Behavioral adaptations in a relapsing mouse model of colitis

Early-life gut inflammation drives sex-dependent shifts in the microbiome-endocrine-brain axis

Despite recent advances in understanding the connection between the gut microbiota and the adult brain, significant knowledge gaps remain regarding how gut inflammation affects brain development. We hypothesized that gut inflammation during early life would negatively affect neurodevelopment by disrupting microbiota communication to the brain. We therefore developed a novel pediatric chemical model of inflammatory bowel disease (IBD), an incurable condition affecting millions of people worldwide. IBD is characterized by chronic intestinal inflammation, and is associated with comorbid symptoms such as anxiety, depression and cognitive impairment. Notably, 25% of patients with IBD are diagnosed during childhood, and the effects of chronic inflammation during this critical developmental period remain poorly understood. This study investigated the effects of early-life gut inflammation induced by DSS (dextran sulfate sodium) on a range of microbiota, endocrine, and behavioral outcomes, focusing on sex-specific impacts. DSS-treated mice exhibited increased intestinal inflammation and altered microbiota membership, which correlated with changes in microbiota-derived circulating metabolites. The majority of behavioral measures were unaffected, with the exception of impaired mate-seeking behaviors in DSS-treated males. DSS-treated males also showed significantly smaller seminal vesicles, lower circulating androgens, and decreased intestinal hormone-activating enzyme activity compared to vehicle controls. In the brain, DSS treatment led to chronic, sex-specific alterations in microglial morphology. These results suggest that early-life gut inflammation causes changes in gut microbiota composition, affecting short-chain fatty acid (SCFA) producers and glucuronidase (GUS) activity, correlating with altered SCFA and androgen levels. The findings highlight the developmental sensitivity to inflammation-induced changes in endocrine signalling and emphasize the long-lasting physiological and microbiome changes associated with juvenile IBD.

Motor, mood, and memory impairments persist during remission periods in chronic colitis and are influenced by neuroinflammation and sex

Ulcerative colitis is a chronic pathology characterized by relapsing-remitting phases of intestinal inflammation. Additionally, some patients develop neuropsychiatric disorders, such as depression and anxiety, or cognitive deficits. We aimed to investigate whether the development of chronic colitis elicits memory, locomotion, and mood impairments. It further examined whether these impairments are influenced by the relapsing-remitting phases of the colitis or by sex. Here, we used a chronic colitis model in male and female rats, induced with sodium dextran sulfate, mirroring the phases of human ulcerative colitis. Our results revealed that the severity of colitis was slightly higher in males than females. Chronic colitis triggered motor and short-term memory deficits and induced anxiety- and depression-like behaviors that remained throughout the development of the disease. There are also sex differences under control or inflammatory conditions. Therefore, in both situations, females compared to males displayed: (i) slightly lower locomotion, (ii) increased anxiety-like behaviors, (iii) similar depression-like behaviors, and (iv) similar short-term memory deficit. Additionally, under control conditions, the mRNA levels of IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α were higher in the female hippocampus. In both sexes, when chronic colitis was established, the neuroinflammation was evidenced by increased mRNA levels of these three cytokines in the hippocampus and in the motor and prefrontal cortices. Interestingly, this neuroinflammation was slightly greater in males. In summary, we show that the development of chronic colitis caused persistent behavioral abnormalities, highlighting sex differences, and that could be a consequence, at least in part, of the increase in IL-1β, IL-6, and TNF-α in the brain.

Umbelliprenin attenuates comorbid behavioral disorders in acetic acid-induced colitis in mice: mechanistic insights into hippocampal oxidative stress and neuroinflammation

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is often accompanied by psychiatric disorders. Emerging evidence suggests that neuroinflammation and oxidative stress contribute to the psychiatric symptoms associated with IBD. Umbelliprenin (UMB) possesses several pharmacological properties, including anti-inflammatory and antioxidant effects. This study aimed to investigate the protective effects of UMB on comorbid behavioral disorders in a mouse model of experimental colitis, focusing on its potential anti-neuroinflammatory and antioxidant activities. After inducing colitis with acetic acid, male NMRI mice were treated for 7 consecutive days with UMB, saline, or dexamethasone. Behavioral assessments included the forced swimming test (FST), splash test, open field test (OFT), and elevated plus maze (EPM). Histopathological changes in the colon were evaluated, and total antioxidant capacity (TAC), malondialdehyde (MDA) levels, and the expression of inflammatory genes (TNFα, IL1β, and TLR4) were measured in the hippocampus. Colitis was associated with increased immobility time in the FST, reduced entries and time spent in the open arms of the EPM, decreased grooming behavior in the splash test, and reduced time spent in the central zone of the OFT. Colitis also resulted in a reduction in TAC and an increase in MDA levels and inflammatory gene expression in the hippocampus. UMB treatment mitigated the behavioral disorders associated with colitis, reduced neuroinflammation and oxidative stress in the hippocampus, and alleviated histopathological alterations in the colon. In conclusion, UMB may reduce behavioral disorders induced by colitis by decreasing oxidative stress and neuroinflammation in the hippocampus.

Colitis reduces active social engagement in mice and is ameliorated by supplementation with human microbiota members

Multiple neurological disorders are associated with gastrointestinal (GI) symptoms, including autism spectrum disorder (ASD). However, it is unclear whether GI distress itself can modify aspects of behavior. Here, we show that mice that experience repeated colitis have impaired active social engagement, as measured by interactions with a foreign mouse, even though signs of colitis were no longer present. We then tested the hypothesis that individuals with ASD harbor a microbiota that might differentially influence GI health by performing microbiota transplantation studies into male germfree animals, followed by induction of colitis. Animals that harbor a microbiota from ASD individuals have worsened gut phenotypes when compared to animals colonized with microbiotas from familial neurotypical (NT) controls. We identify the enrichment of Blautia species in all familial NT controls and observe an association between elevated abundance of Bacteroides uniformis and reductions in intestinal injury. Oral treatment with either of these microbes reduces colon injury in mice. Finally, provision of a Blautia isolate from a NT control ameliorates gut injury-associated active social engagement in mice. Collectively, our data demonstrate that past intestinal distress is associated with changes in active social behavior in mice that can be ameliorated by supplementation of members of the human microbiota.

The Gut-Vascular Barrier as a New Protagonist in Intestinal and Extraintestinal Diseases

The intestinal barrier, with its multiple layers, is the first line of defense between the outside world and the intestine. Its disruption, resulting in increased intestinal permeability, is a recognized pathogenic factor of intestinal and extra-intestinal diseases. The identification of a gut-vascular barrier (GVB), consisting of a structured endothelium below the epithelial layer, has led to new evidence on the etiology and management of diseases of the gut-liver axis and the gut-brain axis, with recent implications in oncology as well. The gut-brain axis is involved in several neuroinflammatory processes. In particular, the recent description of a choroid plexus vascular barrier regulating brain permeability under conditions of gut inflammation identifies the endothelium as a key regulator in maintaining tissue homeostasis and health.

Chronic gut inflammation impairs contextual control of fear

Chronic inflammatory diseases are highly comorbid with anxiety in humans. The extent to which chronic inflammation is responsible for this relationship remains to be determined. We therefore tested the hypothesis that prolonged, but not brief, gut inflammation is sufficient to evoke anxiety-related behaviours in mice. We used the discriminative fear to context conditioning paradigm to assess fear generalization, which is a prominent feature of anxiety disorders. Gut inflammation was induced by exposure to dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) in the drinking water, a well-established rodent model of ulcerative colitis evoking prolonged inflammation. Neither acute (1 × 5 day cycle) nor chronic (3 × 5 day cycles) exposure to DSS affected fear responses when tested shortly after conditioning. Mice in all groups generated more fear responses (freezing) in a chamber previously paired with mild shock, as compared to a chamber with no pairing. This suggests DSS exposure had no effect on acquisition or expression of conditioned fear. Acute and control animals showed this same contextual control of freezing when tested 9 days later. In contrast, at this remote time point, the chronically treated animals exhibited increased freezing in the unpaired chamber such that freezing was equivalent in both contexts. These animals, however, showed intact preference for the unpaired chamber when allowed to freely move between chambers. These data suggest that some mnemonic process engaged after training, such as memory consolidation, is affected by past chronic inflammation so as to generalize negative associations and engage fearful responding in inappropriate contexts, despite intact knowledge that the chambers have different affective associations sufficient for place preference.

Acute gut inflammation reduces neural activity and spine maturity in hippocampus but not basolateral amygdala

Gastrointestinal tract (gut) inflammation increases stress and threat-coping behaviors, which are associated with altered activity in fear-related neural circuits, such as the basolateral amygdala and hippocampus. It remains to be determined whether inflammation from the gut affects neural activity by altering dendritic spines. We hypothesized that acute inflammation alters dendritic spines in a brain region-specific manner. Here we show that acute gut inflammation (colitis) evoked by dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) did not affect the overall spine density in the CA1 region of hippocampus, but increased the relative proportion of immature spines to mature spines on basal dendrites of pyramidal neurons. In contrast, in animals with colitis, no changes in spine density or composition on dendrites of pyramidal cells was observed in the basolateral amygdala. Rather, we observed decreased spine density on dendrites of stellate neurons, but not the relative proportions of mature vs immature spines. We used cFos expression evoked by the forced swim task as a measure of neural activity during stress and found no effect of DSS on the density of cFos immunoreactive neurons in basolateral amygdala. In contrast, fewer CA1 neurons expressed cFos in mice with colitis, relative to controls. Furthermore, CA1 cFos expression negatively correlated with active stress-coping in the swim task and was negatively correlated with gut inflammation. These data reveal that the effects of acute gut inflammation on synaptic remodeling depend on brain region, neuronal phenotype, and dendrite location. In the hippocampus, a shift to immature spines and hypoactivity are more strongly related to colitis-evoked behavioral changes than is remodeling in basolateral amygdala.

Colitis-associated microbiota drives changes in behaviour in male mice in the absence of inflammation

Inflammatory bowel diseases (IBD) are chronic inflammatory conditions of the gastrointestinal tract. IBD are associated with a high prevalence of cognitive, behavioural and emotional comorbidities, including anxiety and depression. The link between IBD and the development of behavioural comorbidities is poorly understood. As the intestinal microbiota profoundly influences host behaviour, we sought to determine whether the altered gut microbiota associated with intestinal inflammation contributes to the development of behavioural abnormalities. Using the dextran sulphate sodium (DSS) model of colitis, we characterized intestinal inflammation, behaviour (elevated plus maze and tail suspension test) and the composition of the microbiota in male mice. Cecal contents from colitic mice were transferred into germ-free (GF) or antibiotic (Abx)-treated mice, and behaviour was characterized in recipient mice. Gene expression was measured using qPCR. DSS colitis was characterized by a significant reduction in body weight and an increase in colonic inflammatory markers. These changes were accompanied by increased anxiety-like behaviour, an altered gut microbiota composition, and increased central Tnf expression. Transfer of the cecal matter from colitic mice induced similar behavioural changes in both GF and Abx-treated recipient mice, with no signs of colonic or neuroinflammation. Upon characterization of the microbiota in donor and recipient mice, specific taxa were found to be associated with behavioural changes, notably members of the Lachnospiraceae family. Behavioural abnormalities associated with intestinal inflammation are transmissible via transfer of cecal matter, suggesting that alterations in the composition of the gut microbiota play a key role in driving behavioural changes in colitis.

Recruitment of α4β7 monocytes and neutrophils to the brain in experimental colitis is associated with elevated cytokines and anxiety-like behavior

Background

Behavioral comorbidities, such as anxiety and depression, are a prominent feature of IBD. The signals from the inflamed gut that cause changes in the brain leading to these behavioral comorbidities remain to be fully elucidated. We tested the hypothesis that enhanced leukocyte–cerebral endothelial cell interactions occur in the brain in experimental colitis, mediated by α4β7 integrin, to initiate neuroimmune activation and anxiety-like behavior.

Methods

Female mice treated with dextran sodium sulfate were studied at the peak of acute colitis. Circulating leukocyte populations were determined using flow cytometry. Leukocyte–cerebral endothelial cell interactions were examined using intravital microscopy in mice treated with anti-integrin antibodies. Brain cytokine and chemokines were assessed using a multiplex assay in animals treated with anti-α4β7 integrin. Anxiety-like behavior was assessed using an elevated plus maze in animals after treatment with an intracerebroventricular injection of interleukin 1 receptor antagonist.

Results

The proportion of classical monocytes expressing α4β7 integrin was increased in peripheral blood of mice with colitis. An increase in the number of rolling and adherent leukocytes on cerebral endothelial cells was observed, the majority of which were neutrophils. Treatment with anti-α4β7 integrin significantly reduced the number of rolling leukocytes. After anti-Ly6C treatment to deplete monocytes, the number of rolling and adhering neutrophils was significantly reduced in mice with colitis. Interleukin-1β and CCL2 levels were elevated in the brain and treatment with anti-α4β7 significantly reduced them. Enhanced anxiety-like behavior in mice with colitis was reversed by treatment with interleukin 1 receptor antagonist.

Conclusions

In experimental colitis, α4β7 integrin-expressing monocytes direct the recruitment of neutrophils to the cerebral vasculature, leading to elevated cytokine levels. Increased interleukin-1β mediates anxiety-like behavior.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12974-022-02431-z.

DSS-induced inflammation in the colon drives a proinflammatory signature in the brain that is ameliorated by prophylactic treatment with the S100A9 inhibitor paquinimod

Background

Inflammatory bowel disease (IBD) is established to drive pathological sequelae in organ systems outside the intestine, including the central nervous system (CNS). Many patients exhibit cognitive deficits, particularly during disease flare. The connection between colonic inflammation and neuroinflammation remains unclear and characterization of the neuroinflammatory phenotype in the brain during colitis is ill-defined.

Methods

Transgenic mice expressing a bioluminescent reporter of active caspase-1 were treated with 2% dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) for 7 days to induce acute colitis, and colonic, systemic and neuroinflammation were assessed. In some experiments, mice were prophylactically treated with paquinimod (ABR-215757) to inhibit S100A9 inflammatory signaling. As a positive control for peripheral-induced neuroinflammation, mice were injected with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). Colonic, systemic and brain inflammatory cytokines and chemokines were measured by cytokine bead array (CBA) and Proteome profiler mouse cytokine array. Bioluminescence was quantified in the brain and caspase activation was confirmed by immunoblot. Immune cell infiltration into the CNS was measured by flow cytometry, while light sheet microscopy was used to monitor changes in resident microglia localization in intact brains during DSS or LPS-induced neuroinflammation. RNA sequencing was performed to identify transcriptomic changes occurring in the CNS of DSS-treated mice. Expression of inflammatory biomarkers were quantified in the brain and serum by qRT-PCR, ELISA and WB.

Results

DSS-treated mice exhibited clinical hallmarks of colitis, including weight loss, colonic shortening and inflammation in the colon. We also detected a significant increase in inflammatory cytokines in the serum and brain, as well as caspase and microglia activation in the brain of mice with ongoing colitis. RNA sequencing of brains isolated from DSS-treated mice revealed differential expression of genes involved in the regulation of inflammatory responses. This inflammatory phenotype was similar to the signature detected in LPS-treated mice, albeit less robust and transient, as inflammatory gene expression returned to baseline following cessation of DSS. Pharmacological inhibition of S100A9, one of the transcripts identified by RNA sequencing, attenuated colitis severity and systemic and neuroinflammation.

Conclusions

Our findings suggest that local inflammation in the colon drives systemic inflammation and neuroinflammation, and this can be ameliorated by inhibition of the S100 alarmin, S100A9.

Supplementary Information

The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12974-021-02317-6.

Comorbid anxiety-like behavior in a rat model of colitis is mediated by an upregulation of corticolimbic fatty acid amide hydrolase

Peripheral inflammatory conditions, including those localized to the gastrointestinal tract, are highly comorbid with psychiatric disorders such as anxiety and depression. These behavioral symptoms are poorly managed by conventional treatments for inflammatory diseases and contribute to quality of life impairments. Peripheral inflammation is associated with sustained elevations in circulating glucocorticoid hormones, which can modulate central processes, including those involved in the regulation of emotional behavior. The endocannabinoid (eCB) system is exquisitely sensitive to these hormonal changes and is a significant regulator of emotional behavior. The impact of peripheral inflammation on central eCB function, and whether this is related to the development of these behavioral comorbidities remains to be determined. To examine this, we employed the trinitrobenzene sulfonic acid-induced model of colonic inflammation (colitis) in adult, male, Sprague Dawley rats to produce sustained peripheral inflammation. Colitis produced increases in behavioral measures of anxiety and elevations in circulating corticosterone. These alterations were accompanied by elevated hydrolytic activity of the enzyme fatty acid amide hydrolase (FAAH), which hydrolyzes the eCB anandamide (AEA), throughout multiple corticolimbic brain regions. This elevation of FAAH activity was associated with broad reductions in the content of AEA, whose decline was driven by central corticotropin releasing factor type 1 receptor signaling. Colitis-induced anxiety was reversed following acute central inhibition of FAAH, suggesting that the reductions in AEA produced by colitis contributed to the generation of anxiety. These data provide a novel perspective for the pharmacological management of psychiatric comorbidities of chronic inflammatory conditions through modulation of eCB signaling.

Acute colitis during chronic experimental traumatic brain injury in mice induces dysautonomia and persistent extraintestinal, systemic, and CNS inflammation with exacerbated neurological deficits

BACKGROUND

Disruptions of brain-gut axis have been implicated in the progression of a variety of gastrointestinal (GI) disorders and central nervous system (CNS) diseases and injuries, including traumatic brain injury (TBI). TBI is a chronic disease process characterized by persistent secondary injury processes which can be exacerbated by subsequent challenges. Enteric pathogen infection during chronic TBI worsened cortical lesion volume; however, the pathophysiological mechanisms underlying the damaging effects of enteric challenge during chronic TBI remain unknown. This preclinical study examined the effect of intestinal inflammation during chronic TBI on associated neurobehavioral and neuropathological outcomes, systemic inflammation, and dysautonomia.

METHODS

Dextran sodium sulfate (DSS) was administered to adult male C57BL/6NCrl mice 28 days following craniotomy (Sham) or TBI for 7 days to induce intestinal inflammation, followed by a return to normal drinking water for an additional 7 to 28 days for recovery; uninjured animals (Naïve) served as an additional control group. Behavioral testing was carried out prior to, during, and following DSS administration to assess changes in motor and cognitive function, social behavior, and mood. Electrocardiography was performed to examine autonomic balance. Brains were collected for histological and molecular analyses of injury lesion, neurodegeneration, and neuroinflammation. Blood, colons, spleens, mesenteric lymph nodes (mLNs), and thymus were collected for morphometric analyses and/or immune characterization by flow cytometry.

RESULTS

Intestinal inflammation 28 days after craniotomy or TBI persistently induced, or exacerbated, respectively, deficits in fine motor coordination, cognition, social behavior, and anxiety-like behavior. Behavioral changes were associated with an induction, or exacerbation, of hippocampal neuronal cell loss and microglial activation in Sham and TBI mice administered DSS, respectively. Acute DSS administration resulted in a sustained systemic immune response with increases in myeloid cells in blood and spleen, as well as myeloid cells and lymphocytes in mesenteric lymph nodes. Dysautonomia was also induced in Sham and TBI mice administered DSS, with increased sympathetic tone beginning during DSS administration and persisting through the first recovery week.

CONCLUSION

Intestinal inflammation during chronic experimental TBI causes a sustained systemic immune response and altered autonomic balance that are associated with microglial activation, increased neurodegeneration, and persistent neurological deficits.