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Weathers P, Towler M, Kiani BH, Dolivo D, Dominko T. Differential Anti-Fibrotic and Remodeling Responses of Human Dermal Fibroblasts to Artemisia sp., Artemisinin, and Its Derivatives. Molecules 2024; 29:2107. [PMID: 38731597 PMCID: PMC11085156 DOI: 10.3390/molecules29092107] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2024] [Revised: 04/26/2024] [Accepted: 04/28/2024] [Indexed: 05/13/2024] Open
Abstract
Fibrosis is a ubiquitous pathology, and prior studies have indicated that various artemisinin (ART) derivatives (including artesunate (AS), artemether (AM), and dihydroartemisinin (DHA)) can reduce fibrosis in vitro and in vivo. The medicinal plant Artemisia annua L. is the natural source of ART and is widely used, especially in underdeveloped countries, to treat a variety of diseases including malaria. A. afra contains no ART but is also antimalarial. Using human dermal fibroblasts (CRL-2097), we compared the effects of A. annua and A. afra tea infusions, ART, AS, AM, DHA, and a liver metabolite of ART, deoxyART (dART), on fibroblast viability and expression of key fibrotic marker genes after 1 and 4 days of treatment. AS, DHA, and Artemisia teas reduced fibroblast viability 4 d post-treatment in up to 80% of their respective controls. After 4 d of treatment, AS DHA and Artemisia teas downregulated ACTA2 up to 10 fold while ART had no significant effect, and AM increased viability by 10%. MMP1 and MMP3 were upregulated by AS, 17.5 and 32.6 fold, respectively, and by DHA, 8 and 51.8 fold, respectively. ART had no effect, but A. annua and A. afra teas increased MMP3 5 and 16-fold, respectively. Although A. afra tea increased COL3A1 5 fold, MMP1 decreased >7 fold with no change in either transcript by A. annua tea. Although A. annua contains ART, it had a significantly greater anti-fibrotic effect than ART alone but was less effective than A. afra. Immunofluorescent staining for smooth-muscle α-actin (α-SMA) correlated well with the transcriptional responses of drug-treated fibroblasts. Together, proliferation, qPCR, and immunofluorescence results show that treatment with ART, AS, DHA, and the two Artemisia teas yield differing responses, including those related to fibrosis, in human dermal fibroblasts, with evidence also of remodeling of fibrotic ECM.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pamela Weathers
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, Worcester, MA 01609, USA; (M.T.); (B.H.K.); (D.D.); (T.D.)
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Polito F, Di Mercurio M, Rizzo S, Di Vito M, Sanguinetti M, Urbani A, Bugli F, De Feo V. Artemisia spp. Essential Oils: From Their Ethnobotanical Use to Unraveling the Microbiota Modulation Potential. PLANTS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2024; 13:967. [PMID: 38611496 PMCID: PMC11013866 DOI: 10.3390/plants13070967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/16/2024] [Revised: 03/21/2024] [Accepted: 03/25/2024] [Indexed: 04/14/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The 2015 Nobel Prize in Medicine, awarded for the discovery of artemisinin in Artemisia annua, reignited interest in aromatic plants, including Artemisia absinthium L. This article delves into the historical, ethnopharmacological and medicinal significance of A. absinthium, examining its bitter taste noted since ancient Greek times and its association with medicinal properties throughout history. Despite being banned in the 20th century due to perceived health risks; recent research has led to the reconsideration of A. absinthium's potential applications. This study focuses on the prebiotic efficacy of essential oils (EOs) from two Artemisia species: A. absinthium and A. annua. MATERIALS AND METHODS A broth microdilution test, growth curve test and in vivo models were used to study the impact of low doses (from 0.5% v/v to 0.00048 v/v) of Artemisia spp-EO on the three probiotic strains (Lactobacillus, Lactobacillus casei and Saccharomyces boulardii). RESULTS These essential oils, when used in minimal concentrations (lower than 0.06% v/v), are safe and exhibit prebiotic effects on major probiotic strains, supporting the traditional culinary use of Artemisia spp. CONCLUSION This research opens avenues for potential applications in the food industry, emphasizing the need for further exploration into the prebiotic properties of Artemisia spp-EOs and their influence on the microbiota.
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Affiliation(s)
- Flavio Polito
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Salerno, Via Giovanni Paolo II, 132, Fisciano, 84084 Salerno, Italy; (F.P.); (V.D.F.)
| | - Mattia Di Mercurio
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biotecnologiche di Base, Cliniche Intensivologiche e Perioperatorie, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome, Italy; (M.D.M.); (S.R.); (M.S.); (A.U.); (F.B.)
| | - Silvia Rizzo
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biotecnologiche di Base, Cliniche Intensivologiche e Perioperatorie, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome, Italy; (M.D.M.); (S.R.); (M.S.); (A.U.); (F.B.)
| | - Maura Di Vito
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biotecnologiche di Base, Cliniche Intensivologiche e Perioperatorie, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome, Italy; (M.D.M.); (S.R.); (M.S.); (A.U.); (F.B.)
| | - Maurizio Sanguinetti
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biotecnologiche di Base, Cliniche Intensivologiche e Perioperatorie, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome, Italy; (M.D.M.); (S.R.); (M.S.); (A.U.); (F.B.)
- Dipartimento di Scienze di Laboratorio e Infettivologiche, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, Largo A. Gemelli 8, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Andrea Urbani
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biotecnologiche di Base, Cliniche Intensivologiche e Perioperatorie, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome, Italy; (M.D.M.); (S.R.); (M.S.); (A.U.); (F.B.)
- UOC Chimica, Biochimica e Biologia Molecolare Clinica, Dipartimento di Scienze di Laboratorio e Infettivologiche, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Francesca Bugli
- Dipartimento di Scienze Biotecnologiche di Base, Cliniche Intensivologiche e Perioperatorie, Università Cattolica del Sacro Cuore, 00168 Rome, Italy; (M.D.M.); (S.R.); (M.S.); (A.U.); (F.B.)
- Dipartimento di Scienze di Laboratorio e Infettivologiche, Fondazione Policlinico Universitario A. Gemelli IRCCS, Largo A. Gemelli 8, 00168 Rome, Italy
| | - Vincenzo De Feo
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Salerno, Via Giovanni Paolo II, 132, Fisciano, 84084 Salerno, Italy; (F.P.); (V.D.F.)
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Strik H, Efferth T, Kaina B. Artesunate in glioblastoma therapy: Case reports and review of clinical studies. PHYTOMEDICINE : INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHYTOTHERAPY AND PHYTOPHARMACOLOGY 2024; 123:155274. [PMID: 38142662 DOI: 10.1016/j.phymed.2023.155274] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/12/2023] [Revised: 11/22/2023] [Accepted: 12/10/2023] [Indexed: 12/26/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Artesunate, a derivative of the active ingredient artemisinin from Artemisia annua L. used for centuries in the traditional Chinese medicine, is being applied as front-line drug in malaria treatment. As it is cytotoxic for cancer cells, trials are ongoing to include this drug as supplement in cancer therapy. In glioblastoma cells, artesunate was shown to induce oxidative stress, DNA base damage and double-strand breaks (DSBs), apoptosis, and necroptosis. It also inhibits DNA repair functions and bears senolytic activity. Compared to ionizing radiation, DNA damages accumulate over the whole exposure period, which makes the agent unique in its genotoxic profile. Artesunate has been used in adjuvant therapy of various cancers. PURPOSE As artesunate has been used in adjuvant therapy of different types of cancer and clinical trials are lacking in brain cancer, we investigated its activity in glioma patients with focus on possible side effects. STUDY DESIGN Between 2014 and 2020, twelve patients were treated with artesunate for relapsing glioma and analyzed retrospectively: 8 males and 4 females, median age 45 years. HISTOLOGY 4 glioblastomas WHO grade 4, 5 astrocytomas WHO grade 3, 3 oligodendrogliomas grade 2 or 3. All patients were pretreated with radiation and temozolomide-based chemotherapy. Artesunate 100 mg was applied twice daily p.o. combined with dose-dense temozolomide alone (100 mg/m2 day 1-5/7, 10 patients) or with temozolomide (50 mg/m2 day 1-5/7) plus lomustine (CCNU, 40 mg day 6/7). Blood count, C-reactive protein (CRP), liver enzymes, and renal parameters were monitored weekly. RESULTS Apart from one transient grade 3 hematological toxicity, artesunate was well tolerated. No liver toxicity was observed. While 8 patients with late stage of the disease had a median survival of 5 months after initiation of artesunate treatment, 4 patients with treatment for remission maintenance showed a median survival of 46 months. We also review clinical trials that have been performed in other cancers where artesunate was included in the treatment regimen. CONCLUSIONS Artesunate administered at a dose of 2 × 100 mg/day was without harmful side effects, even if combined with alkylating agents used in glioma therapy. Thus, the phytochemical, which is also utilized as food supplement, is an interesting, well tolerated supportive agent useful for long-term maintenance treatment. Being itself cytotoxic on glioblastoma cells and enhancing the cytotoxicity of temozolomide as well as in view of its senolytic activity, artesunate has clearly a potential to enhance the efficacy of malignant brain cancer therapy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Herwig Strik
- Department of Neurology, Sozialstiftung Bamberg, Bamberg, Germany
| | - Thomas Efferth
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Institute of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, Germany
| | - Bernd Kaina
- Institute of Toxicology, University Medical Center, Obere Zahlbacher Str. 67, D-55131 Mainz, Germany.
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Mukatay U, Samy MN, Avula B, Katragunta K, Kemelbek M, Zhubanova A, Khan IA, Ross SA. Isolation and LC-QToF Characterization of Secondary Metabolites from an Endemic Plant Artemisia heptapotamica Poljak. Molecules 2023; 28:molecules28072908. [PMID: 37049671 PMCID: PMC10096343 DOI: 10.3390/molecules28072908] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/28/2023] [Revised: 03/16/2023] [Accepted: 03/21/2023] [Indexed: 03/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Phytochemical investigation of the aerial parts of Artemisia heptapotamica Poljak led to the isolation of ten known compounds, including four alkyl p-coumarates: octadecyl trans-p-coumarate (1), icosy trans-p-coumarate (2), docosyl trans-p-coumarate (3), and tetracosyl trans-p-coumarate (4), one sesquiterpene lactone: santonin (5), four flavonoids; axillarin (6), quercetin 3-O-methyl ether (7), luteolin (8), and quercetin (9), and one phenolic acid derivative: p-coumaric acid (10). The structures of the isolated compounds were identified by various spectroscopic analyses. Additionally, the antimicrobial activity of the total extract and different fractions was screened, and they exhibited no inhibition of the growth of Candida albicans, C. neoformans, Aspergillus fumigatus, methicillin-resistant Staphylococcus aureus (MRS), E. coli, Pseudomonas aeruginosa, Klebsiella pneumonia, and Vancomycin-resistant Enterococci (VRE) at the tested concentrations ranging from 8 to 200 μg/mL. The identification and tentative characterization of the secondary metabolites were conducted using LC-QToF analysis. This method helps in the putative characterization of sesquiterpene lactones, flavonoids, coumarate derivatives, and aliphatic compounds. The developed method identified 43 compounds, of which the majority were sesquiterpene lactones, such as eudesmanolides, germacranolides, and guaianolide derivatives, followed by flavonoids. The proposed LC-QToF method helps develop dereplication strategies and understand the major class of chemicals before proceeding with the isolation of compounds.
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Miao Y, Luo D, Zhao T, Du H, Liu Z, Xu Z, Guo L, Chen C, Peng S, Li JX, Ma L, Ning G, Liu D, Huang L. Genome sequencing reveals chromosome fusion and extensive expansion of genes related to secondary metabolism in Artemisia argyi. PLANT BIOTECHNOLOGY JOURNAL 2022; 20:1902-1915. [PMID: 35689517 PMCID: PMC9491451 DOI: 10.1111/pbi.13870] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/08/2022] [Revised: 05/27/2022] [Accepted: 06/07/2022] [Indexed: 05/25/2023]
Abstract
Artemisia argyi, as famous as Artemisia annua, is a medicinal plant with huge economic value in the genus of Artemisia and has been widely used in the world for about 3000 years. However, a lack of the reference genome severely hinders the understanding of genetic basis for the active ingredient synthesis of A. argyi. Here, we firstly report a complex chromosome-level genome assembly of A. argyi with a large size of 8.03 Gb, with features of high heterozygosity (2.36%), high repetitive sequences (73.59%) and a huge number of protein-coding genes (279 294 in total). The assembly reveals at least three rounds of whole-genome duplication (WGD) events, including a recent WGD event in the A. argyi genome, and a recent burst of transposable element, which may contribute to its large genome size. The genomic data and karyotype analyses confirmed that A. argyi is an allotetraploid with 34 chromosomes. Intragenome synteny analysis revealed that chromosomes fusion event occurred in the A. argyi genome, which elucidates the changes in basic chromosome numbers in Artemisia genus. Significant expansion of genes related to photosynthesis, DNA replication, stress responses and secondary metabolism were identified in A. argyi, explaining the extensive environmental adaptability and rapid growth characteristics. In addition, we analysed genes involved in the biosynthesis pathways of flavonoids and terpenoids, and found that extensive gene amplification and tandem duplication contributed to the high contents of metabolites in A. argyi. Overall, the reference genome assembly provides scientific support for evolutionary biology, functional genomics and breeding in A. argyi and other Artemisia species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuhuan Miao
- College of PharmacyHubei University of Chinese MedicineWuhanChina
| | - Dandan Luo
- College of PharmacyHubei University of Chinese MedicineWuhanChina
| | - Tingting Zhao
- College of PharmacyHubei University of Chinese MedicineWuhanChina
| | - Hongzhi Du
- College of PharmacyHubei University of Chinese MedicineWuhanChina
| | | | - Zhongping Xu
- Hubei Hongshan Laboratory, National Key Laboratory of Crop Genetic ImprovementHuazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhanChina
| | - Lanping Guo
- China Academy of Chinese Medical SciencesBeijingChina
| | - Changjie Chen
- College of PharmacyHubei University of Chinese MedicineWuhanChina
| | - Sainan Peng
- College of PharmacyHubei University of Chinese MedicineWuhanChina
| | - Jin Xin Li
- College of PharmacyHubei University of Chinese MedicineWuhanChina
| | - Lin Ma
- College of PharmacyHubei University of Chinese MedicineWuhanChina
| | - Guogui Ning
- Key laboratory of Horticultural Plant Biology, Ministry of EducationHuazhong Agricultural UniversityWuhanChina
| | - Dahui Liu
- College of PharmacyHubei University of Chinese MedicineWuhanChina
| | - Luqi Huang
- China Academy of Chinese Medical SciencesBeijingChina
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Nomani L, Zehra A, Choudhary S, Wani KI, Naeem M, Siddiqui MH, Khan MMA, Aftab T. Exogenous hydrogen sulphide alleviates copper stress impacts in Artemisia annua L.: Growth, antioxidant metabolism, glandular trichome development and artemisinin biosynthesis. PLANT BIOLOGY (STUTTGART, GERMANY) 2022; 24:642-651. [PMID: 33533541 DOI: 10.1111/plb.13242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/20/2020] [Accepted: 01/27/2021] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
A supply of plant micronutrients (some of which are metals) is necessary to regulate many plant processes; their excess, however, can have detrimental consequences and can hamper plant growth, physiology and metabolism. Artemisia annua is an important crop plant used in the treatment of malaria. In this investigation, the physio-biochemical mechanisms involved in exogenous hydrogen sulphide-mediated (H2 S) alleviation of copper (Cu) stress in A. annua were assessed.. Two different levels of Cu (20, 40 mg·kg-1 ), one H2 S treatment (200 µm) and their combinations were introduced while one set of plants was retained as control. Results showed that the presence of excess Cu in the soil reduced growth and biomass, photosynthetic parameters, chlorophyll content and fluorescence, gas exchange parameters and induced antioxidant enzyme activity. Copper stress enhanced the production of thiobarbituric acid reactive substances (TBARS) and increased Cu content in both roots and shoots of affected plants. Exogenous application of H2 S restored the physio-biochemical characteristics of Cu-treated A. annua plants by reducing lipid peroxidation and enhancing the activity of antioxidant enzymes in Cu-stressed plants as compared with the controls. Hydrogen sulphide also reduced the Cu content in different plant parts, increased photosynthetic efficiency, trichome density, average area of trichomes and artemisinin content. Therefore, our results provide a comprehensive assessment of the defensive role of H2 S in Cu-stressed A. annua.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Nomani
- Department of Botany, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India
| | - A Zehra
- Department of Botany, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India
| | - S Choudhary
- Department of Botany, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India
| | - K I Wani
- Department of Botany, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India
| | - M Naeem
- Department of Botany, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India
| | - M H Siddiqui
- Department of Botany and Microbiology, College of Science, King Saud University, Riyadh, Saudi Arabia
| | - M M A Khan
- Department of Botany, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India
| | - T Aftab
- Department of Botany, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India
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Durão R, Ramalhete C, Madureira AM, Mendes E, Duarte N. Plant Terpenoids as Hit Compounds against Trypanosomiasis. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2022; 15:ph15030340. [PMID: 35337138 PMCID: PMC8951850 DOI: 10.3390/ph15030340] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2022] [Revised: 02/22/2022] [Accepted: 03/04/2022] [Indexed: 02/04/2023] Open
Abstract
Human African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness) and American trypanosomiasis (Chagas disease) are vector-borne neglected tropical diseases, caused by the protozoan parasites Trypanosoma brucei and Trypanosoma cruzi, respectively. These diseases were circumscribed to South American and African countries in the past. However, human migration, military interventions, and climate changes have had an important effect on their worldwide propagation, particularly Chagas disease. Currently, the treatment of trypanosomiasis is not ideal, becoming a challenge in poor populations with limited resources. Exploring natural products from higher plants remains a valuable approach to find new hits and enlarge the pipeline of new drugs against protozoal human infections. This review covers the recent studies (2016–2021) on plant terpenoids, and their semi-synthetic derivatives, which have shown promising in vitro and in vivo activities against Trypanosoma parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raquel Durão
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMED.Ulisboa), Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal; (R.D.); (C.R.); (A.M.M.); (E.M.)
| | - Cátia Ramalhete
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMED.Ulisboa), Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal; (R.D.); (C.R.); (A.M.M.); (E.M.)
- ATLANTICA—Instituto Universitário, Fábrica da Pólvora de Barcarena, 2730-036 Barcarena, Portugal
| | - Ana Margarida Madureira
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMED.Ulisboa), Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal; (R.D.); (C.R.); (A.M.M.); (E.M.)
| | - Eduarda Mendes
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMED.Ulisboa), Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal; (R.D.); (C.R.); (A.M.M.); (E.M.)
| | - Noélia Duarte
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMED.Ulisboa), Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal; (R.D.); (C.R.); (A.M.M.); (E.M.)
- Correspondence:
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Dracunculin Inhibits Adipogenesis in Human Bone Marrow-Derived Mesenchymal Stromal Cells by Activating AMPK and Wnt/β-Catenin Signaling. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms23020653. [PMID: 35054838 PMCID: PMC8776130 DOI: 10.3390/ijms23020653] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2021] [Revised: 12/30/2021] [Accepted: 01/03/2022] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
Increased bone marrow adiposity is widely observed in patients with obesity and osteoporosis and reported to have deleterious effects on bone formation. Dracunculin (DCC) is a coumarin isolated from Artemisia spp. but, until now, has not been studied for its bioactive potential except antitrypanosomal activity. In this context, current study has reported the anti-adipogenic effect of DCC in human bone marrow-derived mesenchymal stromal cells (hBM-MSCs). DCC dose-dependently inhibited the lipid accumulation and expression of adipogenic transcription factors peroxisome proliferator-activated receptor γ (PPARγ) and CCAAT/enhancer binding protein α (C/EBPα) in hBM-MSCs induced to undergo adipogenesis. To elucidate its action mechanism, the effect of DCC on Wnt/β-catenin and AMPK pathways was examined. Results showed that DCC treatment activated Wnt/β-catenin signaling pathway via AMPK evidenced by increased levels of AMPK phosphorylation and Wnt10b expression after DCC treatment. In addition, DCC treated adipo-induced hBM-MSCs exhibited significantly increased nuclear levels of β-catenin compared with diminished nuclear PPARγ levels. In conclusion, DCC was shown to be able to hinder adipogenesis by activating the β-catenin via AMPK, providing potential utilization of DCC as a nutraceutical against bone marrow adiposity.
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9
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Jolayemi KO, Mamman M, Sani D, Okoronkwo MO, Udechukwu CC, Orakpoghenor O. Comparative effects of artemether and in combination with diminazene aceturate in the treatment of experimental Trypanosoma brucei brucei infection in Wistar rats. J Parasit Dis 2021; 45:673-682. [PMID: 34475648 DOI: 10.1007/s12639-021-01350-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/09/2020] [Accepted: 01/11/2021] [Indexed: 11/26/2022] Open
Abstract
This study assessed the effects of artemether and in combination with diminazene aceturate on parasitaemia, weight, haematology and pathology induced by experimentally Trypanosoma brucei brucei infection in Wistar rats. Fifty adult rats comprising 25 each of males and females were assigned into 5 groups of ten rats (five males and five females). Rats in group I was uninfected while groups II-V were infected with T b brucei. Groups II were untreated; III administered diminazene aceturate once; IV and V administered artemether only and in combination with diminazene aceturate respectively for 5 days. Parasitaemia was determined daily, blood was collected for haematology and weight obtained every four days for a period of 32 days. At 24 days post-treatment, rats were humanely euthanized and organs harvested for pathological examination. Results revealed parasitaemia at day 4 post-infection, significant (p < 0.05) decrease in weight, erythrogram and leucogram in all infected rats. Following treatment, there was significant (p < 0.05) decrease in parasitaemia, increased weight gain and improved haematology. Pathological examination revealed significantly (p < 0.05) decreased gross and histopathological lesions in treated groups compared to group II. In conclusion, artemether and in combination with diminazene aceturate produced antitrypanosomal effects against experimental trypanosomosis.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Mohammed Mamman
- Department of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Kaduna State Nigeria
- Africa Centre of Excellence for Neglected Tropical Diseases and Forensic Biotechnology, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Nigeria
| | - Dahiru Sani
- Department of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Kaduna State Nigeria
| | | | | | - Ochuko Orakpoghenor
- Department of Veterinary Pathology, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria, Kaduna State Nigeria
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10
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Lei XY, Tan RZ, Jia J, Wu SL, Wen CL, Lin X, Wang H, Shi ZJ, Li B, Kang Y, Wang L. Artesunate relieves acute kidney injury through inhibiting macrophagic Mincle-mediated necroptosis and inflammation to tubular epithelial cell. J Cell Mol Med 2021; 25:8775-8788. [PMID: 34337860 PMCID: PMC8435453 DOI: 10.1111/jcmm.16833] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/12/2021] [Revised: 07/22/2021] [Accepted: 07/24/2021] [Indexed: 02/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Artesunate is a widely used derivative of artemisinin for malaria. Recent researches have shown that artesunate has a significant anti‐inflammatory effect on many diseases. However, its effect on acute kidney injury with a significant inflammatory response is not clear. In this study, we established a cisplatin‐induced AKI mouse model and a co‐culture system of BMDM and tubular epithelial cells (mTEC) to verify the renoprotective and anti‐inflammatory effects of artesunate on AKI, and explored the underlying mechanism. We found that artesunate strongly down‐regulated the serum creatinine and BUN levels in AKI mice, reduced the necroptosis of tubular cells and down‐regulated the expression of the tubular injury molecule Tim‐1. On the other hand, artesunate strongly inhibited the mRNA expression of inflammatory cytokines (IL‐1β, IL‐6 and TNF‐α), protein levels of inflammatory signals (iNOS and NF‐κB) and necroptosis signals (RIPK1, RIPK3 and MLKL) in kidney of AKI mouse. Notably, the co‐culture system proved that Mincle in macrophage can aggravate the inflammation and necroptosis of mTEC induced by LPS, and artesunate suppressed the expression of Mincle in macrophage of kidney in AKI mouse. Overexpression of Mincle in BMDM restored the damage and necroptosis inhibited by artesunate in mTEC, indicating Mincle in macrophage is the target of artesunate to protect tubule cells in AKI. Our findings demonstrated that artesunate can significantly improve renal function in AKI, which may be related to the inhibition of Mincle‐mediated macrophage inflammation, thereby reducing the damage and necroptosis to tubular cells that provide new option for the treatment of AKI.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xian-Ying Lei
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China.,ICU, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Rui-Zhi Tan
- Research Center of Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine, Affiliated Traditional Medicine Hospital, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Jian Jia
- Research Center of Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine, Affiliated Traditional Medicine Hospital, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Song-Lin Wu
- ICU, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Cheng-Li Wen
- ICU, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Xiao Lin
- Research Center of Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine, Affiliated Traditional Medicine Hospital, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Huan Wang
- ICU, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Zhang-Jing Shi
- ICU, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Bo Li
- ICU, The Affiliated Hospital of Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
| | - Yan Kang
- Department of Critical Care Medicine, West China Hospital, Sichuan University, Chengdu, China
| | - Li Wang
- Research Center of Integrated Traditional Chinese and Western Medicine, Affiliated Traditional Medicine Hospital, Southwest Medical University, Luzhou, China
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11
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Efferth T, Oesch F. The immunosuppressive activity of artemisinin-type drugs towards inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. Med Res Rev 2021; 41:3023-3061. [PMID: 34288018 DOI: 10.1002/med.21842] [Citation(s) in RCA: 69] [Impact Index Per Article: 23.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2020] [Revised: 04/09/2021] [Accepted: 06/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/26/2022]
Abstract
The sesquiterpene lactone artemisinin from Artemisia annua L. is well established for malaria therapy, but its bioactivity spectrum is much broader. In this review, we give a comprehensive and timely overview of the literature regarding the immunosuppressive activity of artemisinin-type compounds toward inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. Numerous receptor-coupled signaling pathways are inhibited by artemisinins, including the receptors for interleukin-1 (IL-1), tumor necrosis factor-α (TNF-α), β3-integrin, or RANKL, toll-like receptors and growth factor receptors. Among the receptor-coupled signal transducers are extracellular signal-regulated protein kinase (ERK), c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), phosphatidylinositol-4,5-bisphosphate 3-kinase (PI3K), AKT serine/threonine kinase (AKT), mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK)/extracellular signal regulated kinase (ERK) kinase (MEK), phospholipase C γ1 (PLCγ), and others. All these receptors and signal transduction molecules are known to contribute to the inhibition of the transcription factor nuclear factor κ B (NF-κB). Artemisinins may inhibit NF-κB by silencing these upstream pathways and/or by direct binding to NF-κB. Numerous NF-κB-regulated downstream genes are downregulated by artemisinin and its derivatives, for example, cytokines, chemokines, and immune receptors, which regulate immune cell differentiation, apoptosis genes, proliferation-regulating genes, signal transducers, and genes involved in antioxidant stress response. In addition to the prominent role of NF-κB, other transcription factors are also inhibited by artemisinins (mammalian target of rapamycin [mTOR], activating protein 1 [AP1]/FBJ murine osteosarcoma viral oncogene homologue [FOS]/JUN oncogenic transcription factor [JUN]), hypoxia-induced factor 1α (HIF-1α), nuclear factor of activated T cells c1 (NF-ATC1), Signal transducers and activators of transcription (STAT), NF E2-related factor-2 (NRF-2), retinoic-acid-receptor-related orphan nuclear receptor γ (ROR-γt), and forkhead box P-3 (FOXP-3). Many in vivo experiments in disease-relevant animal models demonstrate therapeutic efficacy of artemisinin-type drugs against rheumatic diseases (rheumatoid arthritis, osteoarthritis, lupus erythematosus, arthrosis, and gout), lung diseases (asthma, acute lung injury, and pulmonary fibrosis), neurological diseases (autoimmune encephalitis, Alzheimer's disease, and myasthenia gravis), skin diseases (dermatitis, rosacea, and psoriasis), inflammatory bowel disease, and other inflammatory and autoimmune diseases. Randomized clinical trials should be conducted in the future to translate the plethora of preclinical results into clinical practice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Thomas Efferth
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Institute of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, Germany
| | - Franz Oesch
- Oesch-Tox Toxicological Consulting and Expert Opinions, Ingelheim, Germany and Institute of Toxicology, Johannes Gutenberg University of Mainz, Mainz, Germany
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12
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Wani KI, Choudhary S, Zehra A, Naeem M, Weathers P, Aftab T. Enhancing artemisinin content in and delivery from Artemisia annua: a review of alternative, classical, and transgenic approaches. PLANTA 2021; 254:29. [PMID: 34263417 PMCID: PMC8279915 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-021-03676-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/10/2020] [Accepted: 06/30/2021] [Indexed: 05/04/2023]
Abstract
This review analyses the most recent scientific research conducted for the purpose of enhancing artemisinin production. It may help to devise better artemisinin enhancement strategies, so that its production becomes cost effective and becomes available to masses. Malaria is a major threat to world population, particularly in South-East Asia and Africa, due to dearth of effective anti-malarial compounds, emergence of quinine resistant malarial strains, and lack of advanced healthcare facilities. Artemisinin, a sesquiterpene lactone obtained from Artemisia annua L., is the most potent drug against malaria and used in the formulation of artemisinin combination therapies (ACTs). Artemisinin is also effective against various types of cancers, many other microbes including viruses, parasites and bacteria. However, this specialty metabolite and its derivatives generally occur in low amounts in the source plant leading to its production scarcity. Considering the importance of this drug, researchers have been working worldwide to develop novel strategies to augment its production both in vivo and in vitro. Due to complex chemical structure, its chemical synthesis is quite expensive, so researchers need to devise synthetic protocols that are economically viable and also work on increasing the in-planta production of artemisinin by using various strategies like use of phytohormones, stress signals, bioinoculants, breeding and transgenic approaches. The focus of this review is to discuss these artemisinin enhancement strategies, understand mechanisms modulating its biosynthesis, and evaluate if roots play any role in artemisinin production. Furthermore, we also have a critical analysis of various assays used for artemisinin measurement. This may help to develop better artemisinin enhancement strategies which lead to decreased price of ACTs and increased profit to farmers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaiser Iqbal Wani
- Department of Botany, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, 202 002, India
| | - Sadaf Choudhary
- Department of Botany, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, 202 002, India
| | - Andleeb Zehra
- Department of Botany, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, 202 002, India
| | - M Naeem
- Department of Botany, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, 202 002, India
| | - Pamela Weathers
- Department of Biology/Biotechnology, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, 100 Institute Rd, Worcester, MA, 01609, USA
| | - Tariq Aftab
- Department of Botany, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, 202 002, India.
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13
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Meng Y, Ma N, Lyu H, Wong YK, Zhang X, Zhu Y, Gao P, Sun P, Song Y, Lin L, Wang J. Recent pharmacological advances in the repurposing of artemisinin drugs. Med Res Rev 2021; 41:3156-3181. [PMID: 34148245 DOI: 10.1002/med.21837] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/30/2020] [Revised: 02/27/2021] [Accepted: 05/21/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Artemisinins are a family of sesquiterpene lactones originally derived from the sweet wormwood (Artemisia annua). Beyond their well-characterized role as frontline antimalarial drugs, artemisinins have also received increased attention for other potential pharmaceutical effects, which include antiviral, antiparsitic, antifungal, anti-inflammatory, and anticancer activities. With concerted efforts in further preclinical and clinical studies, artemisinin-based drugs have the potential to be viable treatments for a great variety of human diseases. Here, we provide a comprehensive update on recent reports of pharmacological actions and applications of artemisinins outside of their better-known antimalarial role and highlight their potential therapeutic viability for various diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuqing Meng
- Artemisinin Research Center and the Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Nan Ma
- Artemisinin Research Center and the Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Haining Lyu
- Artemisinin Research Center and the Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yin Kwan Wong
- Department of Physiology, Yong Loo Lin School of Medicine, National University of Singapore, Singapore, Singapore
| | - Xing Zhang
- Artemisinin Research Center and the Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yongping Zhu
- Artemisinin Research Center and the Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Peng Gao
- Artemisinin Research Center and the Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Peng Sun
- Artemisinin Research Center and the Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China
| | - Yali Song
- Center for Reproductive Medicine, Dongguan Maternal And Child Health Care Hospital, Southern Medical University, Dongguan, China
| | - Lizhu Lin
- Oncology Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China
| | - Jigang Wang
- Artemisinin Research Center and the Institute of Chinese Materia Medica, China Academy of Chinese Medical Sciences, Beijing, China.,Oncology Center, The First Affiliated Hospital of Guangzhou University of Chinese Medicine, Guangzhou, China.,Central People's Hospital of Zhanjiang, Zhanjiang, Guangdong, China.,Guangdong Provincial Key Laboratory of New Drug Screening, School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Southern Medical University, Guangzhou, China.,Key Laboratory of Prevention and Treatment of Cardiovascular and Cerebrovascular Diseases, Ministry of Education, Gannan Medical University, Ganzhou, China
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14
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Kadioglu O, Saeed M, Greten HJ, Efferth T. Identification of novel compounds against three targets of SARS CoV-2 coronavirus by combined virtual screening and supervised machine learning. Comput Biol Med 2021; 133:104359. [PMID: 33845270 DOI: 10.2471/blt.20.255943] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2020] [Revised: 03/24/2021] [Accepted: 03/24/2021] [Indexed: 05/22/2023]
Abstract
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a major threat worldwide due to its fast spreading. As yet, there are no established drugs available. Speeding up drug discovery is urgently required. We applied a workflow of combined in silico methods (virtual drug screening, molecular docking and supervised machine learning algorithms) to identify novel drug candidates against COVID-19. We constructed chemical libraries consisting of FDA-approved drugs for drug repositioning and of natural compound datasets from literature mining and the ZINC database to select compounds interacting with SARS-CoV-2 target proteins (spike protein, nucleocapsid protein, and 2'-o-ribose methyltransferase). Supported by the supercomputer MOGON, candidate compounds were predicted as presumable SARS-CoV-2 inhibitors. Interestingly, several approved drugs against hepatitis C virus (HCV), another enveloped (-) ssRNA virus (paritaprevir, simeprevir and velpatasvir) as well as drugs against transmissible diseases, against cancer, or other diseases were identified as candidates against SARS-CoV-2. This result is supported by reports that anti-HCV compounds are also active against Middle East Respiratory Virus Syndrome (MERS) coronavirus. The candidate compounds identified by us may help to speed up the drug development against SARS-CoV-2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Onat Kadioglu
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Institute of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, Germany
| | - Mohamed Saeed
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Institute of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, Germany
| | | | - Thomas Efferth
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Institute of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, Germany.
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15
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Identification of novel compounds against three targets of SARS CoV-2 coronavirus by combined virtual screening and supervised machine learning. Comput Biol Med 2021; 133:104359. [PMID: 33845270 PMCID: PMC8008812 DOI: 10.1016/j.compbiomed.2021.104359] [Citation(s) in RCA: 60] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2020] [Revised: 03/24/2021] [Accepted: 03/24/2021] [Indexed: 12/20/2022]
Abstract
Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a major threat worldwide due to its fast spreading. As yet, there are no established drugs available. Speeding up drug discovery is urgently required. We applied a workflow of combined in silico methods (virtual drug screening, molecular docking and supervised machine learning algorithms) to identify novel drug candidates against COVID-19. We constructed chemical libraries consisting of FDA-approved drugs for drug repositioning and of natural compound datasets from literature mining and the ZINC database to select compounds interacting with SARS-CoV-2 target proteins (spike protein, nucleocapsid protein, and 2′-o-ribose methyltransferase). Supported by the supercomputer MOGON, candidate compounds were predicted as presumable SARS-CoV-2 inhibitors. Interestingly, several approved drugs against hepatitis C virus (HCV), another enveloped (−) ssRNA virus (paritaprevir, simeprevir and velpatasvir) as well as drugs against transmissible diseases, against cancer, or other diseases were identified as candidates against SARS-CoV-2. This result is supported by reports that anti-HCV compounds are also active against Middle East Respiratory Virus Syndrome (MERS) coronavirus. The candidate compounds identified by us may help to speed up the drug development against SARS-CoV-2.
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16
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Lu X, Efferth T. Repurposing of artemisinin-type drugs for the treatment of acute leukemia. Semin Cancer Biol 2021; 68:291-312. [DOI: 10.1016/j.semcancer.2020.05.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/03/2020] [Revised: 05/22/2020] [Accepted: 05/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/19/2022]
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17
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Trendafilova A, Moujir LM, Sousa PMC, Seca AML. Research Advances on Health Effects of Edible Artemisia Species and Some Sesquiterpene Lactones Constituents. Foods 2020; 10:E65. [PMID: 33396790 PMCID: PMC7823681 DOI: 10.3390/foods10010065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/27/2020] [Revised: 12/22/2020] [Accepted: 12/25/2020] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
The genus Artemisia, often known collectively as "wormwood", has aroused great interest in the scientific community, pharmaceutical and food industries, generating many studies on the most varied aspects of these plants. In this review, the most recent evidence on health effects of edible Artemisia species and some of its constituents are presented and discussed, based on studies published until 2020, available in the Scopus, Web of Sciences and PubMed databases, related to food applications, nutritional and sesquiterpene lactones composition, and their therapeutic effects supported by in vivo and clinical studies. The analysis of more than 300 selected articles highlights the beneficial effect on health and the high clinical relevance of several Artemisia species besides some sesquiterpene lactones constituents and their derivatives. From an integrated perspective, as it includes therapeutic and nutritional properties, without ignoring some adverse effects described in the literature, this review shows the great potential of Artemisia plants and some of their constituents as dietary supplements, functional foods and as the source of new, more efficient, and safe medicines. Despite all the benefits demonstrated, some gaps need to be filled, mainly related to the use of raw Artemisia extracts, such as its standardization and clinical trials on adverse effects and its health care efficacy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antoaneta Trendafilova
- Institute of Organic Chemistry with Centre of Phytochemistry, Bulgarian Academy of Sciences, Acad. G. Bonchev Str., bl. 9, 1113 Sofia, Bulgaria
| | - Laila M. Moujir
- Department of Biochemistry, Microbiology, Genetics and Cell Biology, Facultad de Farmacia, Universidad de La Laguna, 38206 La Laguna, Tenerife, Spain;
| | - Pedro M. C. Sousa
- Faculty of Sciences and Technology, University of Azores, 9500-321 Ponta Delgada, Portugal;
| | - Ana M. L. Seca
- cE3c—Centre for Ecology, Evolution and Environmental Changes/Azorean Biodiversity Group & Faculty of Sciences and Technology, University of Azores, Rua Mãe de Deus, 9500-321 Ponta Delgada, Portugal
- LAQV-REQUIMTE, University of Aveiro, 3810-193 Aveiro, Portugal
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18
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Larrazábal-Fuentes MJ, Fernández-Galleguillos C, Palma-Ramírez J, Romero-Parra J, Sepúlveda K, Galetovic A, González J, Paredes A, Bórquez J, Simirgiotis MJ, Echeverría J. Chemical Profiling, Antioxidant, Anticholinesterase, and Antiprotozoal Potentials of Artemisia copa Phil. (Asteraceae). Front Pharmacol 2020; 11:594174. [PMID: 33343365 PMCID: PMC7746865 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2020.594174] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/12/2020] [Accepted: 10/22/2020] [Indexed: 12/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Artemisia copa Phil. (Asteraceae) (known as copa-copa) is a native species of Chile used as an infusion in traditional medicine by Atacameños people in the Altiplano, highlands of northern Chile. In this research, we have investigated for the first time the cholinesterase inhibition potential against acetylcholinesterase (AChE) and butyrylcholinesterase (BChE), and the chemical profiling of the infusions prepared from the aerial parts of A. copa by high resolution spectrometry. In addition, total phenolic, total flavonoid content, antioxidant (DPPH, FRAP, and ORAC) and antiprozoal activity were tested. Artemisia copa showed good inhibitory activity against AChE and BChE (3.92 ± 0.08 µg/ml and 44.13 ± 0.10 µg/ml). The infusion displayed a total phenolics content of 155.6 ± 2.9 mg of gallic acid equivalents/g and total flavonoid content of 5.5 ± 0.2 mg quercetin equivalents/g. Additionally, trypanocidal activity against Trypanosoma cruzi was found (LD50 of 131.8 µg/ml). Forty-seven metabolites were detected in the infusion of A. copa including several phenolic acids and flavonoids which were rapidly identified using ultrahigh performance liquid chromatography orbitrap mass spectrometry analysis (UHPLC-Orbitrap-MS) for chemical profiling. The major compounds identified in the infusions were studied by molecular docking against AChE and BChE. The UHPLC-MS fingerprints generated can be also used for the authentication of these endemic species. These findings reveal that A. copa infusions can be used as beverages with protective effects.
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Affiliation(s)
- María José Larrazábal-Fuentes
- Unidad Alimentos, Departamento de Ciencias de los Alimentos y Nutrición, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile
| | | | - Jenifer Palma-Ramírez
- Unidad Alimentos, Departamento de Ciencias de los Alimentos y Nutrición, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile
| | - Javier Romero-Parra
- Departamento de Química Orgánica y Fisicoquímica, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad de Chile, Santiago, Chile
| | - Kevin Sepúlveda
- Unidad de Parasitología Molecular, Departamento de Tecnología Médica, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile
| | | | - Jorge González
- Unidad de Parasitología Molecular, Departamento de Tecnología Médica, Facultad de Ciencias de la Salud, Universidad de Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile
| | - Adrián Paredes
- Laboratorio de Productos Naturales, Departamento de Química, Facultad de Ciencias Básicas, Universidad de Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile
| | - Jorge Bórquez
- Laboratorio de Productos Naturales, Departamento de Química, Facultad de Ciencias Básicas, Universidad de Antofagasta, Antofagasta, Chile
| | - Mario J Simirgiotis
- Instituto de Farmacia, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad Austral de Chile, Valdivia, Chile
| | - Javier Echeverría
- Departamento de Ciencias del Ambiente, Facultad de Química y Biología, Universidad de Santiago de Chile, Santiago, Chile
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19
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Yan G, Dawood M, Böckers M, Klauck SM, Fottner C, Weber MM, Efferth T. Multiple modes of cell death in neuroendocrine tumors induced by artesunate. PHYTOMEDICINE : INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHYTOTHERAPY AND PHYTOPHARMACOLOGY 2020; 79:153332. [PMID: 32957040 DOI: 10.1016/j.phymed.2020.153332] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2020] [Revised: 08/31/2020] [Accepted: 09/01/2020] [Indexed: 06/11/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The paucity of effective treatment in neuroendocrine tumors (NETs) encouraged us to investigate the therapeutic value of artesunate (ART) promised by its inhibitory effect against various tumors and broad safety profile. METHODS We evaluated the impact of ART on three NET cell lines, BON-1, QGP-1 and NCI-H727 on cellular and molecular levels. RESULTS Our results showed that ART induced endoplasmic reticulum (ER) stress through phosphorylation of eIF2α, which further gave rise to autophagy in all three NET cell lines. Specifically, apoptosis and ferroptosis were also observed in BON-1 cells, which made BON-1 cell line more vulnerable upon ART treatment. The different sensitivities presented on the three cell lines also associated with a differential regulation of p21 on the long run. Co-treatment with p21 inhibitor UC2288 showed an additive effect on QGP-1 and NCI-H727 cell lines indicating p21 upregulation in these two cell lines might confer resistance towards ART treatment. CONCLUSIONS It is possible to include ART in the treatment of NETs in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ge Yan
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Institute of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, Germany
| | - Mona Dawood
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Institute of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, Germany
| | - Madeleine Böckers
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Institute of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, Germany
| | - Sabine M Klauck
- Division of Cancer Genome Research, German Cancer Research Center (DKFZ), German Cancer Consortium (DKTK), National Center for Tumor Diseases (NCT), Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Christian Fottner
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolic Diseases, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, Germany
| | - Matthias M Weber
- Department of Endocrinology and Metabolic Diseases, University Medical Center of the Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, Germany
| | - Thomas Efferth
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Institute of Pharmaceutical and Biomedical Sciences, Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, Germany.
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20
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Medrán NS, Sayé M, Pereira CA, Tekwani BL, La-Venia A, Labadie GR. Expanding the scope of synthetic 1,2,4-trioxanes towards Trypanosoma cruzi and Leishmania donovani. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2020; 30:127491. [PMID: 32795626 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2020.127491] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/28/2020] [Revised: 08/07/2020] [Accepted: 08/09/2020] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
Abstract
A series of synthetic 1,2,4-trioxanes related to artemisinin was tested against L. donovani and T. cruzi parasites. This screening identified some active compounds, with key common structural features. Interestingly, these selected trioxanes were efficient against both parasites, and achieved antiparasitic activities comparable or superior than those presented by the corresponding reference drugs, artemisinin and artesunate. This study represents the first example of synthetic trioxanes evaluated on T. cruzi and provides possible candidates for developing new drugs for the treatment of leishmaniasis and Chagas disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Noelia S Medrán
- Instituto de Química Rosario (IQUIR-CONICET), Universidad Nacional de Rosario-CONICET, Suipacha 531, S2002LRK Rosario, Argentina; Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Rosario, Argentina
| | - Melisa Sayé
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Medicina, Instituto de Investigaciones Médicas A. Lanari, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Instituto de Investigaciones Médicas (IDIM), Laboratorio de Parasitología Molecular, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Claudio A Pereira
- Universidad de Buenos Aires, Facultad de Medicina, Instituto de Investigaciones Médicas A. Lanari, Buenos Aires, Argentina; Consejo Nacional de Investigaciones Científicas y Técnicas, Universidad de Buenos Aires, Instituto de Investigaciones Médicas (IDIM), Laboratorio de Parasitología Molecular, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Babu L Tekwani
- National Center for Natural Products Research & Department of Pharmacology, School of Pharmacy, University of Mississippi, University, MS 38677, USA
| | - Agustina La-Venia
- Instituto de Química Rosario (IQUIR-CONICET), Universidad Nacional de Rosario-CONICET, Suipacha 531, S2002LRK Rosario, Argentina; Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Rosario, Argentina.
| | - Guillermo R Labadie
- Instituto de Química Rosario (IQUIR-CONICET), Universidad Nacional de Rosario-CONICET, Suipacha 531, S2002LRK Rosario, Argentina; Departamento de Química Orgánica, Facultad de Ciencias Bioquímicas y Farmacéuticas, Universidad Nacional de Rosario, Rosario, Argentina.
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21
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Zhang Z, Zhou L, Xie N, Nice EC, Zhang T, Cui Y, Huang C. Overcoming cancer therapeutic bottleneck by drug repurposing. Signal Transduct Target Ther 2020; 5:113. [PMID: 32616710 PMCID: PMC7331117 DOI: 10.1038/s41392-020-00213-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 251] [Impact Index Per Article: 62.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/06/2020] [Revised: 06/03/2020] [Accepted: 06/04/2020] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Ever present hurdles for the discovery of new drugs for cancer therapy have necessitated the development of the alternative strategy of drug repurposing, the development of old drugs for new therapeutic purposes. This strategy with a cost-effective way offers a rare opportunity for the treatment of human neoplastic disease, facilitating rapid clinical translation. With an increased understanding of the hallmarks of cancer and the development of various data-driven approaches, drug repurposing further promotes the holistic productivity of drug discovery and reasonably focuses on target-defined antineoplastic compounds. The "treasure trove" of non-oncology drugs should not be ignored since they could target not only known but also hitherto unknown vulnerabilities of cancer. Indeed, different from targeted drugs, these old generic drugs, usually used in a multi-target strategy may bring benefit to patients. In this review, aiming to demonstrate the full potential of drug repurposing, we present various promising repurposed non-oncology drugs for clinical cancer management and classify these candidates into their proposed administration for either mono- or drug combination therapy. We also summarize approaches used for drug repurposing and discuss the main barriers to its uptake.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zhe Zhang
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, and West China School of Basic Medical Sciences & Forensic Medicine, Sichuan University, and Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, 610041, Chengdu, China
| | - Li Zhou
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, and West China School of Basic Medical Sciences & Forensic Medicine, Sichuan University, and Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, 610041, Chengdu, China
| | - Na Xie
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, and West China School of Basic Medical Sciences & Forensic Medicine, Sichuan University, and Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, 610041, Chengdu, China
| | - Edouard C Nice
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, VIC, Australia
| | - Tao Zhang
- The School of Biological Science and Technology, Chengdu Medical College, 610083, Chengdu, China.
- Department of Oncology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Chengdu Medical College, China National Nuclear Corporation 416 Hospital, Chengdu, 610051, Sichuan, China.
| | - Yongping Cui
- Cancer Institute, Peking University Shenzhen Hospital, Shenzhen Peking University-the Hong Kong University of Science and Technology (PKU-HKUST) Medical Center, and Cancer Institute, Shenzhen Bay Laboratory Shenzhen, 518035, Shenzhen, China.
- Department of Pathology & Shanxi Key Laboratory of Carcinogenesis and Translational Research on Esophageal Cancer, Shanxi Medical University, Taiyuan, 030001, Shanxi, China.
| | - Canhua Huang
- State Key Laboratory of Biotherapy and Cancer Center, West China Hospital, and West China School of Basic Medical Sciences & Forensic Medicine, Sichuan University, and Collaborative Innovation Center for Biotherapy, 610041, Chengdu, China.
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Chengdu University of Traditional Chinese Medicine, Chengdu, 611137, Sichuan, China.
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Artesunate Affects T Antigen Expression and Survival of Virus-Positive Merkel Cell Carcinoma. Cancers (Basel) 2020; 12:cancers12040919. [PMID: 32283634 PMCID: PMC7225937 DOI: 10.3390/cancers12040919] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/19/2020] [Revised: 04/06/2020] [Accepted: 04/07/2020] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Merkel cell carcinoma (MCC) is a rare and highly aggressive skin cancer with frequent viral etiology. Indeed, in about 80% of cases, there is an association with Merkel cell polyomavirus (MCPyV); the expression of viral T antigens is crucial for growth of virus-positive tumor cells. Since artesunate—a drug used to treat malaria—has been reported to possess additional anti-tumor as well as anti-viral activity, we sought to evaluate pre-clinically the effect of artesunate on MCC. We found that artesunate repressed growth and survival of MCPyV-positive MCC cells in vitro. This effect was accompanied by reduced large T antigen (LT) expression. Notably, however, it was even more efficient than shRNA-mediated downregulation of LT expression. Interestingly, in one MCC cell line (WaGa), T antigen knockdown rendered cells less sensitive to artesunate, while for two other MCC cell lines, we could not substantiate such a relation. Mechanistically, artesunate predominantly induces ferroptosis in MCPyV-positive MCC cells since known ferroptosis-inhibitors like DFO, BAF-A1, Fer-1 and β-mercaptoethanol reduced artesunate-induced death. Finally, application of artesunate in xenotransplanted mice demonstrated that growth of established MCC tumors can be significantly suppressed in vivo. In conclusion, our results revealed a highly anti-proliferative effect of the approved and generally well-tolerated anti-malaria compound artesunate on MCPyV-positive MCC cells, suggesting its potential usage for MCC therapy.
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Zheng C, Shan L, Tong P, Efferth T. Cardiotoxicity and Cardioprotection by Artesunate in Larval Zebrafish. Dose Response 2020; 18:1559325819897180. [PMID: 31975974 PMCID: PMC6958657 DOI: 10.1177/1559325819897180] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/24/2019] [Revised: 11/13/2019] [Accepted: 11/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Although artesunate (ART) is generally accepted as a safe and well-tolerated
first-line treatment of severe malaria, cases of severe side effects and
toxicity of this compound are also documented. This study applied larval
zebrafishes to determine the acute toxicity and efficacy of ART and performed
RNA-sequencing analyses to unravel the underlying signaling pathways
contributing to ART’s activities. Results from acute toxicity assay showed that
a single-dose intravenous injection of ART from 3.6 ng/fish (1/9 maximum
nonlethal concentration) to 41.8 ng/fish (lethal dose 10%) obviously induced
pericardial edema, circulation defects, yolk sac absorption delay, renal edema,
and swim bladder loss, indicating acute cardiotoxicity, nephrotoxicity, and
developmental toxicity of ART. Efficacy assay showed that ART at 1/2 lowest
observed adverse effect level (LOAEL) exerted cardioprotective effects on
zebrafishes with verapamil-induced heart failure. Artesunate significantly
restored cardiac malformation, venous stasis, cardiac output decrease, and blood
flow dynamics reduction. No adverse events were observed with this treatment,
indicating that ART at doses below LOAEL was effective and safe. These results
indicate that ART at low doses was cardioprotective, but revealed cardiotoxicity
at high doses. RNA-sequencing analysis showed that gene expression of
frizzled class receptor 7a (fzd7a) was
significantly upregulated in zebrafishes with verapamil-induced heart failure
and significantly downregulated if ART at 1/2 LOAEL was coadministrated,
indicating that fzd7a-modulated Wnt signaling may mediate the
cardioprotective effect of ART. For the first time, this study revealed the
biphasic property of ART, providing in-depth knowledge on the pharmacological
efficacy-safety profile for its therapeutic and safe applications in clinic.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chuanrui Zheng
- The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Letian Shan
- The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Peijian Tong
- The First Affiliated Hospital, Zhejiang Chinese Medical University, Hangzhou, Zhejiang, People's Republic of China
| | - Thomas Efferth
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Institute of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, Germany
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Polysaccharide-containing fraction from Artemisia argyi inhibits tumor cell-induced platelet aggregation by blocking interaction of podoplanin with C-type lectin-like receptor 2. J Food Drug Anal 2020; 28:115-123. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jfda.2019.08.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/22/2019] [Revised: 07/11/2019] [Accepted: 08/13/2019] [Indexed: 12/19/2022] Open
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Genetic resources of Tunisian Artemisia arborescens L. (Asteraceae), pattern of volatile metabolites concentration and bioactivity and implication for conservation. BIOCHEM SYST ECOL 2019. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bse.2019.103952] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/18/2023]
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26
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Gruessner BM, Cornet-Vernet L, Desrosiers MR, Lutgen P, Towler MJ, Weathers PJ. It is not just artemisinin: Artemisia sp. for treating diseases including malaria and schistosomiasis. PHYTOCHEMISTRY REVIEWS : PROCEEDINGS OF THE PHYTOCHEMICAL SOCIETY OF EUROPE 2019; 18:1509-1527. [PMID: 33911989 PMCID: PMC8078015 DOI: 10.1007/s11101-019-09645-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2019] [Accepted: 09/11/2019] [Indexed: 05/13/2023]
Abstract
Artemisia sp., especially A. annua and A. afra, have been used for centuries to treat many ailments. While artemisinin is the main therapeutically active component, emerging evidence demonstrates that the other phytochemicals in this genus are also therapeutically active. Those compounds include flavonoids, other terpenes, coumarins, and phenolic acids. Artemisia sp. phytochemicals also improve bioavailability of artemisinin and synergistically improve artemisinin therapeutic efficacy, especially when delivered as dried leaf Artemisia as a tea infusion or as powdered dry leaves in a capsule or compressed into a tablet. Here results from in vitro, and in vivo animal and human studies are summarized and critically discussed for mainly malaria, but also other diseases susceptible to artemisinin and Artemisia sp. including schistosomiasis, leishmaniasis, and trypanosomiasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- B M Gruessner
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, 100 Institute Road, Worcester, MA 01609, USA
| | | | - M R Desrosiers
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, 100 Institute Road, Worcester, MA 01609, USA
| | - P Lutgen
- IFVB-BELHERB, Niederanven, Luxembourg
| | - M J Towler
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, 100 Institute Road, Worcester, MA 01609, USA
| | - P J Weathers
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology, Worcester Polytechnic Institute, 100 Institute Road, Worcester, MA 01609, USA
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Saeed MEM, Breuer E, Hegazy MEF, Efferth T. Retrospective study of small pet tumors treated with Artemisia annua and iron. Int J Oncol 2019; 56:123-138. [PMID: 31789393 PMCID: PMC6910181 DOI: 10.3892/ijo.2019.4921] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/26/2019] [Accepted: 10/07/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Artemisinin from Artemisia annua L. and its derivatives are well-known antimalarial drugs. In addition, in vitro studies, in vivo studies and clinical trials have demonstrated that these drugs exhibit anticancer activity in human patients with cancer. Therefore, the aim of the present study was to investigate whether a phytotherapeutic A. annua preparation exerts anticancer activity in veterinary tumors of small pets. Dogs and cats with spontaneous cancer (n=20) were treated with standard therapy plus a commercial A. annua preparation (Luparte®) and compared with a control group treated with standard therapy alone (n=11). Immunohistochemical analyses were performed with formalin-fixed paraffin-embedded tumor biopsies to analyze the expression of transferrin receptor (TfR) and the proliferation marker Ki-67 as possible biomarkers to assess treatment response of tumors to A. annua. Finally, the expression levels of TfR and Ki-67 were compared with the IC50 values towards artemisinin in two dog tumor cells lines (DH82 and DGBM) and a panel of 54 human tumor cell lines. Retrospectively, the present study assessed the survival times of small animals treated by standard therapy with or without A. annua. A. annua treatment was associated with a significantly higher number of animals surviving >18 months compared with animals without A. annua treatment (P=0.0331). Using a second set of small pet tumors, a significant correlation was identified between TfR and Ki-67 expression by immunohistochemistry (P=0.025). To further assess the association of transferrin and Ki-67 expression with cellular response to artemisinin, the present study compared the expression of these two biomarkers and the IC50 values for artemisinin in National Cancer Institute tumor cell lines in vitro. Both markers were inversely associated with artemisinin response (P<0.05), and the expression levels of TfR and Ki-67 were significantly correlated (P=0.008). In conclusion, the promising results of the present retrospective study warrant further confirmation by prospective studies in the future.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed E M Saeed
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Institute of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, D‑55128 Rhineland‑Palatinate, Germany
| | - Elmar Breuer
- Veterinary Clinic for Small Animals, 'Alte Ziegelei' Müllheim, D‑79379 Baden, Germany
| | - Mohamed-Elamir F Hegazy
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Institute of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, D‑55128 Rhineland‑Palatinate, Germany
| | - Thomas Efferth
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Institute of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz, D‑55128 Rhineland‑Palatinate, Germany
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du Toit A, van der Kooy F. Artemisia afra, a controversial herbal remedy or a treasure trove of new drugs? JOURNAL OF ETHNOPHARMACOLOGY 2019; 244:112127. [PMID: 31376515 DOI: 10.1016/j.jep.2019.112127] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/19/2019] [Revised: 07/29/2019] [Accepted: 07/29/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
ETHNOPARMACOLOGICAL RELEVANCE Artemisia afra is one of the most widely used herbal remedies in South Africa. This highly aromatic shrub is used to treat various disorders including coughs, colds, influenza, and malaria. Due to the long tradition of use and popularity of A. afra, it has been successfully commercialised and can currently be bought from various internet stores and pharmacies. The most notable indication is for the prophylaxis and treatment of Plasmodium falciparum infections. In 2013, the Medicine Control Council (MCC) of South Africa banned the sale of A. afra for the treatment of malaria because it lacks scientific evidence of efficacy. This resulted in a lawsuit being filed in 2017 against the MCC by an herbal company which claimed that artemisinin was responsible for A. afra's antiplasmodial activity. At the time, no scientific literature reported that A. afra contained artemisinin. MATERIALS AND METHODS This review aims to collate all available scientific literature regarding the phytochemistry and biological activity, focusing on antimalarial activity, of A. afra published from 2009 to 2019 and follows on our earlier review, which covered all literature until 2009. All scientific literature in English published between 2009 and June 2019 were retrieved from scientific databases (Scifinder scholar, Web of Science, Scopus, PubMed, Google scholar) and a number of books regarding medicinal plants in South Africa were also consulted. RESULTS In the last decade very few compounds have been identified in A. afra, none of which were novel compounds. Based on all the tests that have been conducted using extracts and compounds of A. afra in a disparate variety of in vitro and in vivo bioassays, the results indicate only weak biological activity. The activity of extracts, and in some cases pure compounds, exhibited IC50 or MIC values of 1000-10 000 fold less active than the positive controls. In contrast, and quite surprisingly, two randomised controlled trials were recently conducted (Schistosoma mansoni and Plasmodium falciparum infected patients) and although criticised based on design, execution, statistical analysis and ethical concerns, showed remarkably positive results. CONCLUSIONS Pre-clinical in vitro and in vivo animal experiments failed to yield any promising drug leads. However, if the recent randomised controlled trials can be independently replicated in well-designed and executed clinical trials it might indicate that A. afra contain powerful 'prodrugs'. Future research on A. afra should therefore focus on reproducing the randomised controlled trials and on artificially metabolising A. afra extracts/compounds in order to identify the presence of any 'prodrugs'.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anneke du Toit
- Unit for Drug Research and Development, School of Pharmacy, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa.
| | - Frank van der Kooy
- Unit for Drug Research and Development, School of Pharmacy, North-West University, Private Bag X6001, Potchefstroom, 2520, South Africa.
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Ullrich CI, Aloni R, Saeed MEM, Ullrich W, Efferth T. Comparison between tumors in plants and human beings: Mechanisms of tumor development and therapy with secondary plant metabolites. PHYTOMEDICINE : INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHYTOTHERAPY AND PHYTOPHARMACOLOGY 2019; 64:153081. [PMID: 31568956 DOI: 10.1016/j.phymed.2019.153081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/16/2019] [Revised: 08/30/2019] [Accepted: 09/02/2019] [Indexed: 05/24/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Human tumors are still a major threat to human health and plant tumors negatively affect agricultural yields. Both areas of research are developing largely independent of each other. Treatment of both plant and human tumors remains unsatisfactory and novel therapy options are urgently needed. HYPOTHESIS The concept of this paper is to compare cellular and molecular mechanisms of tumor development in plants and human beings and to explore possibilities to develop novel treatment strategies based on bioactive secondary plant metabolites. The interdisciplinary discourse may unravel commonalities and differences in the biology of plant and human tumors as basis for rational drug development. RESULTS Plant tumors and galls develop upon infection by bacteria (e.g. Agrobacterium tumefaciens and A. vitis, which harbor oncogenic T-DNA) and by insects (e.g. gall wasps, aphids). Plant tumors are benign, i.e. they usually do not ultimately kill their host, but they can lead to considerable economic damage due to reduced crop yields of cultivated plants. Human tumors develop by biological carcinogenesis (i.e. viruses and other infectious agents), chemical carcinogenesis (anthropogenic and non-anthropogenic environmental toxic xenobiotics) and physical carcinogenesis (radioactivity, UV-radiation). The majority of human tumors are malignant with lethal outcome. Although treatments for both plant and human tumors are available (antibiotics and apathogenic bacterial strains for plant tumors, cytostatic drugs for human tumors), treatment successes are non-satisfactory, because of drug resistance and the severe adverse side effects. In human beings, attacks by microbes are repelled by cellular immunity (i.e. innate and acquired immune systems). Plants instead display chemical defense mechanisms, whereby constitutively expressed phytoanticipin compounds compare to the innate human immune system, the acquired human immune system compares to phytoalexins, which are induced by appropriate biotic or abiotic stressors. Some chemical weapons of this armory of secondary metabolites are also active against plant galls. There is a mutual co-evolution between plant defense and animals/human beings, which was sometimes referred to as animal plant warfare. As a consequence, hepatic phase I-III metabolization and excretion developed in animals and human beings to detoxify harmful phytochemicals. On the other hand, plants invented "pro-drugs" during evolution, which are activated and toxified in animals by this hepatic biotransformation system. Recent efforts focus on phytochemicals that specifically target tumor-related mechanisms and proteins, e.g. angiogenic or metastatic inhibitors, stimulators of the immune system to improve anti-tumor immunity, specific cell death or cancer stem cell inhibitors, inhibitors of DNA damage and epigenomic deregulation, specific inhibitors of driver genes of carcinogenesis (e.g. oncogenes), inhibitors of multidrug resistance (i.e. ABC transporter efflux inhibitors), secondary metabolites against plant tumors. CONCLUSION The exploitation of bioactive secondary metabolites to treat plant or human tumors bears a tremendous therapeutic potential. Although there are fundamental differences between human and plant tumors, either isolated phytochemicals and their (semi)synthetic derivatives or chemically defined and standardized plant extracts may offer new therapy options to decrease human tumor incidence and mortality as well as to increase agricultural yields by fighting crown galls.
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Affiliation(s)
- Cornelia I Ullrich
- Department of Biology, Darmstadt University of Technology, Schnittspahnstr. 3-5, Darmstadt 64287, Germany
| | - Roni Aloni
- School of Plant Sciences and Food Security, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 69978, Israel
| | - Mohamed E M Saeed
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Institute of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz 55128, Germany
| | - Wolfram Ullrich
- Department of Biology, Darmstadt University of Technology, Schnittspahnstr. 3-5, Darmstadt 64287, Germany
| | - Thomas Efferth
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Institute of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, Johannes Gutenberg University, Mainz 55128, Germany.
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Wang Y, Li Y, Shang D, Efferth T. Interactions between artemisinin derivatives and P-glycoprotein. PHYTOMEDICINE : INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHYTOTHERAPY AND PHYTOPHARMACOLOGY 2019; 60:152998. [PMID: 31301971 DOI: 10.1016/j.phymed.2019.152998] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2019] [Revised: 06/24/2019] [Accepted: 06/26/2019] [Indexed: 06/10/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Artemisinin was isolated and identified in 1972, which was the starting point for a new era in antimalarial drug therapy. Furthermore, numerous studies have demonstrated that artemisinin and its derivatives exhibit considerable anticancer activity both in vitro, in vivo, and even in clinical Phase I/II trials. P-glycoprotein (P-gp) mediated multi-drug resistance (MDR) is one of the most serious causes of chemotherapy failure in cancer treatment. Interestingly, many artemisinin derivatives exhibit excellent ability to overcome P-gp mediated MDR and even show collateral sensitivity against MDR cancer cells. Furthermore, some artemisinin derivatives show P-gp-mediated MDR reversal activity. Therefore, the interaction between P-gp and artemisinin derivatives is important to develop novel combination treatment protocols with artemisinin derivatives and established anticancer drugs that are P-gp substrates. PURPOSE This systematic review provides an updated overview on the interaction between artemisinin derivatives and P-gp and the effect of artemisinin derivatives on the P-gp expression level. RESULTS Artemisinin derivatives exhibit multi-specific interactions with P-gp. The currently used artemisinin derivatives are not transported by P-gp. However, some of novel synthetized artemisinin derivatives exhibit P-gp substrate properties. Furthermore, many artemisinin derivatives act as P-gp inhibitors, which exhibit the potential to reverse MDR towards clinically used anticancer drugs. CONCLUSION Therefore, studies on the interaction between artemisinin derivatives and P-gp provide important information for the development of novel anti-cancer artemisinin derivatives to reverse P-gp mediated MDR and for the design of rational artemisinin-based combination therapies against cancer.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yulin Wang
- College of Pharmacy, Dalian Medical University, Dalian 116044, China
| | - Yongjie Li
- Department of Chinese Medicine, The First Affiliated Hospital of Dalian Medical University, Dalian 116011, China
| | - Dong Shang
- Clinical Laboratory of Integrative Medicine, First Affiliated Hospital of Dalian Medical University, Dalian China; College of Integrative Medicine, Dalian Medical University, Dalian, China.
| | - Thomas Efferth
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Institute of Pharmacy, Johannes Gutenberg University 55128 Mainz, Germany.
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Hegazy MEF, Abdelfatah S, Hamed AR, Mohamed TA, Elshamy AA, Saleh IA, Reda EH, Abdel-Azim NS, Shams KA, Sakr M, Sugimoto Y, Paré PW, Efferth T. Cytotoxicity of 40 Egyptian plant extracts targeting mechanisms of drug-resistant cancer cells. PHYTOMEDICINE : INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF PHYTOTHERAPY AND PHYTOPHARMACOLOGY 2019; 59:152771. [PMID: 31055230 DOI: 10.1016/j.phymed.2018.11.031] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/04/2018] [Revised: 11/20/2018] [Accepted: 11/23/2018] [Indexed: 06/09/2023]
Abstract
BACKGROUND The multidrug resistance (MDR) phenotype encounters a major challenge to the success of established chemotherapy in cancer patients. We hypothesized that cytotoxic medicinal plants with novel phytochemicals can overcome MDR and kill MDR-cells with similar efficacy as drug sensitive cells. PURPOSE We evaluated plant extracts from an unexplored ecosystem in Egypt with unusual climate and nutrient conditions for their activity against sensitive and multidrug-resistant cancer cell lines. MATERIAL AND METHODS/STUDY DESIGN Methylene chloride: methanol (1:1) and methanol: H2O (7:3) extracts of 40 plants were prepared resulting in a sum of 76 fraction containing compounds with varying polarity. The resazurin reduction assay was employed to evaluate the cytotoxicity of these extracts on five matched pairs of drug-sensitive and their drug-resistant cell lines. Flow cytometry and Western blotting was used to determine cell cycle analyses, apoptosis, and autophagy. Reactive oxygen species (ROS) were measured spectrophotometrically. RESULTS Extracts derived from Withania obtusifolia (WO), Jasonia candicans (JC), Centaurea lippii (CL), and Pulicaria undulata (PU) were the most active ones among 76 extracts from 40 Egyptian medicinal plants. They showed a significant reduction of cell viability on drug-sensitive CCRF-CEM leukemia cell line with IC50 values less than 7 µg/ml. Low cross-resistance degrees were observed in multidrug-resistant CEM/ADR5000 cells towards CL (1.82-fold) and JC (6.09-fold). All other drug-resistant cell lines did not reveal cross-resistance to the four extracts. Further mechanistic assessment have been studied for these four extracts. CONCLUSION The methylene chloride: methanol (1:1) fractions of WO, JC, CL, and PU are promising cytotoxic extracts that could be used to combat MDR cancer cells through different cell death pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mohamed-Elamir F Hegazy
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Institute of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, Johannes Gutenberg University, Staudinger Weg 5, Mainz 55128, Germany; Chemistry of Medicinal Plants Department, National Research Centre, 33 El-Bohouth St., Dokki, Giza 12622, Egypt
| | - Sara Abdelfatah
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Institute of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, Johannes Gutenberg University, Staudinger Weg 5, Mainz 55128, Germany
| | - Ahmed R Hamed
- Chemistry of Medicinal Plants Department, National Research Centre, 33 El-Bohouth St., Dokki, Giza 12622, Egypt; Biology Unit, Central Laboratory for Pharmaceutical and Drug Industries Research Division, National Research Centre, 33 El-Bohouth St., Dokki, Giza 12622, Egypt
| | - Tarik A Mohamed
- Chemistry of Medicinal Plants Department, National Research Centre, 33 El-Bohouth St., Dokki, Giza 12622, Egypt
| | - Abdelsamed A Elshamy
- Natural Compounds Chemistry Department, National Research Centre, 33 El-Bohouth St., Dokki, Giza, 12622, Egypt
| | - Ibrahim A Saleh
- Chemistry of Medicinal Plants Department, National Research Centre, 33 El-Bohouth St., Dokki, Giza 12622, Egypt
| | - Eman H Reda
- Phytochemistry Lab., National Organization for Drug Control and Research, Giza, Egypt
| | - Nahla S Abdel-Azim
- Chemistry of Medicinal Plants Department, National Research Centre, 33 El-Bohouth St., Dokki, Giza 12622, Egypt
| | - Khaled A Shams
- Chemistry of Medicinal Plants Department, National Research Centre, 33 El-Bohouth St., Dokki, Giza 12622, Egypt
| | - Mahmoud Sakr
- Genetic Engineering and Biotech. Division, National Research Centre, EI-Behouth Street, Dokki, Cairo 12622, Egypt
| | - Yoshikazu Sugimoto
- Division of Chemotherapy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Keio University, Tokyo, Japan
| | - Paul W Paré
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX 79409, United States
| | - Thomas Efferth
- Department of Pharmaceutical Biology, Institute of Pharmacy and Biochemistry, Johannes Gutenberg University, Staudinger Weg 5, Mainz 55128, Germany.
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Shikonin derivatives for cancer prevention and therapy. Cancer Lett 2019; 459:248-267. [PMID: 31132429 DOI: 10.1016/j.canlet.2019.04.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 102] [Impact Index Per Article: 20.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2019] [Revised: 04/15/2019] [Accepted: 04/26/2019] [Indexed: 12/25/2022]
Abstract
Phytochemicals gained considerable interest during the past years as source to develop new treatment options for chemoprevention and cancer therapy. Motivated by the fact that a majority of established anticancer drugs are derived in one way or another from natural resources, we focused on shikonin, a naphthoquinone with high potentials to be further developed as preventive or therapeutic drug to fight cancer. Shikonin is the major chemical component of Lithospermum erythrorhizon (Purple Cromwell) roots. Traditionally, the root extract has been applied to cure dermatitis, burns, and wounds. Over the past three decades, the anti-inflammatory and anticancer effects of root extracts, isolated shikonin as well as semi-synthetic and synthetic derivatives and nanoformulations have been described. In vitro and in vivo experiments were conducted to understand the effect of shikonin at cellular and molecular levels. Preliminary clinical trials indicate the potential of shikonin for translation into clinical oncology. Shikonin exerts additive and synergistic interactions in combination with established chemotherapeutics, immunotherapeutic approaches, radiotherapy and other treatment modalities, which further underscores the potential of this phytochemical to be integrated into standard treatment regimens.
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Moraes Neto RN, Setúbal RFB, Higino TMM, Brelaz-de-Castro MCA, da Silva LCN, Aliança ASDS. Asteraceae Plants as Sources of Compounds Against Leishmaniasis and Chagas Disease. Front Pharmacol 2019; 10:477. [PMID: 31156427 PMCID: PMC6530400 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2019.00477] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2018] [Accepted: 04/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/28/2022] Open
Abstract
Leishmaniasis and Chagas disease cause great impact on social and economic aspects of people living in developing countries. The treatments for these diseases are based on the same regimen for over 40 years, thus, there is an urgent need for the development of new drugs. In this scenario, Asteraceae plants (a family widely used in folk medicine worldwide) are emerging as an interesting source for new trypanocidal and leishmanicidal compounds. Herein, we provide a non-exhaustive review about the activity of plant-derived products from Asteraceae with inhibitory action toward Leishmania spp. and T. cruzi. Special attention was given to those studies aiming the isolation (or identification) of the bioactive compounds. Ferulic acid, rosmarinic acid, and ursolic acid (Baccharis uncinella DC.) were efficient to treat experimental leishmaniasis; while deoxymikanolide (Mikania micrantha) and (+)-15-hydroxy-labd-7-en-17-al (Aristeguietia glutinosa Lam.) showed in vivo anti-T. cruzi action. It is also important to highlight that several plant-derived products (compounds, essential oils) from Artemisia plants have shown high inhibitory potential against Leishmania spp., such as artemisinin and its derivatives. In summary, these compounds may help the development of new effective agents against these neglected diseases.
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Mokhtar AB, Ahmed SA, Eltamany EE, Karanis P. Anti- Blastocystis Activity In Vitro of Egyptian Herbal Extracts (Family: Asteraceae) with Emphasis on Artemisia judaica. INTERNATIONAL JOURNAL OF ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH AND PUBLIC HEALTH 2019; 16:ijerph16091555. [PMID: 31058875 PMCID: PMC6539629 DOI: 10.3390/ijerph16091555] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2019] [Revised: 04/28/2019] [Accepted: 04/30/2019] [Indexed: 01/12/2023]
Abstract
Achillea fragrantissima (Forssk.) Sch. Bip. (known as Qaysoom), Echinops spinosus L. (known as Shoak Elgamal) and Artemisia judaica L.(known Shih Baladi) are members of the Asteraceae family known for their traditional medical use in Egypt. The ethanol extracts of these plants were evaluated for their efficacy against a protozoan parasite (Blastocystis). Two different molecular subtypes of Blastocystis were used (ST1 and ST3). Significant growth inhibition of Blastocystis was observed when exposed to both A. judaica (99.3%) and A. fragrantissima (95.6%) with minimal inhibitory concentration (MIC90) at 2000 µg/mL. Under the effect of the extracts, changes in Blastocystis morphology were noted, with the complete destruction of Blastocystis forms after 72 h with the dose of 4000 µg/mL. Different subtypes displayed different responses to the herbal extracts tested. ST1 exhibited significantly different responses to the herbal extracts compared to ST3. A. judaica was selected as the herb of choice considering all of its variables and because of its effective action against Blastocystis. It was then exposed to further fractionation and observation of its effect on ST1 and ST3. Solvent portioned fractions (dichloromethane (DCM), ethyl acetate (EtOAc) and n-hexane) in A. judaica were found to be the potent active fractions against both of the Blastocystis subtypes used.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amira B Mokhtar
- Department of Medical Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Suez Canal University, Ismailia 45122, Egypt.
- Department of Clinical Laboratory Sciences, College of Applied Medical Sciences, Jouf University, Al-Qurayyat 77413, Saudi Arabia.
| | - Shahira A Ahmed
- Department of Medical Parasitology, Faculty of Medicine, Suez Canal University, Ismailia 45122, Egypt.
| | - Enas E Eltamany
- Department of Pharmacognosy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Suez Canal University, Ismailia 45122, Egypt.
| | - Panagiotis Karanis
- University of Cologne, Medical Faculty and University Hospital, 50937 Cologne, Germany.
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Numonov S, Sharopov F, Salimov A, Sukhrobov P, Atolikshoeva S, Safarzoda R, Habasi M, Aisa HA. Assessment of Artemisinin Contents in Selected Artemisia Species from Tajikistan (Central Asia). MEDICINES 2019; 6:medicines6010023. [PMID: 30709043 PMCID: PMC6473495 DOI: 10.3390/medicines6010023] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/15/2019] [Revised: 01/30/2019] [Accepted: 01/31/2019] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Background: Central Asia is the center of origin and diversification of the Artemisia genus. The genus Artemisia is known to possess a rich phytochemical diversity. Artemisinin is the shining example of a phytochemical isolated from Artemisia annua, which is widely used in the treatment of malaria. There is great interest in the discovery of alternative sources of artemisinin in other Artemisia species. Methods: The hexane extracts of Artemisia plants were prepared with ultrasound-assisted extraction procedures. Silica gel was used as an adsorbent for the purification of Artemisia annua extract. High-performance liquid chromatography with ultraviolet detection was performed for the quantification of underivatized artemisinin from hexane extracts of plants. Results: Artemisinin was found in seven Artemisia species collected from Tajikistan. Content of artemisinin ranged between 0.07% and 0.45% based on dry mass of Artemisia species samples. Conclusions: The artemisinin contents were observed in seven Artemisia species. A. vachanica was found to be a novel plant source of artemisinin. Purification of A. annua hexane extract using silica gel as adsorbent resulted in enrichment of artemisinin.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sodik Numonov
- Research Institution "Chinese-Tajik Innovation Center for Natural Products" of the Tajikistan Academy of Sciences, Ayni str. 299/2, Dushanbe 734063, Tajikistan.
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources and Chemistry in Arid Regions, Xinjiang Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Urumqi 830011, China.
- Center for Research in Innovative Technologies, Academy of Sciences of the Republic of Tajikistan, Dushanbe 734062, Tajikistan.
| | - Farukh Sharopov
- Research Institution "Chinese-Tajik Innovation Center for Natural Products" of the Tajikistan Academy of Sciences, Ayni str. 299/2, Dushanbe 734063, Tajikistan.
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources and Chemistry in Arid Regions, Xinjiang Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Urumqi 830011, China.
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Avicenna Tajik State Medical University, Rudaki 139, Dushanbe 734003, Tajikistan.
| | - Aminjon Salimov
- V.I. Nikitin Institute of Chemistry of the Tajikistan Academy of Sciences, Ayni str. 299/2, Dushanbe 734063, Tajikistan.
| | - Parviz Sukhrobov
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources and Chemistry in Arid Regions, Xinjiang Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Urumqi 830011, China.
| | - Sunbula Atolikshoeva
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources and Chemistry in Arid Regions, Xinjiang Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Urumqi 830011, China.
| | - Ramazon Safarzoda
- Department of Pharmaceutical Technology, Avicenna Tajik State Medical University, Rudaki 139, Dushanbe 734003, Tajikistan.
| | - Maidina Habasi
- Research Institution "Chinese-Tajik Innovation Center for Natural Products" of the Tajikistan Academy of Sciences, Ayni str. 299/2, Dushanbe 734063, Tajikistan.
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources and Chemistry in Arid Regions, Xinjiang Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Urumqi 830011, China.
| | - Haji Akber Aisa
- Key Laboratory of Plant Resources and Chemistry in Arid Regions, Xinjiang Technical Institute of Physics and Chemistry, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Urumqi 830011, China.
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