lower than that of the low-ED individuals, p = 0.023, partial η2 = 0.144; in the mild offense situation, the forgiveness level of high-ED individuals was significantly higher than that of low-ED individuals, p = 0.029, partial η2 = 0.140. The results showed that different levels of ED have no consistent effect on forgiveness in different interpersonal offense situations; high ED hinders individual forgiveness in serious offense situations but can promote individual forgiveness in mild offense situations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yangen Zhou
- Normal College, Changshu Institute of Technology, Suzhou, China
| | - Lihua Zhao
- Taizhou College, Nanjing Normal University, Taizhou, China
| | - Yibo Yang
- School of Psychology, Nanjing Normal University, Nanjing, China
| | - Xianmin Liu
- Normal College, Changshu Institute of Technology, Suzhou, China
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6
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The Difference Spotting Task: A new nonverbal measure of cheating behavior. Behav Res Methods 2021; 53:1935-1944. [PMID: 33694078 DOI: 10.3758/s13428-020-01526-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 12/15/2020] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
To understand when, how, and why people cheat, the ability to detect cheating in a laboratory setting is crucial. However, commonly used paradigms are confronted with a conflict between allowing participants to believe they can cheat unnoticed and allowing experimenters to detect cheating. This project aimed to develop and establish a new nonverbal task to resolve this conflict. Study 1 and Study 2 developed a new unsolvable paradigm called the Difference Spotting Task. In Study 1, participants were incentivized to indicate whether they found any difference between a pair of pictures without being asked to point the difference(s) out, so they could overreport their performance to earn extra money. Unbeknownst to them, the pairs of pictures from half of the items were identical so that the task could not be solved without cheating. This paradigm allowed experimenters to detect cheating for each unsolvable item. Study 3 examined the validity of the Difference Spotting Task and demonstrated it as a valid tool to assess cheating. The Difference Spotting Task is nonverbal and thus applicable to populations across age, educational level, and culture. In this unsolvable task, participants feel safe in cheating, and experimenters can detect cheating at the item level. The task holds the potential to gain acceptance by many researchers and facilitate the investigation of the underlying processes of cheating behavior.
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7
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Köbis NC, Verschuere B, Bereby-Meyer Y, Rand D, Shalvi S. Intuitive Honesty Versus Dishonesty: Meta-Analytic Evidence. PERSPECTIVES ON PSYCHOLOGICAL SCIENCE 2019; 14:778-796. [PMID: 31291557 DOI: 10.1177/1745691619851778] [Citation(s) in RCA: 41] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
Abstract
Is self-serving lying intuitive? Or does honesty come naturally? Many experiments have manipulated reliance on intuition in behavioral-dishonesty tasks, with mixed results. We present two meta-analyses (with evidential value) testing whether an intuitive mind-set affects the proportion of liars (k = 73; n = 12,711) and the magnitude of lying (k = 50; n = 6,473). The results indicate that when dishonesty harms abstract others, promoting intuition causes more people to lie, log odds ratio = 0.38, p = .0004, and people to lie more, Hedges's g = 0.26, p < .0001. However, when dishonesty inflicts harm on concrete others, promoting intuition has no significant effect on dishonesty (p > .63). We propose one potential explanation: The intuitive appeal of prosociality may cancel out the intuitive selfish appeal of dishonesty, suggesting that the social consequences of lying could be a promising key to the riddle of intuition's role in honesty. We discuss limitations such as the relatively unbalanced distribution of studies using concrete versus abstract victims and the overall large interstudy heterogeneity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nils C Köbis
- 1 Center for Research in Experimental Economics and Political Decision Making, University of Amsterdam
| | | | | | - David Rand
- 4 Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology
| | - Shaul Shalvi
- 1 Center for Research in Experimental Economics and Political Decision Making, University of Amsterdam
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Bereby-Meyer Y, Hayakawa S, Shalvi S, Corey JD, Costa A, Keysar B. Honesty Speaks a Second Language. Top Cogn Sci 2018; 12:632-643. [PMID: 29961266 DOI: 10.1111/tops.12360] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2017] [Revised: 03/02/2018] [Accepted: 04/03/2018] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Theories of dishonest behavior implicitly assume language independence. Here, we investigated this assumption by comparing lying by people using a foreign language versus their native tongue. Participants rolled a die and were paid according to the outcome they reported. Because the outcome was private, they could lie to inflate their profit without risk of repercussions. Participants performed the task either in their native language or in a foreign language. With native speakers of Hebrew, Korean, Spanish, and English, we discovered that, on average, people inflate their earnings less when they use a foreign language. The outcome is explained by a dual system account that suggests that self-serving dishonesty is an automatic tendency, which is supported by a fast and intuitive system. Because using a foreign language is less intuitive and automatic, it might engage more deliberation and reduce the temptation to lie. These findings challenge theories of ethical behavior to account for the role of the language in shaping ethical behavior.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Shaul Shalvi
- Center of Research in Experimental Economics and Political Decision Making, University of Amsterdam
| | | | - Albert Costa
- Center for Brain and Cognition-Universitat Pompeu Fabra.,Catalan Institution for Research and Advanced Studies (ICREA)
| | - Boaz Keysar
- Department of Psychology, University of Chicago
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Hallsson BG, Siebner HR, Hulme OJ. Fairness, fast and slow: A review of dual process models of fairness. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2018; 89:49-60. [PMID: 29486224 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2018.02.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/14/2017] [Revised: 12/15/2017] [Accepted: 02/21/2018] [Indexed: 01/10/2023]
Abstract
Fairness, the notion that people deserve or have rights to certain resources or kinds of treatment, is a fundamental dimension of moral cognition. Drawing on recent evidence from economics, psychology, and neuroscience, we ask whether self-interest is always intuitive, requiring self-control to override with reasoning-based fairness concerns, or whether fairness itself can be intuitive. While we find strong support for rejecting the notion that self-interest is always intuitive, the literature has reached conflicting conclusions about the neurocognitive systems underpinning fairness. We propose that this disagreement can largely be resolved in light of an extended Social Heuristics Hypothesis. Divergent findings may be attributed to the interpretation of behavioral effects of ego depletion or neurostimulation, reverse inference from brain activity to the underlying psychological process, and insensitivity to social context and inter-individual differences. To better dissect the neurobiological basis of fairness, we outline how future research should embrace cross-disciplinary methods that combine psychological manipulations with neuroimaging, and that can probe inter-individual, and cultural heterogeneities.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bjørn G Hallsson
- Department of Media, Cognition, and Communication, University of Copenhagen, Karen Blixens Plads 8, Copenhagen 2300, Denmark.
| | - Hartwig R Siebner
- Danish Research Centre for Magnetic Resonance, Centre for Functional and Diagnostic Imaging and Research, Copenhagen University Hospital Hvidovre, Kettegard Allé 30, Hvidovre 2650, Denmark; Department of Neurology, Copenhagen University Hospital Bispebjerg, Copenhagen 2400, Denmark
| | - Oliver J Hulme
- Danish Research Centre for Magnetic Resonance, Centre for Functional and Diagnostic Imaging and Research, Copenhagen University Hospital Hvidovre, Kettegard Allé 30, Hvidovre 2650, Denmark
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10
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Johnson RE, Lin SH, Lee HW. Self-Control as the Fuel for Effective Self-Regulation at Work: Antecedents, Consequences, and Boundary Conditions of Employee Self-Control. ADVANCES IN MOTIVATION SCIENCE 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/bs.adms.2018.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
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11
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Lu JG, Brockner J, Vardi Y, Weitz E. The dark side of experiencing job autonomy: Unethical behavior. JOURNAL OF EXPERIMENTAL SOCIAL PSYCHOLOGY 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jesp.2017.05.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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12
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Banker S, Ainsworth SE, Baumeister RF, Ariely D, Vohs KD. The Sticky Anchor Hypothesis: Ego Depletion Increases Susceptibility to Situational Cues. JOURNAL OF BEHAVIORAL DECISION MAKING 2017. [DOI: 10.1002/bdm.2022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Sachin Banker
- Eccles School of Business; University of Utah; Salt Lake City UT USA
| | - Sarah E. Ainsworth
- Department of Psychology; University of North Florida; Jacksonville FL USA
| | - Roy F. Baumeister
- Department of Psychology; Florida State University; Tallahassee FL USA
| | - Dan Ariely
- Fuqua School of Business; Duke University; Durham NC USA
| | - Kathleen D. Vohs
- Carlson School of Management; University of Minnesota; Minneapolis MN USA
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13
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Wiltermuth SS, Vincent LC, Gino F. Creativity in unethical behavior attenuates condemnation and breeds social contagion when transgressions seem to create little harm. ORGANIZATIONAL BEHAVIOR AND HUMAN DECISION PROCESSES 2017. [DOI: 10.1016/j.obhdp.2017.01.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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14
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Ličen M, Hartmann F, Repovš G, Slapničar S. The Impact of Social Pressure and Monetary Incentive on Cognitive Control. Front Psychol 2016; 7:93. [PMID: 26903901 PMCID: PMC4746438 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyg.2016.00093] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2015] [Accepted: 01/18/2016] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
We compare the effects of two prominent organizational control mechanisms-social pressure and monetary incentive-on cognitive control. Cognitive control underlies the human ability to regulate thoughts and actions in the pursuit of behavioral goals. Previous studies show that monetary incentives can contribute to goal-oriented behavior by activating proactive control. There is, however, much less evidence of how social pressure affects cognitive control and task performance. In a within-subject experimental design, we tested 47 subjects performing the AX-CPT task to compare the activation of cognitive control modes under social pressure and monetary incentive beyond mere instructions to perform better. Our results indicate that instructing participants to improve their performance on its own leads to a significant shift from a reactive to a proactive control mode and that both social pressure and monetary incentive further enhance performance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mina Ličen
- Department of Accounting and Auditing, Faculty of Economics, University of Ljubljana Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Frank Hartmann
- Department of Accounting and Control, Rotterdam School of Management, Erasmus University Rotterdam Rotterdam, Netherlands
| | - Grega Repovš
- Mind and Brain Lab, Department of Psychology, Faculty of Arts, University of Ljubljana Ljubljana, Slovenia
| | - Sergeja Slapničar
- Department of Accounting and Auditing, Faculty of Economics, University of Ljubljana Ljubljana, Slovenia
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15
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The Impact of Leader’s Humor on Employees’ Creativity: The Moderating Role of Trust in Leader. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2015. [DOI: 10.35152/snusjb.2015.21.1.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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16
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Rand DG, Newman GE, Wurzbacher OM. Social Context and the Dynamics of Cooperative Choice. JOURNAL OF BEHAVIORAL DECISION MAKING 2014. [DOI: 10.1002/bdm.1837] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- David G. Rand
- Department of Psychology; Yale University; New Haven CT USA
- Department of Economics; Yale University; New Haven CT USA
- Program in Cognitive Science; Yale University; New Haven CT USA
- School of Management; Yale University; New Haven CT USA
| | - George E. Newman
- Program in Cognitive Science; Yale University; New Haven CT USA
- School of Management; Yale University; New Haven CT USA
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