Differential contributions of theobromine and caffeine on mood, psychomotor performance and blood pressure

Theobromine supplementation in combination with a low-calorie diet improves cardiovascular risk factors in overweight and obese subjects with metabolic syndrome: a randomized controlled trial

Background & aims: The beneficial effects of theobromine (TB) on obesity and features of metabolic syndrome (MetS) have been reported in several studies. However, the findings are equivocal. The present study aimed to investigate the effects of 12 week pure TB supplementation (450 mg day-1) combined with a low-calorie diet on the anthropometric and metabolic syndrome indices in overweight and obese adults with MetS. Methods: In a randomized double-blind parallel controlled trial, 80 participants aged 40-55 years were randomly assigned to take 450 mg day-1 TB or placebo along with a low-calorie diet for 12 weeks. Dietary intake, anthropometric indices, blood pressure, lipid profile and glycemic indices were assessed at the start and end of the intervention. Results: Seventy-two participants completed the study. After 12 weeks, TB supplementation significantly decreased the waist circumference (WC) (-0.86 cm; P = 0.045), LDL-c/HDL-c (-0.26; P = 0.008), TG/HDL-c (-0.41; P = 0.001), TC/HDL-c (-0.38; P = 0.006) and increased HDL-c (1.72 mg dl-1; P = 0.036) compared to the placebo group. There were no significant differences regarding body weight, BMI, hip circumference (HC), hip-to-waist circumference ratio (WHR), systolic and diastolic blood pressure, fasting levels of total cholesterol (TC), triacylglycerol (TAG), low-density lipoprotein cholesterol (LDL-c), fasting blood glucose, insulin, homoeostatic model assessment for insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) and homeostasis model assessment of β-cell function (HOMA-β) between the two groups (p > 0.05). Conclusion: The results of the current study revealed that TB supplementation along with a low-calorie diet had favorable effects on WC, LDL-c/HDL-c, TG/HDL-c, TC/HDL-c, and serum level of HDL-c in overweight and obese subjects with MetS. Trial registration number: IRCT20091114002709N59. Registration date: 5 March 2022.

A comprehensive insight into the molecular effect of theobromine on cardiovascular-related risk factors: A systematic review of in vitro and in vivo studies

Theobromine may have beneficial effects on cardiovascular risk factors. This study aimed to find molecular effects of theobromine on lipid profile, glycemic status, inflammatory factors, and vascular function through a comprehensive assessment of all in vitro and in vivo studies. The search process was started at 18 July 2022. Databases including PubMed, Scopus, and Web of Science were searched to find all articles published up to 18 July 2022. Nineteen studies were included in this study. In vitro studies showed the improving effects of theobromine on inflammatory markers. Of four animal studies assessing the effect of theobromine on inflammatory markers, two reported favorable effects. Among five animal studies assessing the effects of theobromine on lipid profile, three reported improving effects on either triglyceride, total cholesterol, low- or high-density lipoprotein cholesterol. Of the three human studies, two revealed that theobromine had improving effects on lipid profile. A favorable effect of theobromine on augmentation index was also reported in two RCTs. The results for other outcomes were inconclusive. Theobromine may have favorable effects on inflammatory factors, lipid profile, and vascular function markers. However, studies with a longer duration and lower, dietary-relevant doses are required for future confirmation.

Chocolate Consumption in Relation to All-Cause and Cause-Specific Mortality in Women: The Women's Health Initiative

BACKGROUND

Chocolate contains both potentially harmful components (ie, stearic acid and added sugar) and beneficial components (ie, phenolics and flavonoids). Despite its popularity, the long-term health effects of chocolate consumption remain unclear.

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to examine the association of chocolate consumption with all-cause and cause-specific mortality.

DESIGN

This was a prospective cohort study.

PARTICIPANTS/SETTING

This study included 84,709 postmenopausal women free of cardiovascular disease (CVD) and cancer at baseline in the observational study and clinical trials control arms of the prospective Women's Health Initiative cohort who were enrolled during 1993 through 1998. These women were followed through March 2018.

MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES

The outcomes included all-cause mortality and cause-specific mortality from CVD, cancer, and dementia.

STATISTICAL ANALYSES PERFORMED

Multivariable Cox proportional hazards models were used to estimate adjusted hazard ratios (HRs) of all-cause mortality and cause-specific mortality.

RESULTS

During 1,608,856 person-years of follow-up (mean [SD] of 19.0 [4.2] years), 25,388 deaths occurred, including 7,069 deaths from CVD, 7,030 deaths from cancer, and 3,279 deaths from dementia. After adjustment for a variety of covariates, compared with no chocolate consumption, the HRs (95% CI) for all-cause mortality were 0.95 (0.92 to 0.98), 0.93 (0.89 to 0.96), 0.97 (0.90 to 1.04), and 0.90 (0.84 to 0.97) for <1 serving/wk, 1 to 3 servings/wk, 4 to 6 servings/wk, and ≥1 serving/d of chocolate consumption, respectively (P for trend = .02). For CVD mortality, compared with no chocolate consumption, the HRs (95% CI) were 0.96 (0.91 to 1.01), 0.88 (0.82 to 0.95), 1.06 (0.93 to 1.21), and 0.92 (0.80 to 1.05) for <1 serving/wk, 1 to 3servings/wk, 4 to 6 servings/wk, and ≥1 serving/d of chocolate consumption, respectively (P for trend =.45). For dementia mortality, compared with no chocolate consumption, the HRs (95% CI) were 0.91 (0.84 to 0.99), 0.89 (0.80 to 0.99), 0.97 (0.79 to 1.18), and 0.97 (0.80 to 1.18) for <1 serving/wk, 1 to 3 servings/wk, 4-6 servings/wk, and ≥1 serving/d of chocolate consumption, respectively (P for trend = .95). Chocolate consumption was not associated with cancer mortality.

CONCLUSIONS

The results suggest a modest inverse association of chocolate consumption with mortality from all causes, CVD, or dementia, specifically for moderate chocolate consumption of 1 to 3 servings/wk.

Association between dietary theobromine with depression: a population-based study

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study is to investigate the possible link between dietary theobromine intake and symptoms of depression.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

These results are based on the responses of 3637 people who took part in the National Health and Nutrition Examination Survey in 2017-2018. Participants' daily theobromine intake was determined using a 24-h food questionnaire from the 2017-2018 cycle. Presence of depression was defined as a score of 5 or above on the Patient Health Questionnaire. Association between theobromine intake and depression was examined using a multivariate logistic regression adjusting for several relevant sociodemographic, lifestyle and health-related factors.

RESULTS

A total of 6903 participants were included in the study. The results of multivariate logistic regression showed a correlation between depressive symptoms and theobromine intake (OR:1.17, 95%CI:1.02-1.34).

CONCLUSIONS

Our cross-sectional population based study suggests that increased theobromine intake is associated with increased risk for depression. Nevertheless, more investigations are needed to confirm our findings.

From Cocoa to Chocolate: Effect of Processing on Flavanols and Methylxanthines and Their Mechanisms of Action

Despite the health benefits associated with the ingestion of the bioactive compounds in cocoa, the high concentrations of polyphenols and methylxanthines in the raw cocoa beans negatively influence the taste, confer the astringency and bitterness, and affect the stability and digestibility of the cocoa products. It is, therefore, necessary to process cocoa beans to develop the characteristic color, taste, and flavor, and reduce the astringency and bitterness, which are desirable in cocoa products. Processing, however, affects the composition and quantities of the bioactive compounds, resulting in the modification of the health-promoting properties of cocoa beans and chocolate. In this advanced review, we sought to better understand the effect of cocoa's transformational process into chocolate on polyphenols and methylxanthine and the mechanism of action of the original flavanols and methylxanthines. More data on the cocoa processing effect on cocoa bioactives are still needed for better understanding the effect of each processing step on the final polyphenolic and methylxanthine composition of chocolate and other cocoa products. Regarding the mechanisms of action, theobromine acts through the modulation of the fatty acid metabolism, mitochondrial function, and energy metabolism pathways, while flavanols mainly act though the protein kinases and antioxidant pathways. Both flavanols and theobromine seem to be involved in the nitric oxide and neurotrophin regulation.

Thebromine Targets Adenosine Receptors to Control Hippocampal Neuronal Function and Damage

Theobromine is a caffeine metabolite most abundant in dark chocolate, of which consumption is linked with a lower risk of cognitive decline. However, the mechanisms through which theobromine affects neuronal function remain ill-defined. Using electrophysiological recordings in mouse hippocampal synapses, we now characterized the impact of a realistic concentration of theobromine on synaptic transmission and plasticity. Theobromine (30 μM) facilitated synaptic transmission while decreasing the magnitude of long-term potentiation (LTP), with both effects being blunted by adenosine deaminase (2 U/mL). The pharmacological blockade of A₁R with DPCPX (100 nM) eliminated the theobromine-dependent facilitation of synaptic transmission, whereas the A_2AR antagonist SCH58261 (50 nM), as well as the genetic deletion of A_2AR, abrogated the theobromine-induced impairment of LTP. Furthermore, theobromine prevented LTP deficits and neuronal loss, respectively, in mouse hippocampal slices and neuronal cultures exposed to Aβ_1-42 peptides, considered a culprit of Alzheimer's disease. Overall, these results indicate that theobromine affects information flow via the antagonism of adenosine receptors, normalizing synaptic plasticity and affording neuroprotection in dementia-related conditions in a manner similar to caffeine.

Effect of theobromine on dissolution of uric acid kidney stones

Purpose

Uric acid renal lithiasis has a high prevalence and a high rate of recurrence. Removal of uric acid stones can be achieved by several surgical techniques (extracorporeal shock wave lithotripsy, endoscopy, laparoscopy, open surgery). These stones can also be eliminated by dissolution within the kidneys, because the solubility of uric acid is much greater when the pH is above 6. At present, N-acetylcysteine with a urinary basifying agent is the only treatment proposed to increase the dissolution of uric acid stones. In this paper, we compare the effect of theobromine and N-acetylcysteine on the in vitro dissolution of uric acid calculi in artificial urine at pH 6.5.

Methods

The dissolution of uric acid renal calculi was performed in a temperature-controlled (37 °C) chamber. A peristaltic pump was used to pass 750 mL of synthetic urine (pH 6.5) through a capsule every 24 h. Stone dissolution was evaluated by measuring the change in weight before and after each experiment.

Results

N-acetylcysteine increased the dissolution of uric acid calculi, but the effect was not statistically significant. Theobromine significantly increased the dissolution of uric acid calculi. Both substances together had the same effect as theobromine alone. The addition of theobromine to a basifying therapy that uses citrate and/or bicarbonate is a potential new strategy for the oral chemolysis of uric acid stones.

Conclusion

Theobromine may prevent the formation of new stones and increase the dissolution of existing stones.

Chemometric Classification of Colombian Cacao Crops: Effects of Different Genotypes and Origins in Different Years of Harvest on Levels of Flavonoid and Methylxanthine Metabolites in Raw Cacao Beans

The aim of this study was to evaluate the levels of chemical markers in raw cacao beans in two clones (introduced and regional) in Colombia over several years. Multivariate statistical methods were used to analyze the flavanol monomers (epicatechin and catechin), flavanol oligomers (procyanidins) and methylxanthine alkaloids (caffeine and theobromine) of cocoa samples. The results identified genotype as the main factor contributing to cacao chemistry, although significant differences were not observed between universal and regional clones in PCA. The univariate analysis allowed us to establish that EET-96 had the highest contents of both flavanol monomers (13.12 ± 2.30 mg/g) and procyanidins (7.56 ± 4.59 mg/g). In addition, the geographic origin, the harvest conditions of each region and the year of harvest may contribute to major discrepancies between results. Turbo cocoa samples are notable for their higher flavanol monomer content, Chigorodó cocoa samples for the presence of both types of polyphenol (monomer and procyanidin contents) and the Northeast cocoa samples for the higher methylxanthine content. We hope that knowledge of the heterogeneity of the metabolites of interest in each clone will contribute to the generation of added value in the cocoa production chain and its sustainability.

Simultaneous determination of caffeine and its metabolites in rat plasma by UHPLC-MS/MS

Caffeine is a widely consumed psychostimulant with several mechanisms of action and various positive and negative effects on organisms. Caffeine undergoes extensive hepatic metabolism to form main metabolites such as theobromine, theophylline, paraxanthine, and 1,3,7-trimethyluric acid. However, interspecies diversities have been observed in caffeine metabolism. In the present study, we developed a sensitive and straightforward ultra-high-performance liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry method to quantify caffeine and its primary metabolites, namely theobromine, theophylline, paraxanthine, and 1,3,7-trimethyluric acid in rat plasma. After extraction of analytes using micro solid-phase extraction plate, analytes were separated by elution gradient on the Acquity UPLC HSS T3 (50 × 2.1 mm, 1.8 μm) column over 4 min. The detection was done on a triple quadrupole tandem mass spectrometer by multiple reaction monitoring modes using a positive electrospray ionization interface. The method was successfully validated according to the European Medicine Agency guideline over a concentration range of 5-1500 ng/ml for caffeine, 5-1200 ng/mL for theobromine, and 2.5-1200 ng/mL for theophylline, paraxanthine, and 1,3,7-trimethyluric acid. The developed method was applied to analyze samples from animal experiments focusing on the metabolism and effects of caffeine and caffeine-containing beverages.

Reproductive Toxicity of Theobroma cacao: Increase in Survival Index, Nongenotoxic, and Proimplantation Potential

Unsweetened natural cocoa (UNCP) was evaluated for reproductive toxicity in rats. A preliminary genotoxic potential was evaluated by the DNA comet assay test using C57Bl/6 mice. Both therapeutic dose (TD; 900 mg/kg) and high dose (HD; 9000 mg/kg) of UNCP were used. White Wistar rats were used in two experimental groups. The females received UNCP 15 days before crossing with untreated males. The males received UNCP for 48 days before mating with untreated females. Subacute toxicity was observed during a 14-day oral administration of UNCP. Results show that a high tail DNA% was observed with methyl mesylate administration in all tissues analysed. The lowest tail DNA% value was observed in the liver (1.64 ± 0.26) and kidney (1.63 ± 0.30) during UNCP (TD) administration. UNCP did not induce observable physical congenital malformations on the pubs of treated female and male rats, lacks genotoxic potential, and did not adversely affect pregnancy index, pub weights, and survival index, but UNCP exhibited proimplantation potential (p > 0.05).

Effects of theophylline and theobromine on exercise performance and implications for competition sport: A systematic review

A systematic review was undertaken to evaluate studies on the effects of theophylline and theobromine on exercise performance in normal (healthy) subjects. Theophylline was found to have been studied on eight occasions and theobromine on one, the number of subjects per study ranging from seven to 15. In two exercise investigations, theophylline was superior to placebo at a p < 0.05 level and no different in four including one that was conducted in artificial hypoxia. In a treadmill time trial over 3 km, theobromine was superior to placebo and equal to caffeine, at the <0.05 level. In strength studies, theophylline increased wrist strength in one and showed a slight but not statistically significant increase in limb strength in four of the seven subjects in the other. Theophylline caused adverse effects in six participants. There were no adverse effects in the theobromine investigation. Although the studies showed contradicting results and/or insufficient data to draw solid conclusions, it appears both drugs have potential to enhance performance and could be considered for inclusion on the WADA banned list.

Beer and Consumer Response Using Biometrics: Associations Assessment of Beer Compounds and Elicited Emotions

Some chemical compounds, especially alcohol, sugars, and alkaloids such as hordenine, have been reported as elicitors of different emotional responses. This preliminary study was based on six commercial beers selected according to their fermentation type, with two beers of each type (spontaneous, bottom, and top). Chemometry and sensory analysis were performed for all samples to determine relationships and patterns between chemical composition and emotional responses from consumers. The results showed that sweeter samples were associated with higher perceived liking by consumers and positive emotions, which corresponded to spontaneous fermentation beers. There was high correlation (R = 0.91; R² = 0.83) between hordenine and alcohol content. Beers presenting higher concentrations of both, and higher bitterness, were related to negative emotions. Further studies should be conducted, giving more time for emotional response analysis between beer samples, and comparing alcoholic and non-alcoholic beers with similar styles, to separate the effects of alcohol and hordenine. This preliminary study was a first attempt to associate beer compounds with the emotional responses of consumers using non-invasive biometrics.

Bioavailability and metabolism of selected cocoa bioactive compounds: A comprehensive review

Cocoa beans and their co-products are a rich source of beneficial compounds for health promotion, including polyphenols and methylxanthines. Knowledge of bioavailability and in vivo bioactivity of these phytochemicals is crucial to understand their role and function in human health. Therefore, many studies concerning bioavailability and bioactivity of cocoa bioactive compound have been done in both in vivo animal models and in humans. This critical review comprehensively summarizes the existing knowledge about the bioavailability and the major metabolic pathways of selected cocoa bioactive compounds (i.e. monomeric flavan-3-ols, procyanidins, anthocyanins, flavonols, phenolic acids, N-phenylpropenoyl-L-amino acids, stilbenes, and methylxanthines). The compiled results indicated that many of these compounds undergo extensive metabolism prior to absorption. Different factors have been suggested to influence the bioavailability of polyphenols and methylxanthines among them the role of gut microbiota, structure of these compounds, food matrix and occurrence of other substances were the most often considered. Aforementioned factors decided about the site where these bioactive compounds are digested and absorbed from the alimentary tract, as well as the pathway by which they are metabolized. These factors also determine of the type of transport through the intestine barrier (passive, involving specific enzymes or mediated by specific transporters) and their metabolic path and profile.

More than just caffeine: psychopharmacology of methylxanthine interactions with plant-derived phytochemicals

In general, preparations of coffee, teas, and cocoa containing high levels of polyphenols, L-theanine and other bioactive compounds selectively enhance mood and cognition effects of caffeine. This review summarizes the bioactive components of commonly consumed natural caffeine sources (e.g. guayusa, mate and camellia teas, coffee and cocoa) and analyzes the psychopharmacology of constituent phytochemicals: methylxanthines, polyphenols, and L-theanine. Acute and chronic synergistic effects of these compounds on mood and cognition are compared and discussed. Specific sets of constituent compounds such as polyphenols, theobromine and L-theanine appear to enhance mood and cognition effects of caffeine and alleviate negative psychophysiological effects of caffeine. However, more research is needed to identify optimal combinations and ratios of caffeine and phytochemicals for enhancement of cognitive performance.

Increased Phenolic Content and Enhanced Antioxidant Activity in Fermented Glutinous Rice Supplemented with Fu Brick Tea

Glutinous rice-based foods have a long history are consumed worldwide. They are also in great demand for the pursuit of novel sensory and natural health benefits. In this study, we developed a novel fermented glutinous rice product with the supplementation of Fu brick tea. Using in vitro antioxidant evaluation and phenolic compounds analysis, fermentation with Fu brick tea increased the total phenolic content and enhanced the antioxidant activity of glutinous rice, including scavenging of 1,1-Diphenyl-2-picryl-hydrazyl (DPPH) radical, 2,2′-azino-bis-3-ethylbenzthiazoline-6-sulphonic acid (ABTS) radical, and hydroxyl radical, ferric-reducing antioxidant power, and ferric ion reducing power and iron chelating capability. Besides, compared with traditional fermented glutinous rice, this novel functional food exhibited a stronger activity for protecting DNA against hydroxyl radical-induced oxidation damage. Quantitative analysis by HPLC identified 14 compounds covering catechins and phenolic acids, which were considered to be positively related to the enhanced antioxidant capability. Furthermore, we found that 80% ethanol was a suitable extract solvent compared with water, because of its higher extraction efficiency and stronger functional activities. Our results suggested that this novel fermented glutinous rice could serve as a nutraceutical food/ingredient with special sensory and functional activities.

Phytochemicals for Improving Aspects of Cognitive Function and Psychological State Potentially Relevant to Sports Performance

Subjective alertness and optimal cognitive function, including in terms of attention, spatial/working memory and executive function, are intrinsic to peak performance in many sports. Consumption of a number of plant-derived 'secondary metabolite' phytochemicals can modulate these psychological parameters, although there is a paucity of evidence collected in a sporting context. The structural groups into which these phytochemicals fall-phenolics, terpenes and alkaloids-vary in terms of the ecological roles they play for the plant, their toxicity and the extent to which they exert direct effects on brain function. The phenolics, including polyphenols, play protective roles in the plant, and represent a natural, benign component of the human diet. Increased consumption has been shown to improve cardiovascular function and is associated with long-term brain health. However, whilst short-term supplementation with polyphenols has been shown to consistently modulate cerebral blood-flow parameters, evidence of direct effects on cognitive function and alertness/arousal is currently comparatively weak. Terpenes play both attractant and deterrent roles in the plant, and typically occur less frequently in the diet. Single doses of volatile monoterpenes derived from edible herbs such as sage (Salvia officinalis/lavandulaefolia) and peppermint (Mentha piperita), diterpene-rich Ginkgo biloba extracts and triterpene-containing extracts from plants such as ginseng (Panax ginseng/quinquefolius) and Bacopa monnieri have all been shown to enhance relevant aspects of cognitive function and alertness. The alkaloids play toxic defensive roles in the plant, including via interference with herbivore brain function. Whilst most alkaloids are inappropriate in a sporting context due to toxicity and legal status, evidence suggests that single doses of nicotine and caffeine may be able to enhance relevant aspects of cognitive function and/or alertness. However, their benefits may be confounded by habituation and withdrawal effects in the longer term. The efficacy of volatile terpenes, triterpene-rich extracts and products combining low doses of caffeine with other phytochemicals deserves more research attention.

Exploring cocoa properties: is theobromine a cognitive modulator?

Nutritional qualities of cocoa have been acknowledged by several authors; a particular focus has been placed on its high content of flavanols, known for their excellent antioxidant properties and subsequent protective effect on cardio- and cerebrovascular systems as well as for neuromodulatory and neuroprotective actions. Other active components of cocoa are methylxanthines (caffeine and theobromine). Whereas the effects of caffeine are extensively researched, the same is not the case for theobromine; this review summarizes evidence on the effect of theobromine on cognitive functions. Considering animal studies, it can be asserted that acute exposition to theobromine has a reduced and delayed nootropic effect with respect to caffeine, whereas both animal and human studies suggested a potential neuroprotective action of long-term assumption of theobromine through a reduction of Aβ amyloid pathology, which is commonly observed in Alzheimer's disease patients' brains. Hence, the conceivable action of theobromine alone and associated with caffeine or other cocoa constituents on cognitive modulation is yet underexplored and future studies are needed to shed light on this promising molecule.

Pharmacological potential of methylxanthines: Retrospective analysis and future expectations

Methylated xanthines (methylxanthines) are available from a significant number of different botanical species. They are ordinarily included in daily diet, in many extremely common beverages and foods. Caffeine, theophylline and theobromine are the main methylxanthines available from natural sources. The supposedly relatively low toxicity of methylxanthines, combined with the many beneficial effects that have been attributed to these compounds through time, generated a justified attention and a very prolific ground for dedicated scientific reports. Methylxanthines have been widely used as therapeutical tools, in an intriguing range of medicinal scopes. In fact, methylxanthines have been/were medically used as Central Nervous System stimulants, bronchodilators, coronary dilators, diuretics and anti-cancer adjuvant treatments. Other than these applications, methylxanthines have also been hinted to hold other beneficial health effects, namely regarding neurodegenerative diseases, cardioprotection, diabetes and fertility. However, it seems now consensual that toxicity concerns related to methylxanthine consumption and/or therapeutic use should not be dismissed. Taking all the knowledge and expectations on the potential of methylxanthines into account, we propose a systematic look at the past and future of methylxanthine pharmacologic applications, discussing all the promise and anticipating possible constraints. Anyways, methylxanthines will still substantiate considerable meaningful research and discussion for years to come.

Effect of Green Tea Phytochemicals on Mood and Cognition

BACKGROUND

Green tea is traditionally known to induce mental clarity, cognitive function, physical activation and relaxation. Recently, a special green tea, matcha tea, is rapidly gaining popularity throughout the world and is frequently referred to as a mood- and brain food. Matcha tea consumption leads to much higher intake of green tea phytochemicals compared to regular green tea. Previous research on tea constituents caffeine, L-theanine, and epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG) repeatedly demonstrated benefits on mood and cognitive performance. These effects were observed when these phytochemicals were consumed separately and in combination.

METHODS

A review was conducted on 49 human intervention studies to summarize the research on acute psychoactive effects of caffeine, L-theanine, and EGCG on different dimensions of mood and cognitive performance.

CONCLUSION

Caffeine was found to mainly improve performance on demanding long-duration cognitive tasks and self-reported alertness, arousal, and vigor. Significant effects already occurred at low doses of 40 mg. L-theanine alone improved self-reported relaxation, tension, and calmness starting at 200 mg. L-theanine and caffeine combined were found to particularly improve performance in attention-switching tasks and alertness, but to a lesser extent than caffeine alone. No conclusive evidence relating to effects induced by EGCG could be given since the amount of intervention studies was limited. These studies provided reliable evidence showing that L-theanine and caffeine have clear beneficial effects on sustained attention, memory, and suppression of distraction. Moreover, L-theanine was found to lead to relaxation by reducing caffeine induced arousal.

Acute hematological and mood perception effects of bitter orange extract (p-synephrine) consumed alone and in combination with caffeine: A placebo-controlled, double-blind study

The purpose of this study was to examine acute hematological and mood perception responses to supplementation with p-synephrine alone and in combination with caffeine during quiet sitting. Sixteen subjects visited the laboratory on 6 occasions and were given (in randomized double-blind manner) 103-mg p-synephrine (S), 233-mg caffeine + 104-mg p-synephrine, 240-mg caffeine, 337-mg caffeine + 46-mg p-synephrine, 325-mg caffeine, or a placebo (PL). The subjects sat quietly for 3 hr while completing mood state questionnaires every 30 min. Venous blood samples were collected at baseline (pre) and 3 hr (post) to determine immune, lipid, and chemistry panels. Compared with PL, no significant supplement differences were observed during the S trial with the exception of differential time effects seen in hematocrit (decrease in PL, no change in S), triglycerides and very low-density lipoproteins (no changes in PL, significant decreases in S), and iron (no change in PL, significant elevation in S). Supplements containing caffeine showed increased feelings of attention, excitement, energy, and vigor. These data indicate that consumption of 103-mg p-synephrine does not negatively impact acute blood parameters, does not augment the effects of caffeine, or produce stimulant-like perceptual mood effects.

Impact of Coffee and Cacao Purine Metabolites on Neuroplasticity and Neurodegenerative Disease

Increasing evidence suggests that regular consumption of coffee, tea and dark chocolate (cacao) can promote brain health and may reduce the risk of age-related neurodegenerative disorders. However, the complex array of phytochemicals in coffee and cacao beans and tea leaves has hindered a clear understanding of the component(s) that affect neuronal plasticity and resilience. One class of phytochemicals present in relatively high amounts in coffee, tea and cacao are methylxanthines. Among such methylxanthines, caffeine has been the most widely studied and has clear effects on neuronal network activity, promotes sustained cognitive performance and can protect neurons against dysfunction and death in animal models of stroke, Alzheimer's disease and Parkinson's disease. Caffeine's mechanism of action relies on antagonism of various subclasses of adenosine receptors. Downstream xanthine metabolites, such as theobromine and theophylline, may also contribute to the beneficial effects of coffee, tea and cacao on brain health.

Chocolate Consumption is Associated with a Lower Risk of Cognitive Decline

Cocoa-related products like chocolate have taken an important place in our food habits and culture. In this work, we aim to examine the relationship between chocolate consumption and cognitive decline in an elderly cognitively healthy population. In the present longitudinal prospective study, a cohort of 531 participants aged 65 and over with normal Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE; median 28) was selected. The median follow-up was 48 months. Dietary habits were evaluated at baseline. The MMSE was used to assess global cognitive function at baseline and at follow-up. Cognitive decline was defined by a decrease ≥ 2 points in the MMSE score between evaluations. Relative risk (RR) and 95% confidence interval (95% CI) estimates were adjusted for age, education, smoking, alcohol drinking, body mass index, hypertension, and diabetes. Chocolate intake was associated with a lower risk of cognitive decline (RR = 0.59, 95% CI 0.38-0.92). This protective effect was observed only among subjects with an average daily consumption of caffeine lower than 75 mg (69% of the participants; RR = 0.50, 95% CI 0.31-0.82). To our knowledge, this is the first prospective cohort study to show an inverse association between regular long-term chocolate consumption and cognitive decline in humans.

Effect of Theobromine Consumption on Serum Lipoprotein Profiles in Apparently Healthy Humans with Low HDL-Cholesterol Concentrations

Scope: Theobromine is a major active compound in cocoa with allegedly beneficial effect on high-density-lipoprotein-cholesterol (HDL-CH). We have investigated the effect of theobromine (TB) consumption on the concentrations of triglyceride (TG) and cholesterol (CH) in various lipoprotein (LP) subclasses.

Methods: In a randomized, double-blind, placebo-controlled, cross-over study, 44 apparently healthy women and men (age: 60 ± 6 years, BMI: 29 ± 3 kg/m²) with low baseline HDL-CH concentrations consumed a drink supplemented with 500 mg/d theobromine for 4 weeks. TG and CH concentrations in 15 LP subclasses were predicted from diffusion-edited ¹H NMR spectra of fasting serum.

Results: The LP phenotype of the subjects was characterized by low CH concentrations in the large HDL particles and high TG concentrations in large VLDL and chylomicron (CM) particles, which clearly differed from a LP phenotype of subjects with normal HDL-CH. TB only reduced CH concentrations in the LDL particles by 3.64 and 6.79%, but had no effect on TG and CH in any of the HDL, VLDL and CM subclasses.

Conclusion: TB was not effective on HDL-CH in subjects with a LP phenotype characterized by low HDL-CH and high TG in VLDL.

Yerba Maté (Ilex paraguariensis) Metabolic, Satiety, and Mood State Effects at Rest and during Prolonged Exercise

Yerba Maté (YM), has become a popular herb ingested for enhancing metabolic health and weight-loss outcomes. No studies have tested the combined metabolic, satiety, and psychomotor effects of YM during exercise. We tested whether YM ingestion affects fatty acid oxidation (FAO), profile of mood state score (POMS), and subjective appetite scale (VAS), during prolonged moderate exercise. Twelve healthy active females were randomized to ingest either 2 g of YM or placebo (PLC) in a repeated-measures design. Participants rested for 120 min before performing a 30-min cycling exercise corresponding to individuals’ crossover point intensity (COP). FAO, determined using indirect calorimetry, was significantly higher during the 30-min exercise in YM vs. PLC (0.21 ± 0.07 vs. 0.17 ± 0.06 g/min, p < 0.05). VAS scores for hunger, prospective eating, and desire to eat were all reduced (p < 0.05). Whereas, POMS measures of focus, energy, and concentration were all increased (p < 0.05). There was no significant time-effect for any of the measured variables, nor was there any interaction effects between YM treatment and time. Combining YM intake with prolonged exercise at targeted ”fat-loss”’ intensities augments FAO and improves measures of satiety and mood state. Such positive combined metabolic, satiety, and psychomotor effects may provide an important role for designing future fat and weight-loss lifestyle interventions.

An intervention study on the effect of matcha tea, in drink and snack bar formats, on mood and cognitive performance

Matcha tea is gaining popularity throughout the world in recent years and is frequently referred to as a mood-and-brain food. Previous research has demonstrated that three constituents present in matcha tea, l-theanine, epigallocatechin gallate (EGCG), and caffeine, affect mood and cognitive performance. However, to date there are no studies assessing the effect of matcha tea itself. The present study investigates these effects by means of a human intervention study administering matcha tea and a matcha containing product. Using a randomized, placebo-controlled, single-blind study, 23 consumers participated in four test sessions. In each session, participants consumed one of the four test products: matcha tea, matcha tea bar (each containing 4g matcha tea powder), placebo tea, or placebo bar. The assessment was performed at baseline and 60min post-treatment. The participants performed a set of cognitive tests assessing attention, information processing, working memory, and episodic memory. The mood state was measured by means of a Profile of Mood States (POMS). After consuming the matcha products compared to placebo versions, there were mainly significant improvements in tasks measuring basic attention abilities and psychomotor speed in response to stimuli over a defined period of time. In contrast to expectations, the effect was barely present in the other cognitive tasks. The POMS results revealed no significant changes in mood. The influence of the food matrix was demonstrated by the fact that on most cognitive performance measures the drink format outperformed the bar format, particularly in tasks measuring speed of spatial working memory and delayed picture recognition. This study suggests that matcha tea consumed in a realistic dose can induce slight effects on speed of attention and episodic secondary memory to a low degree. Further studies are required to elucidate the influences of the food matrix.

Methylxanthines enhance the effects of cocoa flavanols on cardiovascular function: randomized, double-masked controlled studies

BACKGROUND

Cocoa flavanol intake, especially that of (-)-epicatechin, has been linked to beneficial effects on human cardiovascular function. However, cocoa also contains the methylxanthines theobromine and caffeine, which may also affect vascular function.

OBJECTIVE

We sought to determine whether an interaction between cocoa flavanols and methylxanthines exists that influences cocoa flavanol-dependent vascular effects.

DESIGN

Test drinks that contained various amounts of cocoa flavanols (0-820 mg) and methylxanthines (0-220 mg), either together or individually, were consumed by healthy volunteers (n = 47) in 4 different clinical studies-3 with a randomized, double-masked crossover design and 1 with 4 parallel crossover studies. Vascular status was assessed by measuring flow-mediated vasodilation (FMD), brachial pulse wave velocity (bPWV), circulating angiogenic cells (CACs), and blood pressure before and 2 h after the ingestion of test drinks.

RESULTS

Although cocoa flavanol intake increased FMD 2 h after intake, the consumption of cocoa flavanols with methylxanthines resulted in a greater enhancement of FMD. Methylxanthine intake alone did not result in statistically significant changes in FMD. Cocoa flavanol ingestion alone decreased bPWV and diastolic blood pressure and increased CACs. Each of these changes was more pronounced when cocoa flavanols and methylxanthines were ingested together. It is important to note that the area under the curve of the plasma concentration of (-)-epicatechin metabolites over time was higher after the co-ingestion of cocoa flavanols and methylxanthines than after the intake of cocoa flavanols alone. Similar results were obtained when pure (-)-epicatechin and the methylxanthines theobromine and caffeine were consumed together.

CONCLUSION

A substantial interaction between cocoa flavanols and methylxanthines exists at the level of absorption, in which the methylxanthines mediate an increased plasma concentration of (-)-epicatechin metabolites that coincides with enhanced vascular effects commonly ascribed to cocoa flavanol intake. This trial was registered at clinicaltrials.gov as NCT02149238.

Theobromine up-regulates cerebral brain-derived neurotrophic factor and facilitates motor learning in mice

Theobromine, which is a caffeine derivative, is the primary methylxanthine produced by Theobroma cacao. Theobromine works as a phosphodiesterase (PDE) inhibitor to increase intracellular cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP). cAMP activates the cAMP-response element-binding protein (CREB), which is involved in a large variety of brain processes, including the induction of the brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF). BDNF supports cell survival and neuronal functions, including learning and memory. Thus, cAMP/CREB/BDNF pathways play an important role in learning and memory. Here, we investigated whether orally administered theobromine could act as a PDE inhibitor centrally and affect cAMP/CREB/BDNF pathways and learning behavior in mice. The mice were divided into two groups. The control group (CN) was fed a normal diet, whereas the theobromine group (TB) was fed a diet supplemented with 0.05% theobromine for 30 days. We measured the levels of theobromine, phosphorylated vasodilator-stimulated phosphoprotein (p-VASP), phosphorylated CREB (p-CREB), and BDNF in the brain. p-VASP was used as an index of cAMP increases. Moreover, we analyzed the performance of the mice on a three-lever motor learning task. Theobromine was detectable in the brains of TB mice. The brain levels of p-VASP, p-CREB, and BDNF were higher in the TB mice compared with those in the CN mice. In addition, the TB mice performed better on the three-lever task than the CN mice did. These results strongly suggested that orally administered theobromine acted as a PDE inhibitor in the brain, and it augmented the cAMP/CREB/BDNF pathways and motor learning in mice.

Acute effectiveness of a "fat-loss" product on substrate utilization, perception of hunger, mood state and rate of perceived exertion at rest and during exercise

BACKGROUND

Achieving fat-loss outcomes by ingesting multi-ingredient mixtures may be further enhanced during exercise. This study tested the acute thermogenic effectiveness of a commercially available multi-ingredient product (Shred-Matrix®), containing Green Tea Extract, Yerba Maté, Guarana Seed Extract, Anhydrous caffeine, Saw palmetto, Fo-Ti, Eleuthero root, Cayenne Pepper, and Yohimbine HCI, on fatty acid oxidation (FAO), perception of hunger, mood state and rate of perceived exertion (RPE) at rest and during 30 min of submaximal exercise.

METHODS

Following institutional ethical approval, twelve healthy recreationally active participants, five females and seven males, were randomized to perform two separate experimental ergometry cycling trials, and to ingest 1.5 g (3 × capsules) of either a multi-ingredient supplement (SHRED) or placebo (PL). Participants rested for 3 h, before performing a 30-min cycling exercise corresponding to their individually-determined intensity based on their maximal fat oxidation (Fatmax). Fatty acid oxidation (FAO) was determined at rest, 3 h before exercise (Pre1), immediately before exercise (Pre2) and during exercise (Post), using expired gasses and indirect calorimetry. Rate of perceived exertion (RPE) was measured every 3 min during the 30-min exercise. Additionally both mood state and perception of hunger were assessed at Pre1, Pre2 and Post exercise. A repeated measures ANOVA design and Cohen's d effect sizes were used to analyze potential differences between times and treatment conditions.

RESULTS

FAO increased in SHRED from Pre1 to Pre2 [0.56 ± 0.26 to 0.96 ± 0.37, (p = 0.003, d =1.34)] but not in PL [0.67 ± 0.25 to 0.74 ± 0.19, (p = 0.334) d = 0.49], with no differences were found between conditions (p = 0.12, d = 0.49). However, Cohen's d = 0.77 revealed moderate effect size in favor of SHRED from Pre to Post exercise. RPE values were lower in SHRED compared to Pl (p< 0.001). Mood state and perception of hunger were not different between conditions, with no interaction effects. However, a trend was shown towards improved satiety in SHRED compared with PL, [F(1,11) = 3.58, p = 0.085].

CONCLUSIONS

The multi-ingredient product's potential enhancement of FAO during exercise, satiety, and RPE reduction suggests an acute effectiveness of SHRED in improving the exercise-related fat loss benefits.

Mad honey intoxication: A systematic review on the 1199 cases

Mad honey, produced by honeybees from the nectars of Rhododendron genus (R. ponticum and R. luteum) flowers, is widely used in indigenous medicine, especially in the treatment of hypertension and sexual dysfunction. However, the consumption of this honey can result in intoxication soon after. The diagnosis of honey poisoning and a full understanding of its treatment is important for both effective and immediate treatment, and also for the prevention of unnecessary costs. Upon the evaluation of approximately 34 years of case reports between 1981 and 2014, it was found that the cases of poisoning were more frequently reported in males (75.17%) and between the ages 41 to 65. The most common complaints related to honey poisoning were dizziness, nausea, presyncope and the ECG findings were: sinus bradycardia (79.58%), complete atrioventricular block (45.83%), atrioventricular block (30.91%), ST-segment elevation (22.63%), and nodal rhythm (11.27%), As a result of the evaluation of 1199 cases, it was found that no deaths were reported. The patients were most frequently treated with 0.5 mg atropine (37.79%), 1 mg atropine (49.73%), salin (iv fluid) (65.35%), and generally the patients were discharged within 24 h after recovery.

Array-based sensing of purine derivatives with fluorescent dyes

Natural and synthetic purine derivatives such as caffeine, theophylline, 6-mercaptopurine and 8-chlorotheophylline are important drugs. Due to the structural similarity of these compounds, it is intrinsically difficult to prepare chemosensors for their selective optical detection. Here, we describe a sensor array which can be used to differentiate pharmacologically important purine derivatives with good accuracy. The array is composed of four polysufonated fluorescent dyes, all of which can bind purines viaπ-stacking interactions. The complexation of the analytes results in partial quenching of the fluorescence. The fluorescence response of the four dyes provides a characteristic signal pattern, enabling the identification of thirteen purine derivatives at low millimolar concentration. Furthermore, it is possible to use the array for obtaining information about the quantity and purity of purine samples.

Associations of ambulatory blood pressure with urinary caffeine and caffeine metabolite excretions

Intake of caffeinated beverages might be associated with reduced cardiovascular mortality possibly via the lowering of blood pressure. We estimated the association of ambulatory blood pressure with urinary caffeine and caffeine metabolites in a population-based sample. Families were randomly selected from the general population of Swiss cities. Ambulatory blood pressure monitoring was conducted using validated devices. Urinary caffeine, paraxanthine, theophylline, and theobromine excretions were measured in 24 hours urine using ultrahigh performance liquid chromatography tandem mass spectrometry. We used mixed models to explore the associations of urinary excretions with blood pressure although adjusting for major confounders. The 836 participants (48.9% men) included in this analysis had mean age of 47.8 and mean 24-hour systolic and diastolic blood pressure of 120.1 and 78.0 mm Hg. For each doubling of caffeine excretion, 24-hour and night-time systolic blood pressure decreased by 0.642 and 1.107 mm Hg (both P values <0.040). Similar inverse associations were observed for paraxanthine and theophylline. Adjusted night-time systolic blood pressure in the first (lowest), second, third, and fourth (highest) quartile of paraxanthine urinary excretions were 110.3, 107.3, 107.3, and 105.1 mm Hg, respectively (P trend <0.05). No associations of urinary excretions with diastolic blood pressure were generally found, and theobromine excretion was not associated with blood pressure. Anti-hypertensive therapy, diabetes mellitus, and alcohol consumption modify the association of caffeine urinary excretion with systolic blood pressure. Ambulatory systolic blood pressure was inversely associated with urinary excretions of caffeine and other caffeine metabolites. Our results are compatible with a potential protective effect of caffeine on blood pressure.