1
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Hodgins JJ, Abou-Hamad J, O’Dwyer CE, Hagerman A, Yakubovich E, Tanese de Souza C, Marotel M, Buchler A, Fadel S, Park MM, Fong-McMaster C, Crupi MF, Makinson OJ, Kurdieh R, Rezaei R, Dhillon HS, Ilkow CS, Bell JC, Harper ME, Rotstein BH, Auer RC, Vanderhyden BC, Sabourin LA, Bourgeois-Daigneault MC, Cook DP, Ardolino M. PD-L1 promotes oncolytic virus infection via a metabolic shift that inhibits the type I IFN pathway. J Exp Med 2024; 221:e20221721. [PMID: 38869480 PMCID: PMC11176258 DOI: 10.1084/jem.20221721] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2022] [Revised: 02/04/2024] [Accepted: 03/14/2024] [Indexed: 06/14/2024] Open
Abstract
While conventional wisdom initially postulated that PD-L1 serves as the inert ligand for PD-1, an emerging body of literature suggests that PD-L1 has cell-intrinsic functions in immune and cancer cells. In line with these studies, here we show that engagement of PD-L1 via cellular ligands or agonistic antibodies, including those used in the clinic, potently inhibits the type I interferon pathway in cancer cells. Hampered type I interferon responses in PD-L1-expressing cancer cells resulted in enhanced efficacy of oncolytic viruses in vitro and in vivo. Consistently, PD-L1 expression marked tumor explants from cancer patients that were best infected by oncolytic viruses. Mechanistically, PD-L1 promoted a metabolic shift characterized by enhanced glycolysis rate that resulted in increased lactate production. In turn, lactate inhibited type I IFN responses. In addition to adding mechanistic insight into PD-L1 intrinsic function, our results will also help guide the numerous ongoing efforts to combine PD-L1 antibodies with oncolytic virotherapy in clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jonathan J. Hodgins
- Cancer Therapeutics Program, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, Canada
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
- Center for Infection, Immunity, and Inflammation, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
| | - John Abou-Hamad
- Cancer Therapeutics Program, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, Canada
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
| | - Colin Edward O’Dwyer
- Cancer Therapeutics Program, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, Canada
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
- Center for Infection, Immunity, and Inflammation, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
| | - Ash Hagerman
- Cancer Therapeutics Program, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, Canada
- Center for Infection, Immunity, and Inflammation, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
| | - Edward Yakubovich
- Cancer Therapeutics Program, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, Canada
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
| | | | - Marie Marotel
- Cancer Therapeutics Program, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, Canada
- Center for Infection, Immunity, and Inflammation, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
| | - Ariel Buchler
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
- University of Ottawa Heart Institute, Ottawa, Canada
| | - Saleh Fadel
- The Ottawa Hospital, Ottawa, Canada
- Department of Pathology and Laboratory Medicine, The Ottawa Hospital, Ottawa, Canada
| | - Maria M. Park
- Cancer Therapeutics Program, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, Canada
- Center for Infection, Immunity, and Inflammation, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
| | - Claire Fong-McMaster
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
- Ottawa Institute for Systems Biology, Ottawa, Canada
| | - Mathieu F. Crupi
- Cancer Therapeutics Program, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, Canada
| | - Olivia Joan Makinson
- Cancer Therapeutics Program, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, Canada
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
- Center for Infection, Immunity, and Inflammation, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
| | - Reem Kurdieh
- Cancer Therapeutics Program, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, Canada
| | - Reza Rezaei
- Cancer Therapeutics Program, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, Canada
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
- Center for Infection, Immunity, and Inflammation, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
| | - Harkirat Singh Dhillon
- Cancer Therapeutics Program, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, Canada
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
- Center for Infection, Immunity, and Inflammation, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
| | - Carolina S. Ilkow
- Cancer Therapeutics Program, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, Canada
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
- Center for Infection, Immunity, and Inflammation, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
| | - John C. Bell
- Cancer Therapeutics Program, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, Canada
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
| | - Mary-Ellen Harper
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
- Center for Infection, Immunity, and Inflammation, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
- Ottawa Institute for Systems Biology, Ottawa, Canada
| | - Benjamin H. Rotstein
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
- Department of Chemistry and Biomolecular Sciences, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
- University of Ottawa Heart Institute, Ottawa, Canada
| | - Rebecca C. Auer
- Cancer Therapeutics Program, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, Canada
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
| | - Barbara C. Vanderhyden
- Cancer Therapeutics Program, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, Canada
- Center for Infection, Immunity, and Inflammation, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
| | - Luc A. Sabourin
- Cancer Therapeutics Program, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, Canada
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
| | - Marie-Claude Bourgeois-Daigneault
- Department of Microbiology, Infectious Diseases, and Immunology, University of Montreal, Montreal, Canada
- Centre Hospitalier de l’Université de Montréal Research Centre, Cancer and Immunopathology axes, Montreal, Canada
| | - David P. Cook
- Cancer Therapeutics Program, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, Canada
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
| | - Michele Ardolino
- Cancer Therapeutics Program, Ottawa Hospital Research Institute, Ottawa, Canada
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology, and Immunology, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
- Center for Infection, Immunity, and Inflammation, University of Ottawa, Ottawa, Canada
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2
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Liu D, Yu L, Rong H, Liu L, Yin J. Engineering Microorganisms for Cancer Immunotherapy. Adv Healthc Mater 2024; 13:e2304649. [PMID: 38598792 DOI: 10.1002/adhm.202304649] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/28/2023] [Revised: 04/02/2024] [Indexed: 04/12/2024]
Abstract
Cancer immunotherapy presents a promising approach to fight against cancer by utilizing the immune system. Recently, engineered microorganisms have emerged as a potential strategy in cancer immunotherapy. These microorganisms, including bacteria and viruses, can be designed and modified using synthetic biology and genetic engineering techniques to target cancer cells and modulate the immune system. This review delves into various microorganism-based therapies for cancer immunotherapy, encompassing strategies for enhancing efficacy while ensuring safety and ethical considerations. The development of these therapies holds immense potential in offering innovative personalized treatments for cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dingkang Liu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Druggability of Biopharmaceuticals, State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, School of Life Science and Technology, China Pharmaceutical University, No. 639 Longmian Avenue, Nanjing, 211198, China
| | - Lichao Yu
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Druggability of Biopharmaceuticals, State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, School of Life Science and Technology, China Pharmaceutical University, No. 639 Longmian Avenue, Nanjing, 211198, China
| | - Haibo Rong
- Jiangsu Cancer Hospital & Jiangsu Institute of Cancer Research & Nanjing Medical University Affiliated Cancer Hospital, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Lubin Liu
- Department of Obstetrics and Gynecology, Women and Children's Hospital of Chongqing Medical University, No. 120 Longshan Road, Chongqing, 401147, China
| | - Jun Yin
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Druggability of Biopharmaceuticals, State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, School of Life Science and Technology, China Pharmaceutical University, No. 639 Longmian Avenue, Nanjing, 211198, China
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3
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Calvillo-Rodríguez KM, Lorenzo-Anota HY, Rodríguez-Padilla C, Martínez-Torres AC, Scott-Algara D. Immunotherapies inducing immunogenic cell death in cancer: insight of the innate immune system. Front Immunol 2023; 14:1294434. [PMID: 38077402 PMCID: PMC10701401 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2023.1294434] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2023] [Accepted: 11/01/2023] [Indexed: 12/18/2023] Open
Abstract
Cancer immunotherapies include monoclonal antibodies, cytokines, oncolytic viruses, cellular therapies, and other biological and synthetic immunomodulators. These are traditionally studied for their effect on the immune system's role in eliminating cancer cells. However, some of these therapies have the unique ability to directly induce cytotoxicity in cancer cells by inducing immunogenic cell death (ICD). Unlike general immune stimulation, ICD triggers specific therapy-induced cell death pathways, based on the release of damage-associated molecular patterns (DAMPs) from dying tumour cells. These activate innate pattern recognition receptors (PRRs) and subsequent adaptive immune responses, offering the promise of sustained anticancer drug efficacy and durable antitumour immune memory. Exploring how onco-immunotherapies can trigger ICD, enhances our understanding of their mechanisms and potential for combination strategies. This review explores the complexities of these immunotherapeutic approaches that induce ICD, highlighting their implications for the innate immune system, addressing challenges in cancer treatment, and emphasising the pivotal role of ICD in contemporary cancer research.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kenny Misael Calvillo-Rodríguez
- Laboratorio de Inmunología y Virología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, San Nicolás de los Garza, NL, Mexico
| | - Helen Yarimet Lorenzo-Anota
- Laboratorio de Inmunología y Virología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, San Nicolás de los Garza, NL, Mexico
- The Institute for Obesity Research, Tecnológico de Monterrey, Monterrey, NL, Mexico
| | - Cristina Rodríguez-Padilla
- Laboratorio de Inmunología y Virología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, San Nicolás de los Garza, NL, Mexico
| | - Ana Carolina Martínez-Torres
- Laboratorio de Inmunología y Virología, Facultad de Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, San Nicolás de los Garza, NL, Mexico
| | - Daniel Scott-Algara
- Département d'Immunologie, Unité de Biologie Cellulaire des Lymphocytes, Pasteur Institute, Paris, France
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4
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Sugimura N, Kubota E, Mori Y, Aoyama M, Tanaka M, Shimura T, Tanida S, Johnston RN, Kataoka H. Reovirus combined with a STING agonist enhances anti-tumor immunity in a mouse model of colorectal cancer. Cancer Immunol Immunother 2023; 72:3593-3608. [PMID: 37526659 DOI: 10.1007/s00262-023-03509-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/30/2023] [Accepted: 07/24/2023] [Indexed: 08/02/2023]
Abstract
Reovirus, a naturally occurring oncolytic virus, initiates the lysis of tumor cells while simultaneously releasing tumor antigens or proapoptotic cytokines in the tumor microenvironment to augment anticancer immunity. However, reovirus has developed a strategy to evade antiviral immunity via its inhibitory effect on interferon production, which negatively affects the induction of antitumor immune responses. The mammalian adaptor protein Stimulator of Interferon Genes (STING) was identified as a key regulator that orchestrates immune responses by sensing cytosolic DNA derived from pathogens or tumors, resulting in the production of type I interferon. Recent studies reported the role of STING in innate immune responses to RNA viruses leading to the restriction of RNA virus replication. In the current study, we found that reovirus had a reciprocal reaction with a STING agonist regarding type I interferon responses in vitro; however, we found that the combination of reovirus and STING agonist enhanced anti-tumor immunity by enhancing cytotoxic T cell trafficking into tumors, leading to significant tumor regression and survival benefit in a syngeneic colorectal cancer model. Our data indicate the combination of reovirus and a STING agonist to enhance inflammation in the tumor microenvironment might be a strategy to improve oncolytic reovirus immunotherapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Naomi Sugimura
- Department of Gastroenterology and Metabolism, Nagoya City University Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Mizuho-Ku, Nagoya, 467-8601, Japan
| | - Eiji Kubota
- Department of Gastroenterology and Metabolism, Nagoya City University Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Mizuho-Ku, Nagoya, 467-8601, Japan.
| | - Yoshinori Mori
- Department of Gastroenterology, Nagoya City University West Medical Center, Kita-Ku, Nagoya, 462-8508, Japan
| | - Mineyoshi Aoyama
- Department of Pathobiology, Nagoya City University Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Mizuho-Ku, Nagoya, 467-8603, Japan
| | - Mamoru Tanaka
- Department of Gastroenterology and Metabolism, Nagoya City University Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Mizuho-Ku, Nagoya, 467-8601, Japan
| | - Takaya Shimura
- Department of Gastroenterology and Metabolism, Nagoya City University Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Mizuho-Ku, Nagoya, 467-8601, Japan
| | - Satoshi Tanida
- Department of Gastroenterology, Gamagori Municipal Hospital, Hirata-Cho, Gamagori, 443-8501, Japan
| | - Randal N Johnston
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Calgary, Calgary, AB, T2N 4N1, Canada
| | - Hiromi Kataoka
- Department of Gastroenterology and Metabolism, Nagoya City University Graduate School of Medical Sciences, Mizuho-Ku, Nagoya, 467-8601, Japan
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5
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Goldufsky JW, Daniels P, Williams MD, Gupta K, Lyday B, Chen T, Singh G, Kaufman HL, Zloza A, Marzo AL. Attenuated Dengue virus PV001-DV induces oncolytic tumor cell death and potent immune responses. J Transl Med 2023; 21:483. [PMID: 37468934 PMCID: PMC10357599 DOI: 10.1186/s12967-023-04344-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/26/2023] [Accepted: 07/11/2023] [Indexed: 07/21/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Viral therapies developed for cancer treatment have classically prioritized direct oncolytic effects over their immune activating properties. However, recent clinical insights have challenged this longstanding prioritization and have shifted the focus to more immune-based mechanisms. Through the potential utilization of novel, inherently immune-stimulating, oncotropic viruses there is a therapeutic opportunity to improve anti-tumor outcomes through virus-mediated immune activation. PV001-DV is an attenuated strain of Dengue virus (DEN-1 #45AZ5) with a favorable clinical safety profile that also maintains the potent immune stimulatory properties characterstic of Dengue virus infection. METHODS In this study, we utilized in vitro tumor killing and immune multiplex assays to examine the anti-tumor effects of PV001-DV as a potential novel cancer immunotherapy. RESULTS In vitro assays demonstrated that PV001-DV possesses the ability to directly kill human melanoma cells lines as well as patient melanoma tissue ex vivo. Importantly, further work demonstrated that, when patient peripheral blood mononuclear cells (PBMCs) were exposed to PV001-DV, a substantial induction in the production of apoptotic factors and immunostimulatory cytokines was detected. When tumor cells were cultured with the resulting soluble mediators from these PBMCs, rapid cell death of melanoma and breast cancer cell lines was observed. These soluble mediators also increased dengue virus binding ligands and immune checkpoint receptor, PD-L1 expression. CONCLUSIONS The direct in vitro tumor-killing and immune-mediated tumor cytotoxicity facilitated by PV001-DV contributes support of its upcoming clinical evaluation in patients with advanced melanoma who have failed prior therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Josef W Goldufsky
- Department of Internal Medicine, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL, 60612, USA
| | - Preston Daniels
- Department of Internal Medicine, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL, 60612, USA
| | - Michael D Williams
- Department of Surgery, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL, 60612, USA
| | - Kajal Gupta
- Department of Surgery, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL, 60612, USA
| | - Bruce Lyday
- Primevax Immuno-Oncology, Inc, Orange, CA, 92868, USA
| | - Tony Chen
- Primevax Immuno-Oncology, Inc, Orange, CA, 92868, USA
| | - Geeta Singh
- Primevax Immuno-Oncology, Inc, Orange, CA, 92868, USA
| | - Howard L Kaufman
- Department of Surgery, Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA, 02114, USA
| | - Andrew Zloza
- Department of Internal Medicine, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL, 60612, USA
| | - Amanda L Marzo
- Department of Internal Medicine, Rush University Medical Center, Chicago, IL, 60612, USA.
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6
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Eguchi M, Hirata S, Ishigami I, Shuwari N, Ono R, Tachibana M, Tanuma M, Kasai A, Hashimoto H, Ogawara KI, Mizuguchi H, Sakurai F. Pre-treatment of oncolytic reovirus improves tumor accumulation and intratumoral distribution of PEG-liposomes. J Control Release 2023; 354:35-44. [PMID: 36586673 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2022.12.050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2022] [Revised: 12/06/2022] [Accepted: 12/24/2022] [Indexed: 01/02/2023]
Abstract
PEGylated liposomes (PEG-liposomes) are a promising drug delivery vehicle for tumor targeting because of their efficient tumor disposition profiles via the enhanced permeability and retention (EPR) effect. However, tumor targeting of PEG-liposomes, particularly their delivery inside the tumors, is often disturbed by physical barriers in the tumor, including tumor cells themselves, extracellular matrices, and interstitial pressures. In this study, B16 melanoma tumor-bearing mice were injected intravenously with oncolytic reovirus before administration of PEG-liposomes to enhance PEG-liposomes' tumor disposition. Three days after reovirus administration, significant expression of reovirus sigma 3 protein, elevation of apoptosis-related gene expression, and activation of caspase 3 in the tumors were found. Apoptotic cells were found inside the tumors. These data indicated that reovirus efficiently replicated in the tumors and induced apoptosis of tumor cells. The tumor disposition levels of PEG-liposomes were approximately doubled by reovirus pre-administration, compared with a PBS-pretreated group. PEG-liposomes were widely distributed in the tumors of reovirus-pretreated mice, whereas in the PBS-pretreated group, PEG-liposomes were found mainly around or inside the blood vessels in the tumors. Pre-treatment with reovirus also improved the tumor accumulation of PEG-liposomes in human pancreatic BxPC-3 tumors. 3D imaging analysis of whole BxPC-3 tumors demonstrated that pretreatment with reovirus led to the enhancement of PEG-liposome accumulation inside the tumors. Combination treatment with reovirus and paclitaxel-loaded PEG-liposomes (PTX-PEG-liposomes) significantly suppressed B16 tumor growth. These results provide important information for clinical use of combination therapy of reovirus and nanoparticle-based drug delivery system (DDS).
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Affiliation(s)
- Maho Eguchi
- Laboratory of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, 1-6 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Seiya Hirata
- Laboratory of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, 1-6 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Ikuho Ishigami
- Laboratory of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, 1-6 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Naomi Shuwari
- Laboratory of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, 1-6 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Ryosuke Ono
- Laboratory of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, 1-6 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Masashi Tachibana
- Laboratory of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, 1-6 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Masato Tanuma
- Laboratory of Molecular Neuropharmacology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Atsushi Kasai
- Laboratory of Molecular Neuropharmacology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Hitoshi Hashimoto
- Laboratory of Molecular Neuropharmacology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, Osaka 565-0871, Japan; Transdimensional Life Imaging Division, Institute for Open and Transdisciplinary Research Initiatives, Osaka University, Osaka 565-0871, Japan; Molecular Research Center for Children's Mental Development, United Graduate School of Child Development, Osaka University, Kanazawa University, Hamamatsu University School of Medicine, Chiba University and University of Fukui, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan; Department of Molecular Pharmaceutical Sciences, Graduate School of Medicine, Osaka University, Osaka 565-0871, Japan; Division of Bioscience, Institute for Datability Science, Osaka University, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Ken-Ichi Ogawara
- Department of Pharmaceutics, Kobe Pharmaceutical University, Kobe 658-8558, Japan
| | - Hiroyuki Mizuguchi
- Laboratory of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, 1-6 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan; The Center for Advanced Medical Engineering and Informatics, Osaka University, 2-2 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan; Laboratory of Functional Organoid for Drug Discovery, Center for Drug Discovery Resources Research, National Institute of Biomedical Innovation, Health and Nutrition, 7-6-8 Saito, Asagi, Ibaraki, Osaka 567-0085, Japan; Integrated Frontier Research for Medical Science Division, Institute for Open and Transdisciplinary Research Initiatives, Osaka University, Osaka 565-0871, Japan; Center for Infectious Disease Education and Research (CiDER), Osaka University, Osaka 565-0871, Japan
| | - Fuminori Sakurai
- Laboratory of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Graduate School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Osaka University, 1-6 Yamadaoka, Suita, Osaka 565-0871, Japan.
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7
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Jiang S, Li Z, Dou R, Lin Z, Zhang J, Zhang W, Chen Z, Shen X, Ji J, Qu M, Wang Y, Li M, Gao X. Construction and validation of a novel cuproptosis-related long noncoding RNA signature for predicting the outcome of prostate cancer. Front Genet 2022; 13:976850. [PMID: 36561322 PMCID: PMC9763621 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2022.976850] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/23/2022] [Accepted: 11/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/12/2022] Open
Abstract
Background: Prostate cancer (PCa) is one of the most common tumors of the urinary system. Cuproptosis is a novel mode of controlled cell death that is related to the development of various tumor types. However, the functions of cuproptosis-related long noncoding RNAs (CRLs) in PCa have not yet been well studied. Methods: In this study, data of PCa patients were obtained from The Cancer Genome Atlas (TCGA) and from the Changhai Hospital. Univariate and multivariate Cox regression analyses and LASSO regression analysis were conducted to screen CRLs linked to the prognosis of PCa patients. A risk score model was constructed on the basis of CRLs to predict prognosis. PCa patients were categorized into high- and low-risk cohorts. The predictive value of the risk score was evaluated by Kaplan-Meier survival analysis, receiver operating characteristic curves, and nomograms. In addition, gene ontology (GO) and Kyoto Encyclopedia of Genes and Genomes (KEGG) enrichment analyses were used to explore possible pathways involving CRLs in PCa. Immune function analysis confirmed the correlation between CRLs and immunity in PCa. Finally, we explored the tumor mutational burden and drug response in the high- and low-risk cohorts. Results: First, we identified seven CRLs (C1orf229, C9orf139, LIPE-AS1, MCPH1-AS1, PRR26, SGMS1-AS1, and SNHG1) that were closely related to prognosis in PCa. The risk score model based on the selected CRLs could accurately predict the prognosis of PCa patients. The high-risk cohort was associated with worse disease-free survival (DFS) time in PCa patients (p < 0.001). ROC curve analysis was performed to confirm the validity of the signature (area under the curve (AUC) at 1 year: 0.703). Nomograms were constructed based on the risk score and clinicopathological features and also exhibited great predictive efficiency for PCa. GO and KEGG analyses showed that the CRLs were mainly enriched in metabolism-related biological pathways in PCa. In addition, immune function analysis showed that patients in the high-risk cohort had higher TMB and were more sensitive to conventional chemotherapy and targeted drugs including doxorubicin, epothilone B, etoposide, and mitomycin C. Conclusion: We constructed a novel CRL-related risk score model to accurately predict the prognosis of PCa patients. Our results indicate that CRLs are potential targets for drug therapy in PCa and provide a possible new direction for personalized treatment of PCa patients.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shaoqin Jiang
- Department of Urology, Changhai Hospital, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China,Department of Urology, Fujian Union Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
| | - Zhihao Li
- Department of Urology, Fujian Union Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
| | - Ruiling Dou
- Department of Urology, Fujian Union Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
| | - Zequn Lin
- Department of Urology, Fujian Union Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China
| | - Jili Zhang
- Department of Urology, Changhai Hospital, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Wenhui Zhang
- Department of Urology, Changhai Hospital, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Zeyu Chen
- Department of Urology, Changhai Hospital, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Xianqi Shen
- Department of Urology, Changhai Hospital, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Jin Ji
- Department of Urology, Changhai Hospital, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Min Qu
- Department of Urology, Changhai Hospital, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Yan Wang
- Department of Urology, Changhai Hospital, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China
| | - Mengqiang Li
- Department of Urology, Fujian Union Hospital, Fujian Medical University, Fuzhou, Fujian, China,*Correspondence: Mengqiang Li, ; Xu Gao,
| | - Xu Gao
- Department of Urology, Changhai Hospital, Second Military Medical University, Shanghai, China,*Correspondence: Mengqiang Li, ; Xu Gao,
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8
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Zhou X, Ni Y, Liang X, Lin Y, An B, He X, Zhao X. Mechanisms of tumor resistance to immune checkpoint blockade and combination strategies to overcome resistance. Front Immunol 2022; 13:915094. [PMID: 36189283 PMCID: PMC9520263 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.915094] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2022] [Accepted: 08/19/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Immune checkpoint blockade (ICB) has rapidly transformed the treatment paradigm for various cancer types. Multiple single or combinations of ICB treatments have been approved by the US Food and Drug Administration, providing more options for patients with advanced cancer. However, most patients could not benefit from these immunotherapies due to primary and acquired drug resistance. Thus, a better understanding of the mechanisms of ICB resistance is urgently needed to improve clinical outcomes. Here, we focused on the changes in the biological functions of CD8+ T cells to elucidate the underlying resistance mechanisms of ICB therapies and summarized the advanced coping strategies to increase ICB efficacy. Combinational ICB approaches and individualized immunotherapies require further in-depth investigation to facilitate longer-lasting efficacy and a more excellent safety of ICB in a broader range of patients.
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9
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Xiong F, Wang Q, Wu GH, Liu WZ, Wang B, Chen YJ. Direct and indirect effects of IFN-α2b in malignancy treatment: not only an archer but also an arrow. Biomark Res 2022; 10:69. [PMID: 36104718 PMCID: PMC9472737 DOI: 10.1186/s40364-022-00415-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2022] [Accepted: 08/22/2022] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Interferon-α2b (IFN-α2b) is a highly active cytokine that belongs to the interferon-α (IFN-α) family. IFN-α2b has beneficial antiviral, antitumour, antiparasitic and immunomodulatory activities. Direct and indirect antiproliferative effects of IFN-α2b have been found to occur via multiple pathways, mainly the JAK-STAT pathway, in certain cancers. This article reviews mechanistic studies and clinical trials on IFN-α2b. Potential regulators of the function of IFN-α2b were also reviewed, which could be utilized to relieve the poor response to IFN-α2b. IFN-α2b can function not only by enhancing the systematic immune response but also by directly killing tumour cells. Different parts of JAK-STAT pathway activated by IFN-α2b, such as interferon alpha and beta receptors (IFNARs), Janus kinases (JAKs) and IFN‐stimulated gene factor 3 (ISGF3), might serve as potential target for enhancing the pharmacological action of IFN-α2b. Despite some issues that remain to be solved, based on current evidence, IFN-α2b can inhibit disease progression and improve the survival of patients with certain types of malignant tumours. More efforts should be made to address potential adverse effects and complications.
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10
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Ganguly K, Kishore U, Metkari SM, Madan T. Immunomodulatory Role of Surfactant Protein-D in a Transgenic Adenocarcinoma of Mouse Prostate (TRAMP) Model. Front Immunol 2022; 13:930449. [PMID: 35874783 PMCID: PMC9302643 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2022.930449] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2022] [Accepted: 05/23/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Surfactant protein D (SP-D), a pattern recognition molecule, is emerging as a potent anti-tumoural innate immune defense molecule in a range of cancers. Previously, SP-D expression was found to be significantly downregulated at the malignant sites of human prostate adenocarcinoma and associated with an increasing Gleason score and severity. We recently reported selective induction of intrinsic apoptosis by a recombinant fragment of human SP-D (rfhSP-D) in the human Prostate cancer (PCa) biopsy explants and cells with glucose regulated protein of 78 (GRP78) as one of the key interacting partners. The present study evaluated the expression of SP-D in early and advanced stages of PCa using transgenic adenocarcinoma of mouse prostate (TRAMP) model. Both early and late stages of PCa showed significantly decreased SP-D mRNA expression and increased proteolytic degradation of SP-D protein. Systemic and tumoural immunophenotyping of TRAMP model revealed increased serine proteases producing granulocytes and polymorphonuclear myeloid-derived suppressor cells (PMN MDSCs) in the late stage; the serine proteases secreted by these cells could be involved in the degradation of SP-D. Susceptibility of rfhSP-D to elastase-mediated proteolysis provided the rationale to use an elastase-inhibitor to sustain intact rfhSP-D in the tumour microenvironment. The study revealed an immunomodulatory potential of rfhSP-D and elastase inhibitor, sivelestat, to induce macrophage polarization towards M1 with downregulation of PMN MDSCs in ex-vivo cultured TRAMP tumours. Furthermore, rfhSP-D induced immunogenic cell death in murine PCa cells and in TRAMP explants. The findings highlight that SP-D plays an anti-tumourigenic role in PCa by inducing immunogenic cell death and immunomodulation while the prostate tumour milieu adversely impacts SP-D by inhibiting its transcription, and enhancing its proteolytic degradation. Transformation of an immunologically “cold tumour” into a “hot tumour” implicates therapeutic potential of rfhSP-D in PCa.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kasturi Ganguly
- Department of Innate Immunity, Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR)- National Institute for Research in Reproductive and Child Health, Mumbai, India
| | - Uday Kishore
- Biosciences, College of Health and Life Sciences, Brunel University London, Uxbridge, United Kingdom
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, United Arab Emirates (U.A.E) University, Al Ain, United Arab Emirates
| | - Siddhanath M. Metkari
- Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR)- National Institute for Research in Reproductive and Child Health, Mumbai, India
| | - Taruna Madan
- Department of Innate Immunity, Indian Council of Medical Research (ICMR)- National Institute for Research in Reproductive and Child Health, Mumbai, India
- *Correspondence: Taruna Madan,
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11
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Priceman SJ, Cheema W, Adusumilli PS. Advancing together and moving forward: Combination gene and cellular immunotherapies. Mol Ther Oncolytics 2022; 25:330-334. [PMID: 35694448 PMCID: PMC9160651 DOI: 10.1016/j.omto.2022.05.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022] Open
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12
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Mealiea D, McCart JA. Cutting both ways: the innate immune response to oncolytic virotherapy. Cancer Gene Ther 2022; 29:629-646. [PMID: 34453122 DOI: 10.1038/s41417-021-00351-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2021] [Revised: 05/09/2021] [Accepted: 05/18/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Oncolytic viruses (OVs), above and beyond infecting and lysing malignant cells, interact with the immune system in complex ways that have important therapeutic significance. While investigation into these interactions is still in its early stages, important insights have been made over the past two decades that will help improve the clinical efficacy of OV-based management strategies in cancer care moving forward. The inherent immunosuppression that defines the tumor microenvironment can be modified by OV infection, and the subsequent recruitment and activation of innate immune cells, in particular, is central to this. Indeed, neutrophils, macrophages, natural killer cells, and dendritic cells, as well as other populations such as myeloid-derived suppressor cells, are key to the immune escape that allows tumors to survive, but their natural response to infection can be exploited by virotherapy. While stimulation of innate immune cells by OVs can initiate antitumor responses, related antiviral activity can limit virus spread and direct cytopathogenic effects. In this review, we highlight how each innate immune cell population influences this balance of antitumor and antiviral forces during virotherapy, some of the important molecular pathways that have been identified, and specific therapeutic targets that have emerged through this work. We discuss the importance of OV-based combination therapies in optimizing antiviral and antitumor innate immune responses stimulated by virotherapy toward tumor eradication, and how these processes vary depending on the tumor and OV in question. Rather than concentrating on a particular OV species in the review, we present the range of effects that have been documented across OV types to emphasize the context-specific nature of these interactions and how this is important in the design of future OV-based treatment approaches.
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Affiliation(s)
- David Mealiea
- Department of Surgery, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada. .,Lunenfeld-Tanenbaum Research Institute, Mount Sinai Hospital, Toronto, ON, Canada.
| | - J Andrea McCart
- Department of Surgery, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada.,Lunenfeld-Tanenbaum Research Institute, Mount Sinai Hospital, Toronto, ON, Canada
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13
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Dunai C, Ames E, Ochoa MC, Fernandez-Sendin M, Melero I, Simonetta F, Baker J, Alvarez M. Killers on the loose: Immunotherapeutic strategies to improve NK cell-based therapy for cancer treatment. INTERNATIONAL REVIEW OF CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2022; 370:65-122. [PMID: 35798507 DOI: 10.1016/bs.ircmb.2022.04.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells are innate lymphocytes that control tumor progression by not only directly killing cancer cells, but also by regulating other immune cells, helping to orchestrate a coordinated anti-tumor response. However, despite the tremendous potential that this cell type has, the clinical results obtained from diverse NK cell-based immunotherapeutic strategies have been, until recent years, rather modest. The intrinsic regulatory mechanisms that are involved in the control of their activation as well as the multiple mechanisms that tumor cells have developed to escape NK cell-mediated cytotoxicity likely account for the unsatisfactory clinical outcomes. The current approaches to improve long-term NK cell function are centered on modulating different molecules involved in both the activation and inhibition of NK cells, and the latest data seems to advocate for combining strategies that target multiple aspects of NK cell regulation. In this review, we summarize the different strategies (such as engineered NK cells, CAR-NK, NK cell immune engagers) that are currently being used to take advantage of this potent and complex immune cell.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cordelia Dunai
- Department of Clinical Infection, Microbiology and Immunology, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, United Kingdom
| | - Erik Ames
- Department of Pathology, Stanford University, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Maria C Ochoa
- Program for Immunology and Immunotherapy, CIMA, Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain; Navarra Institute for Health Research (IdiSNA), Pamplona, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Cáncer (CIBERONC), Madrid, Spain
| | - Myriam Fernandez-Sendin
- Program for Immunology and Immunotherapy, CIMA, Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain; Navarra Institute for Health Research (IdiSNA), Pamplona, Spain
| | - Ignacio Melero
- Program for Immunology and Immunotherapy, CIMA, Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain; Navarra Institute for Health Research (IdiSNA), Pamplona, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Cáncer (CIBERONC), Madrid, Spain; Department of Immunology and Immunotherapy, Clínica Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain
| | - Federico Simonetta
- Division of Hematology, Department of Oncology, Geneva University Hospitals, Geneva, Switzerland; Translational Research Centre in Onco-Haematology, Faculty of Medicine, Department of Pathology and Immunology, University of Geneva, Geneva, Switzerland
| | - Jeanette Baker
- Blood and Marrow Transplantation, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, CA, United States
| | - Maite Alvarez
- Program for Immunology and Immunotherapy, CIMA, Universidad de Navarra, Pamplona, Spain; Navarra Institute for Health Research (IdiSNA), Pamplona, Spain; Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Cáncer (CIBERONC), Madrid, Spain.
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14
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Wantoch M, Wilson EB, Droop AP, Phillips SL, Coffey M, El‐Sherbiny YM, Holmes TD, Melcher AA, Wetherill LF, Cook GP. Oncolytic virus treatment differentially affects the CD56 dim and CD56 bright NK cell subsets in vivo and regulates a spectrum of human NK cell activity. Immunology 2022; 166:104-120. [PMID: 35156714 PMCID: PMC10357483 DOI: 10.1111/imm.13453] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/02/2021] [Accepted: 01/10/2022] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Natural killer (NK) cells protect against intracellular infection and cancer. These properties are exploited in oncolytic virus (OV) therapy, where antiviral responses enhance anti-tumour immunity. We have analysed the mechanism by which reovirus, an oncolytic dsRNA virus, modulates human NK cell activity. Reovirus activates NK cells in a type I interferon (IFN-I) dependent manner, inducing STAT1 and STAT4 signalling in both CD56dim and CD56bright NK cell subsets. Gene expression profiling revealed the dominance of IFN-I responses and identified induction of genes associated with NK cell cytotoxicity and cell cycle progression, with distinct responses in the CD56dim and CD56bright subsets. However, reovirus treatment inhibited IL-15 induced NK cell proliferation in an IFN-I dependent manner and was associated with reduced AKT signalling. In vivo, human CD56dim and CD56bright NK cells responded with similar kinetics to reovirus treatment, but CD56bright NK cells were transiently lost from the peripheral circulation at the peak of the IFN-I response, suggestive of their redistribution to secondary lymphoid tissue. Coupled with the direct, OV-mediated killing of tumour cells, the activation of both CD56dim and CD56bright NK cells by antiviral pathways induces a spectrum of activity that includes the NK cell-mediated killing of tumour cells and modulation of adaptive responses via the trafficking of IFN-γ expressing CD56bright NK cells to lymph nodes.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michelle Wantoch
- Leeds Institute of Medical Research, School of Medicine, University of LeedsLeedsUK
- Present address:
Wellcome‐MRC Cambridge Stem Cell InstituteUniversity of CambridgeCambridgeUK
| | - Erica B. Wilson
- Leeds Institute of Medical Research, School of Medicine, University of LeedsLeedsUK
| | - Alastair P. Droop
- Leeds Institute of Medical Research, School of Medicine, University of LeedsLeedsUK
- Present address:
Wellcome Trust Sanger InstituteCambridgeUK
| | - Sarah L. Phillips
- Leeds Institute of Medical Research, School of Medicine, University of LeedsLeedsUK
| | | | - Yasser M. El‐Sherbiny
- Leeds Institute of Medical Research, School of Medicine, University of LeedsLeedsUK
- Present address:
School of Science and TechnologyNottingham Trent UniversityNottinghamUK
- Present address:
Clinical Pathology DepartmentFaculty of MedicineMansoura UniversityMansouraEgypt
| | - Tim D. Holmes
- Leeds Institute of Medical Research, School of Medicine, University of LeedsLeedsUK
- Present address:
Department of Clinical ScienceUniversity of BergenBergenNorway
| | - Alan A. Melcher
- Leeds Institute of Medical Research, School of Medicine, University of LeedsLeedsUK
- Present address:
Institute of Cancer ResearchLondonUK
| | - Laura F. Wetherill
- Leeds Institute of Medical Research, School of Medicine, University of LeedsLeedsUK
| | - Graham P. Cook
- Leeds Institute of Medical Research, School of Medicine, University of LeedsLeedsUK
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15
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Appleton E, Hassan J, Chan Wah Hak C, Sivamanoharan N, Wilkins A, Samson A, Ono M, Harrington KJ, Melcher A, Wennerberg E. Kickstarting Immunity in Cold Tumours: Localised Tumour Therapy Combinations With Immune Checkpoint Blockade. Front Immunol 2021; 12:754436. [PMID: 34733287 PMCID: PMC8558396 DOI: 10.3389/fimmu.2021.754436] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2021] [Accepted: 09/29/2021] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Cancer patients with low or absent pre-existing anti-tumour immunity ("cold" tumours) respond poorly to treatment with immune checkpoint inhibitors (ICPI). In order to render these patients susceptible to ICPI, initiation of de novo tumour-targeted immune responses is required. This involves triggering of inflammatory signalling, innate immune activation including recruitment and stimulation of dendritic cells (DCs), and ultimately priming of tumour-specific T cells. The ability of tumour localised therapies to trigger these pathways and act as in situ tumour vaccines is being increasingly explored, with the aspiration of developing combination strategies with ICPI that could generate long-lasting responses. In this effort, it is crucial to consider how therapy-induced changes in the tumour microenvironment (TME) act both as immune stimulants but also, in some cases, exacerbate immune resistance mechanisms. Increasingly refined immune monitoring in pre-clinical studies and analysis of on-treatment biopsies from clinical trials have provided insight into therapy-induced biomarkers of response, as well as actionable targets for optimal synergy between localised therapies and ICB. Here, we review studies on the immunomodulatory effects of novel and experimental localised therapies, as well as the re-evaluation of established therapies, such as radiotherapy, as immune adjuvants with a focus on ICPI combinations.
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Affiliation(s)
- Elizabeth Appleton
- Department of Radiotherapy and Imaging, Institute of Cancer Research (ICR), London, United Kingdom
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Jehanne Hassan
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Charleen Chan Wah Hak
- Department of Radiotherapy and Imaging, Institute of Cancer Research (ICR), London, United Kingdom
| | - Nanna Sivamanoharan
- Department of Radiotherapy and Imaging, Institute of Cancer Research (ICR), London, United Kingdom
| | - Anna Wilkins
- Department of Radiotherapy and Imaging, Institute of Cancer Research (ICR), London, United Kingdom
| | - Adel Samson
- Leeds Institute of Medical Research at St. James, University of Leeds, Leeds, United Kingdom
| | - Masahiro Ono
- Department of Life Sciences, Imperial College London, London, United Kingdom
| | - Kevin J. Harrington
- Department of Radiotherapy and Imaging, Institute of Cancer Research (ICR), London, United Kingdom
| | - Alan Melcher
- Department of Radiotherapy and Imaging, Institute of Cancer Research (ICR), London, United Kingdom
| | - Erik Wennerberg
- Department of Radiotherapy and Imaging, Institute of Cancer Research (ICR), London, United Kingdom
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