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Quintela-Vega L, Morado-Díaz CJ, Terreros G, Sánchez JS, Pérez-González D, Malmierca MS. Novelty detection in an auditory oddball task on freely moving rats. Commun Biol 2023; 6:1063. [PMID: 37857812 PMCID: PMC10587131 DOI: 10.1038/s42003-023-05403-y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/26/2021] [Accepted: 10/02/2023] [Indexed: 10/21/2023] Open
Abstract
The relative importance or saliency of sensory inputs depend on the animal's environmental context and the behavioural responses to these same inputs can vary over time. Here we show how freely moving rats, trained to discriminate between deviant tones embedded in a regular pattern of repeating stimuli and different variations of the classic oddball paradigm, can detect deviant tones, and this discriminability resembles the properties that are typical of neuronal adaptation described in previous studies. Moreover, the auditory brainstem response (ABR) latency decreases after training, a finding consistent with the notion that animals develop a type of plasticity to auditory stimuli. Our study suggests the existence of a form of long-term memory that may modulate the level of neuronal adaptation according to its behavioural relevance, and sets the ground for future experiments that will help to disentangle the functional mechanisms that govern behavioural habituation and its relation to neuronal adaptation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Laura Quintela-Vega
- Cognitive and Auditory Neuroscience Laboratory, Institute of Neuroscience of Castilla y León, Calle Pintor Fernando Gallego 1, 37007, Salamanca, Spain
- The Salamanca Institute for Biomedical Research (IBSAL), 37007, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Camilo J Morado-Díaz
- Cognitive and Auditory Neuroscience Laboratory, Institute of Neuroscience of Castilla y León, Calle Pintor Fernando Gallego 1, 37007, Salamanca, Spain
- The Salamanca Institute for Biomedical Research (IBSAL), 37007, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Gonzalo Terreros
- Cognitive and Auditory Neuroscience Laboratory, Institute of Neuroscience of Castilla y León, Calle Pintor Fernando Gallego 1, 37007, Salamanca, Spain
- Instituto de Ciencias de la Salud. Universidad de O´Higgins, Rancagua, Chile
| | - Jazmín S Sánchez
- Cognitive and Auditory Neuroscience Laboratory, Institute of Neuroscience of Castilla y León, Calle Pintor Fernando Gallego 1, 37007, Salamanca, Spain
- The Salamanca Institute for Biomedical Research (IBSAL), 37007, Salamanca, Spain
- Department of Biology and Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Campus Miguel de Unamuno, University of Salamanca, 37007, Salamanca, Spain
| | - David Pérez-González
- Cognitive and Auditory Neuroscience Laboratory, Institute of Neuroscience of Castilla y León, Calle Pintor Fernando Gallego 1, 37007, Salamanca, Spain
- The Salamanca Institute for Biomedical Research (IBSAL), 37007, Salamanca, Spain
- Department of Basic Psychology, Psychobiology and Methodology of Behavioural Sciences. Faculty of Psychology, University of Salamanca, 37005, Salamanca, Spain
| | - Manuel S Malmierca
- Cognitive and Auditory Neuroscience Laboratory, Institute of Neuroscience of Castilla y León, Calle Pintor Fernando Gallego 1, 37007, Salamanca, Spain.
- The Salamanca Institute for Biomedical Research (IBSAL), 37007, Salamanca, Spain.
- Department of Biology and Pathology, Faculty of Medicine, Campus Miguel de Unamuno, University of Salamanca, 37007, Salamanca, Spain.
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Lai J, Dowling M, Bartlett EL. Comparison of age-related declines in behavioral auditory responses versus electrophysiological measures of amplitude modulation. Neurobiol Aging 2022; 117:201-211. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neurobiolaging.2022.06.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/11/2021] [Revised: 05/31/2022] [Accepted: 06/01/2022] [Indexed: 10/18/2022]
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3
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Bures Z, Pysanenko K, Syka J. The influence of developmental noise exposure on the temporal processing of acoustical signals in the auditory cortex of rats. Hear Res 2021; 409:108306. [PMID: 34311267 DOI: 10.1016/j.heares.2021.108306] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/25/2021] [Revised: 06/01/2021] [Accepted: 06/30/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
Previous experiments have acknowledged that inappropriate or missing auditory inputs during the critical period of development cause permanent changes of the structure and function of the auditory system (Bures et al., 2017). We explore in this study how developmental noise exposure influences the coding of temporally structured stimuli in the neurons of the primary auditory cortex (AC) in Long Evans rats. The animals were exposed on postnatal day 14 (P14) for 12 minutes to a loud (125 dB SPL) broad-band noise. The responses to an amplitude-modulated (AM) noise, frequency-modulated (FM) tones, and click trains, were recorded from the right AC of rats of two age groups: young-adult (ca. 6 months old) and adult (ca. 2 years old), both in the exposed animals and in control unexposed rats. The neonatal exposure resulted in a higher synchronization ability (phase-locking) of the AC neurons for all three stimuli; furthermore, the similarity of neuronal response patterns to repetitive stimulation was higher in the exposed rats. On the other hand, the exposed animals showed a steeper decline of modulation-transfer functions towards higher modulation frequencies/repetition rates. Differences between the two age groups were also apparent; in general, aging had qualitatively the same effect as the developmental exposure. The current results demonstrate that brief noise exposure during the maturation of the auditory system influences both the temporal and the rate coding of periodically modulated sounds in the AC of rats; the changes are permanent and observable up to late adulthood.
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Affiliation(s)
- Zbynek Bures
- Department of Auditory Neuroscience, Institute of Experimental Medicine, Czech Academy of Sciences, Vídeňská 1083, 14220 Prague 4, Czech Republic; Department of Cognitive Systems and Neurosciences, Czech Institute of Informatics, Robotics and Cybernetics, Czech Technical University, Jugoslávských partyzánů 1580/3, 160 00 Prague 6, Czech Republic.
| | - Kateryna Pysanenko
- Department of Auditory Neuroscience, Institute of Experimental Medicine, Czech Academy of Sciences, Vídeňská 1083, 14220 Prague 4, Czech Republic
| | - Josef Syka
- Department of Auditory Neuroscience, Institute of Experimental Medicine, Czech Academy of Sciences, Vídeňská 1083, 14220 Prague 4, Czech Republic
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Sheets L, Holmgren M, Kindt KS. How Zebrafish Can Drive the Future of Genetic-based Hearing and Balance Research. J Assoc Res Otolaryngol 2021; 22:215-235. [PMID: 33909162 PMCID: PMC8110678 DOI: 10.1007/s10162-021-00798-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2020] [Accepted: 03/23/2021] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Over the last several decades, studies in humans and animal models have successfully identified numerous molecules required for hearing and balance. Many of these studies relied on unbiased forward genetic screens based on behavior or morphology to identify these molecules. Alongside forward genetic screens, reverse genetics has further driven the exploration of candidate molecules. This review provides an overview of the genetic studies that have established zebrafish as a genetic model for hearing and balance research. Further, we discuss how the unique advantages of zebrafish can be leveraged in future genetic studies. We explore strategies to design novel forward genetic screens based on morphological alterations using transgenic lines or behavioral changes following mechanical or acoustic damage. We also outline how recent advances in CRISPR-Cas9 can be applied to perform reverse genetic screens to validate large sequencing datasets. Overall, this review describes how future genetic studies in zebrafish can continue to advance our understanding of inherited and acquired hearing and balance disorders.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lavinia Sheets
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head & Neck Surgery, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Melanie Holmgren
- Department of Otolaryngology-Head & Neck Surgery, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO, USA
| | - Katie S Kindt
- Section On Sensory Cell Development and Function, National Institutes On Deafness and Other Communication Disorders, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, USA.
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5
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Acoustically Enriched Environment during the Critical Period of Postnatal Development Positively Modulates Gap Detection and Frequency Discrimination Abilities in Adult Rats. Neural Plast 2021; 2021:6611922. [PMID: 33777134 PMCID: PMC7979287 DOI: 10.1155/2021/6611922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/15/2020] [Revised: 02/05/2021] [Accepted: 02/23/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Throughout life, sensory systems adapt to the sensory environment to provide optimal responses to relevant tasks. In the case of a developing system, sensory inputs induce changes that are permanent and detectable up to adulthood. Previously, we have shown that rearing rat pups in a complex acoustic environment (spectrally and temporally modulated sound) from postnatal day 14 (P14) to P28 permanently improves the response characteristics of neurons in the inferior colliculus and auditory cortex, influencing tonotopical arrangement, response thresholds and strength, and frequency selectivity, along with stochasticity and the reproducibility of neuronal spiking patterns. In this study, we used a set of behavioral tests based on a recording of the acoustic startle response (ASR) and its prepulse inhibition (PPI), with the aim to extend the evidence of the persistent beneficial effects of the developmental acoustical enrichment. The enriched animals were generally not more sensitive to startling sounds, and also, their PPI of ASR, induced by noise or pure tone pulses, was comparable to the controls. They did, however, exhibit a more pronounced PPI when the prepulse stimulus was represented either by a change in the frequency of a background tone or by a silent gap in background noise. The differences in the PPI of ASR between the enriched and control animals were significant at lower (55 dB SPL), but not at higher (65-75 dB SPL), intensities of background sound. Thus, rearing pups in the acoustically enriched environment led to an improvement of the frequency resolution and gap detection ability under more difficult testing conditions, i.e., with a worsened stimulus clarity. We confirmed, using behavioral tests, that an acoustically enriched environment during the critical period of development influences the frequency and temporal processing in the auditory system, and these changes persist until adulthood.
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Rybalko N, Mitrovic D, Šuta D, Bureš Z, Popelář J, Syka J. Behavioral evaluation of auditory function abnormalities in adult rats with normal hearing thresholds that were exposed to noise during early development. Physiol Behav 2019; 210:112620. [DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2019.112620] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/24/2018] [Revised: 06/07/2019] [Accepted: 07/15/2019] [Indexed: 11/25/2022]
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7
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Xia C, Yin M, Pan P, Fang F, Zhou Y, Ji Y. Long-term exposure to moderate noise induces neural plasticity in the infant rat primary auditory cortex. Anim Cells Syst (Seoul) 2019; 23:260-269. [PMID: 31489247 PMCID: PMC6711034 DOI: 10.1080/19768354.2019.1643782] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/02/2019] [Revised: 06/27/2019] [Accepted: 06/27/2019] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Previous studies have reported that rearing infant rat pups in continuous moderate-level noise delayed the formation of topographic representational order and the refinement of response selectivity in the primary auditory (A1) cortex. The present study further verified that exposure to long-term moderate-intensity white noise (70 dB sound pressure level) from postnatal day (P) 12 to P30 elevated the hearing thresholds of infant rats. Compared with age-matched control rats, noise exposure (NE) rats had elevated hearing thresholds ranging from low to high frequencies, accompanied by decreased amplitudes and increased latencies of the two initial auditory brainstem response waves. The power of raw local field potential oscillations and high-frequency β oscillation in the A1 cortex of NE rats were larger, whereas the power of high-frequency γ oscillation was smaller than that of control rats. In addition, the expression levels of five glutamate receptor (GluR) subunits in the A1 cortex of NE rats were decreased with laminar specificity. These results suggest that the altered neural excitability and decreased GluR expression may underlie the delay of functional maturation in the A1 cortex, and may have implications for the treatment of hearing impairment induced by environmental noise.
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Affiliation(s)
- Chenchen Xia
- Laboratory of Neuropharmacology and Neurotoxicology, Shanghai University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Manli Yin
- Laboratory of Neuropharmacology and Neurotoxicology, Shanghai University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Ping Pan
- Laboratory of Neuropharmacology and Neurotoxicology, Shanghai University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Fanghao Fang
- Laboratory of Neuropharmacology and Neurotoxicology, Shanghai University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - You Zhou
- Laboratory of Neuropharmacology and Neurotoxicology, Shanghai University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China.,Department of Otolaryngology-Head and Neck Surgery, Ninth People's Hospital, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, People's Republic of China.,Ear Institute, Shanghai Jiaotong University School of Medicine, Shanghai, People's Republic of China.,Shanghai Key Laboratory of Translational Medicine on Ear and Nose Diseases, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
| | - Yonghua Ji
- Laboratory of Neuropharmacology and Neurotoxicology, Shanghai University, Shanghai, People's Republic of China
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Wang F, Liu J, Zhang J. Early postnatal noise exposure degrades the stimulus-specific adaptation of neurons in the rat auditory cortex in adulthood. Neuroscience 2019; 404:1-13. [DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2019.01.064] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2018] [Revised: 01/09/2019] [Accepted: 01/30/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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9
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Bhandiwad AA, Raible DW, Rubel EW, Sisneros JA. Noise-Induced Hypersensitization of the Acoustic Startle Response in Larval Zebrafish. J Assoc Res Otolaryngol 2018; 19:741-752. [PMID: 30191425 PMCID: PMC6249159 DOI: 10.1007/s10162-018-00685-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/07/2017] [Accepted: 01/21/2018] [Indexed: 01/28/2023] Open
Abstract
Overexposure to loud noise is known to lead to deficits in auditory sensitivity and perception. We studied the effects of noise exposure on sensorimotor behaviors of larval (5-7 days post-fertilization) zebrafish (Danio rerio), particularly the auditory-evoked startle response and hearing sensitivity to acoustic startle stimuli. We observed a temporary 10-15 dB decrease in startle response threshold after 18 h of flat-spectrum noise exposure at 20 dB re·1 ms-2. Larval zebrafish also exhibited decreased habituation to startle-inducing stimuli following noise exposure. The noise-induced sensitization was not due to changes in absolute hearing thresholds, but was specific to the auditory-evoked escape responses. The observed noise-induced sensitization was disrupted by AMPA receptor blockade using DNQX, but not NMDA receptor blockade. Together, these experiments suggest a complex effect of noise exposure on the neural circuits mediating auditory-evoked behaviors in larval zebrafish.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - David W. Raible
- Department of Biological Structure, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195 USA
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195 USA
- Virginia M. Bloedel Hearing Research Center, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195 USA
| | - Edwin W. Rubel
- Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195 USA
- Virginia M. Bloedel Hearing Research Center, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195 USA
| | - Joseph A. Sisneros
- Department of Psychology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195 USA
- Department of Biology, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195 USA
- Virginia M. Bloedel Hearing Research Center, University of Washington, Seattle, WA 98195 USA
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Acoustical Enrichment during Early Development Improves Response Reliability in the Adult Auditory Cortex of the Rat. Neural Plast 2018; 2018:5903720. [PMID: 30002673 PMCID: PMC5998158 DOI: 10.1155/2018/5903720] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/12/2017] [Revised: 04/16/2018] [Accepted: 04/29/2018] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
It is well known that auditory experience during early development shapes response properties of auditory cortex (AC) neurons, influencing, for example, tonotopical arrangement, response thresholds and strength, or frequency selectivity. Here, we show that rearing rat pups in a complex acoustically enriched environment leads to an increased reliability of responses of AC neurons, affecting both the rate and the temporal codes. For a repetitive stimulus, the neurons exhibit a lower spike count variance, indicating a more stable rate coding. At the level of individual spikes, the discharge patterns of individual neurons show a higher degree of similarity across stimulus repetitions. Furthermore, the neurons follow more precisely the temporal course of the stimulus, as manifested by improved phase-locking to temporally modulated sounds. The changes are persistent and present up to adulthood. The results document that besides basic alterations of receptive fields presented in our previous study, the acoustic environment during the critical period of postnatal development also leads to a decreased stochasticity and a higher reproducibility of neuronal spiking patterns.
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11
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The effect of noise exposure during the developmental period on the function of the auditory system. Hear Res 2017; 352:1-11. [DOI: 10.1016/j.heares.2016.03.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2016] [Accepted: 03/14/2016] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
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12
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Effects of Patterned Sound Deprivation on Short- and Long-Term Plasticity in the Rat Thalamocortical Auditory System In Vivo. Neural Plast 2016; 2016:3407135. [PMID: 26881106 PMCID: PMC4736309 DOI: 10.1155/2016/3407135] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2015] [Revised: 10/28/2015] [Accepted: 10/29/2015] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Postnatal sensory experience plays a significant role in the maturation and synaptic stabilization of sensory cortices, such as the primary auditory cortex (A1). Here, we examined the effects of patterned sound deprivation (by rearing in continuous white noise, WN) during early postnatal life on short- and long-term plasticity of adult male rats using an in vivo preparation (urethane anesthesia). Relative to age-matched control animals reared under unaltered sound conditions, rats raised in WN (from postnatal day 5 to 50–60) showed greater levels of long-term potentiation (LTP) of field potentials in A1 induced by theta-burst stimulation (TBS) of the medial geniculate nucleus (MGN). In contrast, analyses of short-term plasticity using paired-pulse stimulation (interstimulus intervals of 25–1000 ms) did not reveal any significant effects of WN rearing. However, LTP induction resulted in a significant enhancement of paired-pulse depression (PPD) for both rearing conditions. We conclude that patterned sound deprivation during early postnatal life results in the maintenance of heightened, juvenile-like long-term plasticity (LTP) into adulthood. Further, the enhanced PPD following LTP induction provides novel evidence that presynaptic mechanisms contribute to thalamocortical LTP in A1 under in vivo conditions.
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Shi L, Guo X, Shen P, Liu L, Tao S, Li X, Song Q, Yu Z, Yin S, Wang J. Noise-induced damage to ribbon synapses without permanent threshold shifts in neonatal mice. Neuroscience 2015; 304:368-77. [PMID: 26232715 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2015.07.066] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2015] [Revised: 07/22/2015] [Accepted: 07/24/2015] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Recently, ribbon synapses to the hair cells (HCs) in the cochlea have become a novel site of interest in the investigation of noise-induced cochlear lesions in adult rodents (Kujawa and Liberman, 2009; Lin et al., 2011; Liu et al., 2012; Shi et al., 2013). Permanent noise-induced damage to this type of synapse can result in subsequent degeneration of spiral ganglion neurons (SGNs) in the absence of permanent changes to hearing sensitivity. To verify whether noise exposure during an early developmental period produces a similar impact on ribbon synapses, the present study examined the damaging effects of noise exposure in neonatal Kunming mice. The animals received exposure to broadband noise at 105-decibel (dB) sound pressure level (SPL) for 2h on either postnatal day 10 (P10d) or postnatal day 14 (P14d), and then hearing function (based on the auditory brainstem response (ABR)) and cochlear morphology were evaluated during either postnatal weeks 3-4 (P4w) or postnatal weeks 7-8 (P8w). There were no significant differences in the hearing threshold between noise-exposed and control animals, which suggests that noise did not cause permanent loss of hearing sensitivity. However, noise exposure did produce a significant loss of ribbon synapses, particularly in P14d mice, which continued to increase from P4w to P8w. Additionally, a corresponding reduction in the amplitude of compound action potential (CAP) was observed in the noise-exposed groups at P4w and P8w, and the CAP latency was elongated, indicating a change in synaptic function.
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Affiliation(s)
- L Shi
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Southeast University, 87 Dingjiaoqiao Road, Nanjing 210009, China.
| | - X Guo
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Southeast University, 87 Dingjiaoqiao Road, Nanjing 210009, China; Children's Medical Center, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Nanjing Medical University, 262 Zhongshan Road North, Nanjing 210003, China.
| | - P Shen
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Southeast University, 87 Dingjiaoqiao Road, Nanjing 210009, China.
| | - L Liu
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Southeast University, 87 Dingjiaoqiao Road, Nanjing 210009, China.
| | - S Tao
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Southeast University, 87 Dingjiaoqiao Road, Nanjing 210009, China.
| | - X Li
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Southeast University, 87 Dingjiaoqiao Road, Nanjing 210009, China.
| | - Q Song
- Department of Otolaryngology, 6th Affiliated Hospital, Jiaotong University, 600 Yishan Road, Shanghai 200233, China.
| | - Z Yu
- School of Human Communication Disorders, Dalhousie University, 1256 Barrington Street, Halifax, NS B3J1Y6, Canada.
| | - S Yin
- Department of Otolaryngology, 6th Affiliated Hospital, Jiaotong University, 600 Yishan Road, Shanghai 200233, China.
| | - J Wang
- Department of Physiology, Medical College of Southeast University, 87 Dingjiaoqiao Road, Nanjing 210009, China; School of Human Communication Disorders, Dalhousie University, 1256 Barrington Street, Halifax, NS B3J1Y6, Canada.
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