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Bera S, Kabadwal LM, Banerjee D. Harnessing alcohols as sustainable reagents for late-stage functionalisation: synthesis of drugs and bio-inspired compounds. Chem Soc Rev 2024; 53:4607-4647. [PMID: 38525675 DOI: 10.1039/d3cs00942d] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/26/2024]
Abstract
Alcohol is ubiquitous with unparalleled structural diversity and thus has wide applications as a native functional group in organic synthesis. It is highly prevalent among biomolecules and offers promising opportunities for the development of chemical libraries. Over the last decade, alcohol has been extensively used as an environmentally friendly chemical for numerous organic transformations. In this review, we collectively discuss the utilisation of alcohol from 2015 to 2023 in various organic transformations and their application toward intermediates of drugs, drug derivatives and natural product-like molecules. Notable features discussed are as follows: (i) sustainable approaches for C-X alkylation (X = C, N, or O) including O-phosphorylation of alcohols, (ii) newer strategies using methanol as a methylating reagent, (iii) allylation of alkenes and alkynes including allylic trifluoromethylations, (iv) alkenylation of N-heterocycles, ketones, sulfones, and ylides towards the synthesis of drug-like molecules, (v) cyclisation and annulation to pharmaceutically active molecules, and (vi) coupling of alcohols with aryl halides or triflates, aryl cyanide and olefins to access drug-like molecules. We summarise the synthesis of over 100 drugs via several approaches, where alcohol was used as one of the potential coupling partners. Additionally, a library of molecules consisting over 60 fatty acids or steroid motifs is documented for late-stage functionalisation including the challenges and opportunities for harnessing alcohols as renewable resources.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sourajit Bera
- Department of Chemistry, Laboratory of Catalysis and Organic Synthesis, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee 247667, Uttarakhand, India.
| | - Lalit Mohan Kabadwal
- Department of Chemistry, Laboratory of Catalysis and Organic Synthesis, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee 247667, Uttarakhand, India.
| | - Debasis Banerjee
- Department of Chemistry, Laboratory of Catalysis and Organic Synthesis, Indian Institute of Technology Roorkee, Roorkee 247667, Uttarakhand, India.
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2
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Xiang D, Xiao J, Fu L, Yao L, Wan Q, Xiao L, Zhu F, Wang G, Liu Z. DNA methylation of the Tacr2 gene in a CUMS model of depression. Behav Brain Res 2019; 365:103-109. [PMID: 30711443 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2019.01.059] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2018] [Revised: 01/29/2019] [Accepted: 01/31/2019] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Tacr2, the gene encoding the NK2 receptor, belongs to G protein-coupled receptors. Accumulating evidence has indicated that the tachykinin receptors may contribute to the pathophysiology of depression. During the last decade, some studies have shown that Tacr2 activation is involved in the modulation of emotional processes. However, the extent, to which stress impacts Tacr2 expression remains unclear. The molecular mechanisms underlying depression also remain poorly understood. In this study, we subjected adult male Sprague Dawley (SD) rats to chronic unpredictable mild stress (CUMS) to induce a depression-like phenotype. We then measured the body weight and performed the sucrose preference test, forced swimming test (FST) and open field test to detect the effects of stress on anhedonia and activity. Western blotting and real-time PCR were used to study the protein and mRNA expression levels of Tacr2, respectively, in the hypothalamus. To explore DNA methylation of the Tacr2 gene, we used methylated DNA immunoprecipitation sequencing (MeDIP-seq). Additionally, we used the bisulfite sequencing PCR (BSP) to further verify the DNA methylation levels of the Tacr2 receptor gene in rats. We found that the CUMS-sensitive rats exhibited a decrease in body weight and sucrose preference, a decrease in the distance traveled, rearing frequency and velocity in the open field test, and an increase in immobility time in the FST. Compared with the expression in the control rats, Tacr2 protein and mRNA expression in the hypothalamus significantly increased in the CUMS-sensitive rats; however, the DNA methylation levels of the Tacr2 gene were significantly lower than in the control rats. In summary, according to our findings, the stress-induced increase in Tacr2 expression in the hypothalamus correlated with a specific decrease in DNA methylation of the Tacr2 gene. These results may enrich the understanding of the pathological processes of depression and provide insights into therapeutic approaches for its treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dan Xiang
- Department of Psychiatry, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430060, PR China
| | - Jiawei Xiao
- Department of Psychiatry, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430060, PR China
| | - Linyan Fu
- Department of Psychiatry, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430060, PR China
| | - Lihua Yao
- Department of Psychiatry, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430060, PR China
| | - Qirong Wan
- Department of Psychiatry, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430060, PR China
| | - Ling Xiao
- Institute of Neuropsychiatry, Renmin Hospital, Wuhan University, 430060, Wuhan, PR China
| | - Fan Zhu
- School of Basic Medical Science, Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430071, PR China
| | - Gaohua Wang
- Department of Psychiatry, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430060, PR China; Institute of Neuropsychiatry, Renmin Hospital, Wuhan University, 430060, Wuhan, PR China.
| | - Zhongchun Liu
- Department of Psychiatry, Renmin Hospital of Wuhan University, Wuhan, 430060, PR China; Institute of Neuropsychiatry, Renmin Hospital, Wuhan University, 430060, Wuhan, PR China.
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Cook A, Pfeiffer LM, Thiele S, Coenen VA, Döbrössy MD. Olfactory discrimination and memory deficits in the Flinders Sensitive Line rodent model of depression. Behav Processes 2017; 143:25-29. [PMID: 28842277 DOI: 10.1016/j.beproc.2017.08.006] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/13/2017] [Revised: 08/04/2017] [Accepted: 08/13/2017] [Indexed: 10/19/2022]
Abstract
Major Depressive Disorder (MDD) is a heterogeneous psychiatric disorder with broad symptomatic manifestations. The current study examined, for the first time, olfactory memory and discrimination in the Flinders Sensitive Line (FSL) rodent model of depression. Male FSL rats and controls were trained on an Olfactory Discrimination (OD) and a Social Interaction (SI) test. On the OD test, the FSL and controls performed similarly at the shortest inter-trial interval (5min), however, with extended delay of 30min, the FSLs had a recall and odour discrimination deficit. At the longest delay (60min) both groups performed poorly. The FSL rats i.) had a deficit in olfactory discrimination suggesting impairment in olfactory memory and recall; ii.) were less likely to socialize with unfamiliar rats. The data suggests that FSL animals have an impaired olfactory information processing capacity.
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Affiliation(s)
- A Cook
- Laboratory of Stereotaxy and Interventional Neurosciences, Department of Stereotactic and Functional Neurosurgery, Freiburg University Medical Center, Freiburg, Germany; German Resilience Center, University Medical Center, Johannes Gutenberg University Mainz, Duesbergweg 6, 55128 Mainz, Germany
| | - L-M Pfeiffer
- Laboratory of Stereotaxy and Interventional Neurosciences, Department of Stereotactic and Functional Neurosurgery, Freiburg University Medical Center, Freiburg, Germany; University of Freiburg, Faculty of Biology, Schaenzlestrasse 1, D-79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - S Thiele
- Laboratory of Stereotaxy and Interventional Neurosciences, Department of Stereotactic and Functional Neurosurgery, Freiburg University Medical Center, Freiburg, Germany; University of Freiburg, Faculty of Biology, Schaenzlestrasse 1, D-79104 Freiburg, Germany
| | - V A Coenen
- Laboratory of Stereotaxy and Interventional Neurosciences, Department of Stereotactic and Functional Neurosurgery, Freiburg University Medical Center, Freiburg, Germany
| | - M D Döbrössy
- Laboratory of Stereotaxy and Interventional Neurosciences, Department of Stereotactic and Functional Neurosurgery, Freiburg University Medical Center, Freiburg, Germany.
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Pytka K, Młyniec K, Podkowa K, Podkowa A, Jakubczyk M, Żmudzka E, Lustyk K, Sapa J, Filipek B. The role of melatonin, neurokinin, neurotrophic tyrosine kinase and glucocorticoid receptors in antidepressant-like effect. Pharmacol Rep 2017; 69:546-554. [DOI: 10.1016/j.pharep.2017.01.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2016] [Accepted: 01/24/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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Methylphenidate and desipramine combined treatment improves PTSD symptomatology in a rat model. Transl Psychiatry 2014; 4:e447. [PMID: 25247592 PMCID: PMC4203011 DOI: 10.1038/tp.2014.82] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/20/2014] [Revised: 07/23/2014] [Accepted: 07/26/2014] [Indexed: 01/10/2023] Open
Abstract
Antidepressant medication constitutes the first line pharmacological treatment for posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD), however, because many patients display no beneficial drug effects it has been suggested that combinations of antidepressants with additional drugs may be necessary. The defining symptoms of PTSD include re-experiencing, avoidance and hyperarousal. In addition, PTSD patients were shown to become easily distracted and often suffer from poor concentration together with indications of comorbidity with attention-deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD). Methylphenidate (MPH) is the most common and effective drug treatment for ADHD, thus we aimed to investigate the effects of MPH treatment, by itself or in combination with the antidepressants fluoxetine (FLU) or desipramine (DES). We modified an animal model of PTSD by exposing rats to chronic stress and evaluating the subsequent development of behavioral PTSD-like symptoms, as well as the effects on proinflammatory cytokines, which were implicated in PTSD. We report that while FLU or DES had a beneficial effect on avoidance and hyperarousal symptoms, MPH improved all three symptoms. Moreover, the combination of MPH with DES produced the most dramatic beneficial effects. Serum levels of interleukin-1β (IL-1β) and IL-6 were elevated in the PTSD-like group compared with the control group, and were decreased by MPH, FLU, DES or the combination drug treatments, with the combination of DES+MPH producing the most complete rescue of the inflammatory response. Considering the versatile symptoms of PTSD, our results suggest a new combined treatment for PTSD comprising the antidepressant DES and the psychostimulant MPH.
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Faster, better, stronger: towards new antidepressant therapeutic strategies. Eur J Pharmacol 2014; 753:32-50. [PMID: 25092200 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2014.07.046] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/30/2014] [Revised: 05/28/2014] [Accepted: 07/24/2014] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
Major depression is a highly prevalent disorder and is predicted to be the second leading cause of disease burden by 2020. Although many antidepressant drugs are currently available, they are far from optimal. Approximately 50% of patients do not respond to initial first line antidepressant treatment, while approximately one third fail to achieve remission following several pharmacological interventions. Furthermore, several weeks or months of treatment are often required before clinical improvement, if any, is reported. Moreover, most of the commonly used antidepressants have been primarily designed to increase synaptic availability of serotonin and/or noradrenaline and although they are of therapeutic benefit to many patients, it is clear that other therapeutic targets are required if we are going to improve the response and remission rates. It is clear that more effective, rapid-acting antidepressants with novel mechanisms of action are required. The purpose of this review is to outline the current strategies that are being taken in both preclinical and clinical settings for identifying superior antidepressant drugs. The realisation that ketamine has rapid antidepressant-like effects in treatment resistant patients has reenergised the field. Further, developing an understanding of the mechanisms underlying the rapid antidepressant effects in treatment-resistant patients by drugs such as ketamine may uncover novel therapeutic targets that can be exploited to meet the Olympian challenge of developing faster, better and stronger antidepressant drugs.
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7
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Knapp DJ, Daws LC, Overstreet DH. Behavioral Characteristics of Pharmacologically Selected Lines of Rats: Relevance to Depression. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2014. [DOI: 10.4236/wjns.2014.43026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022]
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8
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Acute stress exposure preceding transient global brain ischemia exacerbates the decrease in cortical remodeling potential in the rat retrosplenial cortex. Neurosci Res 2013; 78:65-71. [PMID: 24257103 DOI: 10.1016/j.neures.2013.10.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2013] [Revised: 09/12/2013] [Accepted: 09/27/2013] [Indexed: 11/27/2022]
Abstract
Doublecortin (DCX)-immunoreactive (-ir) cells are candidates that play key roles in adult cortical remodeling. We have previously reported that DCX-ir cells decrease after stress exposure or global brain ischemia (GBI) in the cingulate cortex (Cg) of rats. Herein, we investigate whether the decrease in DCX-ir cells is exacerbated after GBI due to acute stress exposure preconditioning. Twenty rats were divided into 3 groups: acute stress exposure before GBI (Group P), non-stress exposure before GBI (Group G), and controls (Group C). Acute stress or GBI was induced by a forced swim paradigm or by transient bilateral common carotid artery occlusion, respectively. DCX-ir cells were investigated in the anterior cingulate cortex (ACC) and retrosplenial cortex (RS). The number of DCX-ir cells per unit area (mm(2)) decreased after GBI with or without stress preconditioning in the ACC and in the RS (ANOVA followed by a Tukey-type test, P<0.001). Moreover, compared to Group G, the number in Group P decreased significantly in RS (P<0.05), though not significantly in ACC. Many of the DCX-ir cells were co-localized with the GABAergic neuronal marker parvalbumin. The present study indicates that cortical remodeling potential of GABAergic neurons of Cg decreases after GBI, and moreover, the ratio of the decrease is exacerbated by acute stress preconditioning in the RS.
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Behavioural and neurochemical changes induced by stress-related conditions are counteracted by the neurokinin-2 receptor antagonist saredutant. Int J Neuropsychopharmacol 2013; 16:813-23. [PMID: 22695046 DOI: 10.1017/s1461145712000612] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
These experiments were undertaken to assess the mechanisms underlying the antidepressant-like effects of the neurokinin-2 (NK(2)) receptor antagonist saredutant (SR48968) in rats tested in the forced swim test (FST), by analysing hippocampal brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF) and plasma corticosterone [as index of hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis activity]. Male Wistar rats received three intraperitoneal injections over 24 h of vehicle, saredutant (5 mg/kg), citalopram (15 mg/kg), clomipramine (50 mg/kg). Rats were subjected to restraint stress (4 h) 24 h prior to the FST procedure. This stress procedure increased immobility and decreased swimming behaviour in the FST; furthermore, it lowered hippocampal BDNF protein expression and increased plasma corticosterone levels. Saredutant and clomipramine or citalopram, used here as positive controls, reduced the immobility time in the FST both under basal conditions and after stress exposure. This effect was not attributable to changes in locomotion, because locomotor activity was unchanged when assessed in the open field test. Pretreatment with para-cholorophenylalanine (150 mg/kg, 72 h and 48 h prior to FST) abolished the effect of citalopram and saredutant on immobility time. At neurochemical level, saredutant attenuated activation of HPA axis in stressed animals more than clomipramine or citalopram. The behavioural effects of saredutant support the hypothesis that NK(2) receptor activity is involved in stress-related disorders. These effects of saredutant may be related to normalization of the HPA axis. Moreover, saredutant increases BDNF expression in the hippocampus, confirming the role of NK(2) receptor blockade in BDNF activation following stressor application.
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10
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Overstreet DH, Wegener G. The Flinders Sensitive Line Rat Model of Depression—25 Years and Still Producing. Pharmacol Rev 2013; 65:143-55. [DOI: 10.1124/pr.111.005397] [Citation(s) in RCA: 164] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
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11
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Yoshitake S, Ijiri S, Kehr J, Yoshitake T. Concurrent modulation of extracellular levels of noradrenaline and cAMP during stress and by anxiogenic- or anxiolytic-like neuropeptides in the prefrontal cortex of awake rats. Neurochem Int 2012; 62:314-23. [PMID: 23274451 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuint.2012.12.011] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2012] [Revised: 11/06/2012] [Accepted: 12/18/2012] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to examine the effects of stress and the role of locally infused anxiogenic-like neuropeptides galanin, CCK-8, vasopressin, substance P and neurokinin A, and anxiolytic-like peptides NPY, nociceptin/orphanin FQ, somatostatin and neurotensin, on modulation of noradrenaline (NA) and cAMP efflux monitored simultaneously by microdialysis in the medial prefronatal cortex of awake rats. Concentrations of cAMP were determined by a newly developed method based on derivatization of cAMP with 2-chloroacetaldehyde followed by HPLC with fluorescence detection. Local infusion of forskolin (10 and 30 μM) dose-dependently increased the cAMP levels to 417% and 1050% of the control group, respectively. Similarly, local infusion of NA (10 μM) increased the cAMP to the peak level of 168%. A 5-min tail pinch and a 10-min swim stress rapidly increased the NA and cAMP levels to 167% and 203% (NA) and 141% and 161% (cAMP), respectively. Infusion of galanin and CCK-8 (0.5 nmol, and 1.5 nmol/0.5 μl) dose-dependently increased NA to the peak levels of 191% and 179% and cAMP levels to 174% and 166%, respectively. The peak levels following infusions of vasopressin, substance P and neurokinin A were 91%, 135% and 86% for NA and 131%, 83% and 76% for cAMP, respectively. Infusions of anxiolytic-like peptides at highest concentrations significantly increased (NPY, 136%) or decreased (nociceptin, 71%; somatostatin, 86%) the NA levels, whereas neurotensin had no effect. The cAMP levels decreased to 86% (NPY, neurotensin), 78% (nociceptin), somatostatin infusion was without effect. The present findings confirmed a close correlation between the stress-induced increases in prefrontal cortical NA and cAMP levels, as well as, concurrent changes in NA and cAMP levels following infusions of galanin and CCK-8 (increased levels) and nociceptin/orphanin FQ (decreased levels). Infusions of other neuropeptides showed a more complex pattern of NA and cAMP responses.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shimako Yoshitake
- Department of Physiology and Pharmacology, Karolinska Institutet, Stockholm, Sweden
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12
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Griebel G, Holsboer F. Neuropeptide receptor ligands as drugs for psychiatric diseases: the end of the beginning? Nat Rev Drug Discov 2012; 11:462-78. [PMID: 22596253 DOI: 10.1038/nrd3702] [Citation(s) in RCA: 142] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
The search for novel drugs for treating psychiatric disorders is driven by the growing medical need to improve on the effectiveness and side-effect profile of currently available therapies. Given the wealth of preclinical data supporting the role of neuropeptides in modulating behaviour, pharmaceutical companies have been attempting to target neuropeptide receptors for over two decades. However, clinical studies with synthetic neuropeptide ligands have been unable to confirm the promise predicted by studies in animal models. Here, we analyse preclinical and clinical results for neuropeptide receptor ligands that have been studied in clinical trials for psychiatric diseases, including agents that target the receptors for tachykinins, corticotropin-releasing factor, vasopressin and neurotensin, and suggest new ways to exploit the full potential of these candidate drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guy Griebel
- Sanofi, Exploratory Unit, 91385 Chilly-Mazarin, France.
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13
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Wegener G, Mathe AA, Neumann ID. Selectively bred rodents as models of depression and anxiety. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2012; 12:139-187. [PMID: 22351423 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2011_192] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
Stress related diseases such as depression and anxiety have a high degree of co morbidity, and represent one of the greatest therapeutic challenges for the twenty-first century. The present chapter will summarize existing rodent models for research in psychiatry, mimicking depression- and anxiety-related diseases. In particular we will highlight the use of selective breeding of rodents for extremes in stress-related behavior. We will summarize major behavioral, neuroendocrine and neuronal parameters, and pharmacological interventions, assessed in great detail in two rat model systems: The Flinders Sensitive and Flinders Resistant Line rats (FSL/FRL model), and rats selectively bred for high (HAB) or low (LAB) anxiety related behavior (HAB/LAB model). Selectively bred rodents also provide an excellent tool in order to study gene and environment interactions. Although it is generally accepted that genes and environmental factors determine the etiology of mental disorders, precise information is limited: How rigid is the genetic disposition? How do genetic, prenatal and postnatal influences interact to shape adult disease? Does the genetic predisposition determine the vulnerability to prenatal and postnatal or adult stressors? In combination with modern neurobiological methods, these models are important to elucidate the etiology and pathophysiology of anxiety and affective disorders, and to assist in the development of new treatment paradigms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gregers Wegener
- Centre for Psychiatric Research, Aarhus University Hospital, 8240, Risskov, Denmark,
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Distribution and pharmacological characterization of primate NK-2 tachykinin receptor in the central nervous system of the rhesus monkey. Neurosci Lett 2011; 503:23-6. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neulet.2011.07.057] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2011] [Revised: 07/28/2011] [Accepted: 07/31/2011] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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Beaugé LA, DiPolo R. Sidedness of the ATP-Na+-K+ interactions with the Na+ pump in squid axons. Methods Mol Biol 1979; 829:125-44. [PMID: 222318 DOI: 10.1007/978-1-61779-458-2_7] [Citation(s) in RCA: 169] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Using dialysed squid axons we have been able to control internal and external ionic compositions under conditions in which most of the Na+ efflux goes through the Na+ pump. We found that (i) internal K+ had a strong inhibitory effect on Na+ efflux; this effect was antagonized by ATP, with low affinity, and by internal Na+, (ii) a reduction in ATP levels from 3 mM to 50 microM greatly increased the apparent affinity for external K+, but reduced its effectiveness compared with other monovalent cations, as an activator of Na+ efflux, and (iii) the relative effectiveness of different K+ congeners as external activator of the Na+ efflux, though affected by the ATP concentration, was not affected by the Na+/K+ ratio inside the cells. These results are consistent with the idea that the same conformation of the (Na+ + K+)-ATPase can be reached by interaction with external K+ after phosphorylation and with internal K+ before rephosphorylation. They also stress a nonphosphorylating regulatory role of ATP.
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