The natural compound benzoxazolin-2(3H)-one selectively retards cell cycle in lettuce root meristems

The Aqueous Extract of Brassica oleracea L. Exerts Phytotoxicity by Modulating H2O2 and O2- Levels, Antioxidant Enzyme Activity and Phytohormone Levels

Allelopathic interactions between plants serve as powerful tools for weed control. Despite the increasing understanding of the allelopathic mechanisms between different plant species, the inhibitory effects of B. oleracea on weed growth remain poorly understood. In this study, we conducted experiments to demonstrate that B. oleracea extract can suppress the germination of Panicum miliaceum L.varruderale Kit. seeds as well as of the roots, shoots and hypocotyl elongation of P. miliaceum seedlings. Furthermore, we observed that B. oleracea extract reduced the levels of hydrogen peroxide and superoxide anion in the roots while increasing the activities of catalase and ascorbate peroxidase. In the shoots, B. oleracea extract enhanced the activities of superoxide dismutase and peroxidase. Moreover, the use of the extract led to an increase in the content of phytohormones (indole-3-acetic acid, indole-3-acetaldehyde, methyl indole-3-acetate, N6-isoPentenyladenosine, dihydrozeatin-7-glucoside, abscisic acid and abscisic acid glucose ester) in P. miliaceum seedlings. Interestingly, the aqueous extract contained auxins and their analogs, which inhibited the germination and growth of P. miliaceum. This may contribute to the mechanism of the B. oleracea-extract-induced suppression of P. miliaceum growth.

Testing the role of allelochemicals in different wheat cultivars to sustainably manage weeds

BACKGROUND

Selecting wheat varieties with allelopathic potential or high competitiveness against weeds is a sustainable solution for organic farming to eliminate the use of synthetic herbicides. Wheat is one of the most economically important crops. This study focuses on screening the allelopathic or competitive potential of four wheat cultivars, Maurizio, NS 40S, Adesso and Element, on two weeds of interest due to acquired herbicide resistance, Portulaca oleracea and Lolium rigidum, through germination and growth bioassays and the identification and quantification of benzoxazinoids (BXZs) and polyphenols (phenolic acids and flavonoids).

RESULTS

The different cultivars showed different abilities to manage surrounding weeds and different capacity to exude or accumulate specialized metabolites in the presence of those weeds. Furthermore, each cultivar behaved differently depending on the weed present in the medium. The most efficient cultivar to control the tested monocot and dicot weeds was Maurizio, as it effectively controlled germination and growth of L. rigidum and P. oleracea while exuding large amounts of benzoxazinones through the roots, especially the hydroxamic acids 2,4-dihydroxy-7-methoxy-1,4-benzoxazin-3-one and dihydroxy-2H-1,4-benzoxaxin-3(4H)-one. By contrast, NS 40S, Adesso and Element showed the potential to control the growth of just one of the two weeds through allelopathy or competition.

CONCLUSION

This study reveals that Maurizio is the most promising wheat cultivar for sustainable weed control, and that the screening of crop varieties with allelopathic potential, which results in the displacement of synthetic herbicides, is an immediate solution in ecological and sustainable agriculture. © 2023 The Authors. Pest Management Science published by John Wiley & Sons Ltd on behalf of Society of Chemical Industry.

New Insights Into the Activity of Apple Dihydrochalcone Phloretin: Disturbance of Auxin Homeostasis as Physiological Basis of Phloretin Phytotoxic Action

Apple species are the unique naturally rich source of dihydrochalcones, phenolic compounds with an elusive role in planta, but suggested auto-allelochemical features related to "apple replant disease" (ARD). Our aim was to elucidate the physiological basis of the phytotoxic action of dihydrochalcone phloretin in the model plant Arabidopsis and to promote phloretin as a new prospective eco-friendly phytotoxic compound. Phloretin treatment induced a significant dose-dependent growth retardation and severe morphological abnormalities and agravitropic behavior in Arabidopsis seedlings. Histological examination revealed a reduced starch content in the columella cells and a serious disturbance in root architecture, which resulted in the reduction in length of meristematic and elongation zones. Significantly disturbed auxin metabolome profile in roots with a particularly increased content of IAA accumulated in the lateral parts of the root apex, accompanied by changes in the expression of auxin biosynthetic and transport genes, especially PIN1, PIN3, PIN7, and ABCB1, indicates the role of auxin in physiological basis of phloretin-induced growth retardation. The results reveal a disturbance of auxin homeostasis as the main mechanism of phytotoxic action of phloretin. This mechanism makes phloretin a prospective candidate for an eco-friendly bioherbicide and paves the way for further research of phloretin role in ARD.

Weed pressure determines the chemical profile of wheat (Triticum aestivum L.) and its allelochemicals potential

BACKGROUND

Common purslane (Portulaca oleracea) and annual ryegrass (Lolium rigidum) are important infesting weeds of field crops. Herbicides are mostly used for weed suppression, while their environmental toxicity and resistance in weeds against them demand considering alternative options, such as the use of allelopathic crops for weed management. Wheat is an important allelopathic crop and present research focused on the identification and quantification of benzoxazinoids (BXZs) and polyphenols (phenolic acids and flavonoids) of the wheat accession 'Ursita' and to screen its allelopathic impact on P. oleracea and Lolium rigidum through equal-compartment-agar (ECA) method.

RESULTS

Weed germination, radicle length, biomass and photosynthetic pigments were altered following co-growth of weeds with Ursita for 10-day. Root exudates from Ursita reduced (29-60%) the seedling growth and photosynthetic pigments of Lolium rigidum depending on co-culture conditions of planting density. Weed pressure caused significant increase in the production of phenolic acids (vanillic, ferulic, syringic and p-coumaric acids) and root exudation of BXZs, in particular benzoxazolin-2-one (BOA), 2-hydroxy-7-methoxy-1,4-benzoxazin-3-one (HMBOA), 2-hydroxy-1,4-benzoxazin3-one (HBOA) and 2,4-dihydroxy-1,4-benzoxazin-3-one (DIBOA) in wheat tissues (shoots, roots) and exudate in root rhizosphere agar medium in response to co-cultivation with Lolium rigidum and P. oleracea, depending on weed/crop density.

CONCLUSION

The work revealed that Ursita is allelopathic in nature and can be used in breeding programs to enhance its allelopathic activity. Meanwhile, there are opportunities to explore allelopathic effect of wheat cultivars to control P. oleracea and Lolium rigidum under field conditions. © 2022 Society of Chemical Industry.

Weed Suppression and Molecular Mechanisms of Isochlorogenic Acid A Isolated from Artemisia argyi Extract via an Activity-Guided Method

Allelopathy is considered an environmentally friendly and resource-conserving approach to weed control because allelochemicals degrade easily and cause less pollution than traditional chemical herbicides. In this study, the allelopathic active constituents of Artemisia argyi were elucidated by activity-guided isolation and ultraperformance liquid chromatography-quadrupole time-of-flight mass spectrometry (UPLC-QTOF-MS). First, a crude extract prepared in water was fractionated using macroporous resin D101 to obtain three fractions (Fr.A-C). Combined with the allelopathic activity assay on Setaria viridis and Portulaca oleracea, Fr.C was determined to be the most active fraction. We identified 14 compounds in the active fraction (Fr.C) using UPLC-QTOF-MS, including 13 phenolic compounds. Accordingly, phenolic components have been suggested as the main allelochemicals in A. argyi. Thereafter, Fr.C was further isolated by octadecylsilyl (ODS) chromatography to obtain eight subfractions (Fr.C-1-Fr.C-8). Finally, isochlorogenic acid A (ICGAA) was purified from Fr.C-3 by semipreparative liquid chromatography, which was detected in the growth environment of A. argyi. Furthermore, we evaluated the allelopathic effects of ICGAA on six weeds from different families and genera for the first time. The results showed that ICGAA is a novel allelochemical with broad herbicidal activity. In addition, we analyzed the inhibitory effect and molecular mechanism of ICGAA on the growth of S. viridis seedlings. Optical microscopy and transmission electron microscopy (TEM) revealed the degradation of membrane structures and organelles after ICGAA treatment. Transcriptome and real-time polymerase chain reaction (RT-qPCR) analysis showed that ICGAA inhibited the growth of weeds mainly by inhibiting the diterpenoid biosynthesis pathway (especially gibberellins, GAs). The decrease of gibberellin (GA) contents after ICGAA treatment also confirmed these results. In brief, this study provides new material sources and theoretical support for developing biological herbicides for agroecosystems.

Physiological and Oxidative Stress Responses of Lettuce to Cleomside A: A Thiohydroximate, as a New Allelochemical from Cleome arabica L

The inclination toward natural products have led the onset for the discovery of new bioactive metabolites that could be targeted for specific therapeutic or agronomic applications. This study aimed to isolate bioactive compounds from Cleome arabica L., and subsequently determine the unexplored mechanism of action of the newly identified compounds on Lactuca sativa L. Chemical investigation of the ethyl acetate fraction of methanolic silique extract of C. arabica afforded seven secondary metabolites belonging to different classes such as flavonoids, triterpene, and a new thiohydroximate derivative, named cleomside A. Among phytotoxic assays, the growth of lettuce was totally inhibited by cleomside A compared to the other identified compounds. This effect was associated with the increased levels of electrolyte leakage, malondialdehyde, and hydrogen peroxide indicating disruption of membrane integrity and induction of oxidative stress. Activities of the antioxidant enzymes SOD, CAT, and APX were also elevated, thereby demonstrating the enhanced generation of reactive oxygen species upon identified allelochemical exposure. Thus, the changes caused by cleomside A described herein can contribute to better understanding the allelochemical actions of thiohydroximate and the potential use of these substances in the production of natural herbicides compared to the other identified flavonoids and triterpene.

Physiological and Biochemical Mechanisms Mediated by Allelochemical Isoliquiritigenin on the Growth of Lettuce Seedlings

Isoliquiritigenin, a natural chalcone-type flavonoid, has been recognized as an allelochemical with phytotoxicity to lettuce; however, not enough attention has been paid to the mechanisms of this secondary metabolite. In this work, we investigated the physiological and biochemical mechanisms of isoliquiritigenin on lettuce seedlings. The results show that isoliquiritigenin has a concentration-dependent inhibitory effect on radicle elongation of lettuce seedlings, but no significant impact on lettuce germination. Microscopy analyses suggest that the surface morphology of lettuce radicle tips was atrophied and the intracellular tissue structure deformed at high concentrations. Isoliquiritigenin induced the overproduction of reactive oxygen species (ROS), which led to loss of cell viability in the radicle cells. In addition, malondialdehyde (a product of lipid peroxidation) and free proline levels were found to have increased, while chlorophyll content in lettuce seedlings decreased. All these changes suggest that the primary allelopathic mechanism of isoliquiritigenin by which it inhibits radicle elongation in lettuce seedlings might be due to the overproduction of ROS, which causes oxidative damage to membrane lipids and cell death.

Hairy root culture as a valuable tool for allelopathic studies in apple

Allelopathic plants exploit their chemical 'weapons' to prevail over the competition, suppress neighboring plants and consequently use the available resources more efficiently. However, the investigation of plant allelopathic interactions in rhizosphere is difficult to perform because of its high complexity due to interactions of biotic and abiotic factors. Thus, autonomous, aseptic root cultures of apple (Malus × domestica Borkh.) could facilitate allelopathic studies. We report on the successful genetic transformation of apple cultivars Melrose, Golden Delicious, Čadel and Gloster using Agrobacterium rhizogenes (Riker et al. 1930) Conn 1942 strain 15834 and for the first time the establishment of apple autonomous and permanent in vitro hairy root cultures that could be used as a new tool for apple allelopathic assays. Molecular characterization of transgenic hairy root lines was conducted to elucidate the possible relationship between expression of T-DNA genes and root growth characteristics that include branching. Similar content of phenolic acids (chlorogenic, caffeic, syringic, p-coumaric and ferulic), glycosilated flavonoids (rutin, quercitrin, isoquercitrin, kaempferol-3-glucoside) and flavonoid aglycones (quercetin and naringenin), and dihydrochalcone phloridzin, was detected in untransformed and transgenic apple root tissue by ultra high-performance liquid chromatography with mass spectrometry (UHPLC/(+/-)HESI-MS/MS) analyses, confirming that genetic transformation did not disturb secondary metabolite production in apple. Chlorogenic and caffeic acids and dihydrochalcones phloridzin and phloretin were detected as putative allelochemicals exuded into the growth medium in which transgenic roots were maintained for 4 weeks. Apple hairy root exudates significantly affected shoot and root development and growth of test plant Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh. seedlings after 5 or 10 days of treatment. Additionally, core cell-cycle genes CDKA1;1, CDKB2;1, CYCA3;1 and CYCB2;4 were down regulated in Arabidopsis shoots suggesting, in part, their role in inhibition of shoot growth. The present work highlighted an autonomous and permanent in vitro hairy root culture system as a valuable tool for studying allelopathic potential of apple, offering new perspective for allelopathy background elucidation in this important fruit species.

Evidence for the Involvement of Auxin, Ethylene and ROS Signaling During Primary Root Inhibition of Arabidopsis by the Allelochemical Benzoic Acid

Allelopathy is mediated by plant-derived secondary metabolites (allelochemicals) which are released by donor plants and affect the growth and development of receptor plants. The plant root is the first organ which senses soil allelochemicals this results in the production of a shorter primary root. However, the mechanisms underlying this process remain elusive. Here, we report that a model allelochemical benzoic acid (BA) inhibited primary root elongation of Arabidopsis seedlings by reducing the sizes of both the meristem and elongation zones, and that auxin signaling affected this process. An increase in auxin level in the root tips was associated with increased expression of auxin biosynthesis genes and auxin polar transporter AUX1 and PIN2 genes under BA stress. Mutant analyses demonstrated that AUX1 and PIN2 rather than PIN1 were required for the inhibition of primary root elongation during BA exposure. Furthermore, BA stimulated ethylene evolution, whereas blocking BA-induced ethylene signaling with an ethylene biosynthesis inhibitor (Co2+), an ethylene perception antagonist (1-methylcyclopropene) or ethylene signaling mutant lines etr1-3 and ein3eil1 compromised BA-mediated inhibition of root elongation and up-regulation of auxin biosynthesis-related genes together with AUX1 and PIN2, indicating that ethylene signal was involved in auxin-mediated inhibition of primary root elongation during BA stress. Further analysis revealed that the BA-induced reactive oxygen species (ROS) burst contributed to BA-mediated root growth inhibition without affecting auxin and ethylene signals. Taken together, our results reveal that the allelochemical BA inhibits root elongation by increasing auxin accumulation via stimulation of auxin biosynthesis and AUX1/PIN2-mediated auxin transport via stimulation of ethylene production and an auxin/ethylene-independent ROS burst.

Expression and characterization of the key enzymes involved in 2-benzoxazolinone degradation by Pigmentiphaga sp. DL-8

In this study, the key enzymes involved in 2-benzoxazolinone (BOA) degradation by Pigmentiphaga sp. DL-8 were further verified and characterized in Escherichia coli. By codon optimization and co-expression of molecular chaperones in a combined strategy, recombinant BOA amidohydrolase (rCbaA) and 2-aminophenol (2-AP) 1,2-dioxygenase (rCnbC_αC_β) were expressed and purified with the highest activity of 1934.6U·mgprotein^-1 and 32.80U·mgprotein^-1, respectively. BOA could be hydrolyzed to 2AP by rCbaA, which was further transformed to picolinic acid by rCnbC_αC_β based on identified catalytic product. The optimal pH and temperature for rCbaA are 9.0 and 55°C with excellent stability for catalytic environments, and the residual activity was >50% after incubation at temperatures <45°C or at pH between 6.0 and 10.0 for 24h. On the contrary, rCnbC_αC_β composed of α-subunit (33kDa) and β-subunit (38kDa) showed poor stability against environmental factors, including temperature, pH, metal ions and chemicals.

Antifungal activity of umbelliferone derivatives: Synthesis and structure-activity relationships

Umbelliferone was an important allelochemical with a wide spectrum bioactivity. In our previous study, C7 hydroxy in the backbone of umbelliferone was identified to be responsible for its phytotoxicity and the targeted modification of the above site could lead to the phytotoxicity loss. In view of this, a series of hydroxycoumarins and C7 O-substituted umbelliferone derivatives were efficiently synthesized to evaluate their antifungal activity against four phytopathogenic fungi. Most of them, as we predicted, exhibited improved fungicidal activity. The phytotoxicity of effective compounds was also assayed by Lactuca sativa to investigate their side effects on plant growth. Compounds 9 and 17 were identified to show strong antifungal activity with low phytotoxicity. A brief investigation on structure-activity relationships revealed that the modification at the C7 hydroxy of umbelliferone could be a promising way to enhance the antifungal activity with decreasing the phytotoxicity.

The Garlic Allelochemical Diallyl Disulfide Affects Tomato Root Growth by Influencing Cell Division, Phytohormone Balance and Expansin Gene Expression

Diallyl disulfide (DADS) is a volatile organosulfur compound derived from garlic (Allium sativum L.), and it is known as an allelochemical responsible for the strong allelopathic potential of garlic. The anticancer properties of DADS have been studied in experimental animals and various types of cancer cells, but to date, little is known about its mode of action as an allelochemical at the cytological level. The current research presents further studies on the effects of DADS on tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) seed germination, root growth, mitotic index, and cell size in root meristem, as well as the phytohormone levels and expression profile of auxin biosynthesis genes (FZYs), auxin transport genes (SlPINs), and expansin genes (EXPs) in tomato root. The results showed a biphasic, dose-dependent effect on tomato seed germination and root growth under different DADS concentrations. Lower concentrations (0.01-0.62 mM) of DADS significantly promoted root growth, whereas higher levels (6.20-20.67 mM) showed inhibitory effects. Cytological observations showed that the cell length of root meristem was increased and that the mitotic activity of meristematic cells in seedling root tips was enhanced at lower concentrations of DADS. In contrast, DADS at higher concentrations inhibited root growth by affecting both the length and division activity of meristematic cells. However, the cell width of the root meristem was not affected. Additionally, DADS increased the IAA and ZR contents of seedling roots in a dose-dependent manner. The influence on IAA content may be mediated by the up-regulation of FZYs and PINs. Further investigation into the underlying mechanism revealed that the expression levels of tomato EXPs were significantly affected by DADS. The expression levels of EXPB2 and beta-expansin precursor were increased after 3 d, and those of EXP1, EXPB3 and EXLB1 were increased after 5 d of DADS treatment (0.41 mM). This result suggests that tomato root growth may be regulated by multiple expansin genes at different developmental stages. Therefore, we conclude that the effects of DADS on the root growth of tomato seedlings are likely caused by changes associated with cell division, phytohormones, and the expression levels of expansin genes.

Research Progress on the use of Plant Allelopathy in Agriculture and the Physiological and Ecological Mechanisms of Allelopathy

Allelopathy is a common biological phenomenon by which one organism produces biochemicals that influence the growth, survival, development, and reproduction of other organisms. These biochemicals are known as allelochemicals and have beneficial or detrimental effects on target organisms. Plant allelopathy is one of the modes of interaction between receptor and donor plants and may exert either positive effects (e.g., for agricultural management, such as weed control, crop protection, or crop re-establishment) or negative effects (e.g., autotoxicity, soil sickness, or biological invasion). To ensure sustainable agricultural development, it is important to exploit cultivation systems that take advantage of the stimulatory/inhibitory influence of allelopathic plants to regulate plant growth and development and to avoid allelopathic autotoxicity. Allelochemicals can potentially be used as growth regulators, herbicides, insecticides, and antimicrobial crop protection products. Here, we reviewed the plant allelopathy management practices applied in agriculture and the underlying allelopathic mechanisms described in the literature. The major points addressed are as follows: (1) Description of management practices related to allelopathy and allelochemicals in agriculture. (2) Discussion of the progress regarding the mode of action of allelochemicals and the physiological mechanisms of allelopathy, consisting of the influence on cell micro- and ultra-structure, cell division and elongation, membrane permeability, oxidative and antioxidant systems, growth regulation systems, respiration, enzyme synthesis and metabolism, photosynthesis, mineral ion uptake, protein and nucleic acid synthesis. (3) Evaluation of the effect of ecological mechanisms exerted by allelopathy on microorganisms and the ecological environment. (4) Discussion of existing problems and proposal for future research directions in this field to provide a useful reference for future studies on plant allelopathy.

Characterization of xanthophyll pigments, photosynthetic performance, photon energy dissipation, reactive oxygen species generation and carbon isotope discrimination during artemisinin-induced stress in Arabidopsis thaliana

Artemisinin, a potent antimalarial drug, is phytotoxic to many crops and weeds. The effects of artemisinin on stress markers, including fluorescence parameters, photosystem II photochemistry, photon energy dissipation, lipid peroxidation, reactive oxygen species generation and carbon isotope discrimination in Arabidopsis thaliana were studied. Arabidopsis ecotype Columbia (Col-0) seedlings were grown in perlite and watered with 50% Hoagland nutrient solution. Adult plants of Arabidopsis were treated with artemisinin at 0, 40, 80, 160 μM for one week. Artemisinin, in the range 40-160 μM, decreased the fresh biomass, chl a, b and leaf mineral contents. Photosynthetic efficiency, yield and electron transport rate in Arabidopsis were also reduced following exposure to 80 and 160 μM artemisinin. The ΦNPQ and NPQ were less than control. Artemisinin treatment caused an increase in root oxidizability and lipid peroxidation (MDA contents) of Arabidopsis. Calcium and nitrogen contents decreased after 80 and 160 μM artemisinin treatment compared to control. δ13C values were less negative following treatment with artemisinin as compared to the control. Artemisinin also decreased leaf protein contents in Arabidopsis. Taken together, these data suggest that artemisinin inhibits many physiological and biochemical processes in Arabidopsis.

Benzoxazolin-2(3H)-one inhibits soybean growth and alters the monomeric composition of lignin

The effects of the allelochemical benzoxazolin-2-(3H)-one (BOA) were evaluated on growth, lignin content and its monomers p-hydroxyphenyl (H), guaiacyl (G) and syringyl (S) in roots, stems and leaves of soybean. BOA decreased the lengths and fresh weights of roots and stems, and the fresh weights and areas of leaves. Reductions in the growth were accompanied by enhanced lignin content in all tissues. In roots, the allelochemical increased the content of H, G and S monomers as well as the overall amount of lignin (referred to as the sum of H+G+S), but did not alter the S/G ratio. In stems and leaves, BOA increased the H, G, S and H+G+S contents while decreasing the S/G ratio. In brief, BOA-induced inhibition of soybean may be due to excessive production of monomers that increase the degree of polymerization of lignin, limit cell expansion, solidify the cell wall and restrict plant growth.

Inhibition of root growth by narciclasine is caused by DNA damage-induced cell cycle arrest in lettuce seedlings

Narciclasine (NCS) is an Amaryllidaceae alkaloid isolated from Narcissus tazetta bulbs. Its phytotoxic effects on plant growth were examined in lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.) seedlings. Results showed that high concentrations (0.5-5 μM) of NCS restricted the growth of lettuce roots in a dose-dependent manner. In NCS-treated lettuce seedlings, the following changes were detected: reduction of mitotic cells and cell elongation in the mature region, inhibition of proliferation of meristematic cells, and cell cycle. Moreover, comet assay and terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling (TUNEL) assay indicated that higher levels NCS (0.5-5 μM) induced DNA damage in root cells of lettuce. The decrease in meristematic cells and increase in DNA damage signals in lettuce roots in responses to NCS are in a dose-dependent manner. NCS-induced reactive oxygen species accumulation may explain an increase in DNA damage in lettuce roots. Thus, the restraint of root growth is due to cell cycle arrest which is caused by NCS-induced DNA damage. In addition, it was also found that NCS (0.5-5 μM) inhibited the root hair development of lettuce seedlings. Further investigations on the underlying mechanism revealed that both auxin and ethylene signaling pathways are involved in the response of root hairs to NCS.

Phytotoxic cyanamide affects maize (Zea mays) root growth and root tip function: from structure to gene expression

Cyanamide (CA) is a phytotoxic compound produced by four Fabaceae species: hairy vetch, bird vetch, purple vetch and black locust. Its toxicity is due to complex activity that involves the modification of both cellular structures and physiological processes. To date, CA has been investigated mainly in dicot plants. The goal of this study was to investigate the effects of CA in the restriction of the root growth of maize (Zea mays), representing the monocot species. CA (3mM) reduced the number of border cells in the root tips of maize seedlings and degraded their protoplasts. However, CA did not induce any significant changes in the organelle structure of other root cells, apart from increased vacuolization. CA toxicity was also demonstrated by its effect on cell cycle activity, endoreduplication intensity, and modifications of cyclins CycA2, CycD2, and histone HisH3 gene expression. In contrast, the arrangement of microtubules was not altered by CA. Treatment of maize seedlings with CA did not completely arrest mitotic activity, although the frequency of dividing cells was reduced. Furthermore, prolonged CA treatment increased the proportion of endopolyploid cells in the root tip. Cytological malformations were accompanied by an induction of oxidative stress in root cells, which manifested as enhanced accumulation of H2O2. Exposure of maize seedlings to CA resulted in an increased concentration of auxin and stimulated ethylene emission. Taken together, these findings suggested that the inhibition of root growth by CA may be a consequence of stress-induced morphogenic responses.

Individual and joint activity of terpenoids, isolated from Calamintha nepeta extract, on Arabidopsis thaliana

Four terpenoids, camphor, pulegone, trans-caryophyllene and farnesene, previously found in Calamintha nepeta (L.) Savi methanolic extract and essential oils were assayed on germination and root growth of Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heynh. None of the terpenes, singularly or in combination, was able to inhibit the germination process. Farnesene and trans-caryophyllene caused a strong inhibitory effect on root growth, and pulegone, at the highest concentrations, reduced lateral root formation. Although the mixture of camphor-trans-caryophyllene with or without farnesene did not cause any effect on root growth, the addition of pulegone induced a marked synergistic activity. Moreover, the addition, at low concentration, of farnesene to pulegone-camphor-trans-caryophyllene mixture further increased the inhibitory effect on root elongation. These results suggested that the inhibitory effects caused by C. nepeta methanolic extract may depend on the combined action of different molecules.

Inhibition of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) root growth by cyanamide is due to altered cell division, phytohormone balance and expansin gene expression

Cyanamide (CA) has been reported as a natural compound produced by hairy vetch (Vicia villosa Roth.) and it was shown also to be an allelochemical, responsible for strong allelopathic potential in this species. CA phytotoxicity has been demonstrated on various plant species, but to date little is known about its mode of action at cellular level. Treatment of tomato (Solanum lycopersicum L.) roots with CA (1.2 mM) resulted in inhibition of growth accompanied by alterations in cell division, and imbalance of plant hormone (ethylene and auxin) homeostasis. Moreover, the phytotoxic effect of CA was also manifested by modifications in expansin gene expression, especially in expansins responsible for cell wall remodeling after the cytokinesis (LeEXPA9, LeEXPA18). Based on these results the phytotoxic activity of CA on growth of roots of tomato seedlings is likely due to alterations associated with cell division.

Effects of Spent Pot Liner on mitotic activity and nuclear DNA content in meristematic cells of Allium cepa

Industrial waste usually contains complex mixtures of mutagenic chemicals. Spent Pot Liner (SPL) is a complex solid waste from the aluminum industry, which is composed of organics, fluoride salts, inorganic cyanides, metals, and sodium. Due to the toxicity of these compounds, this study sought to use cytogenetics and flow cytometry to assess the effects of SPL on cell cycle parameters and DNA content in meristematic cells of Allium cepa. Three concentrations of leachates from SPL-soil mixtures were used for the study: 0, 10, and 25%. Roots were collected and analyzed after 4, 8, 12, 24, and 36 h of exposure to the above SPL leachates. The results showed an overall mitodepressive effect accompanied by an increased percentage of condensed nuclei and genomic instability as evidenced by the presence of cellular/chromosomal abnormalities. Terminal deoxynucleotidyl transferase dUTP nick end labeling revealed nuclei with fragmented DNA, a marker of programmed cell death. This study also addressed the question of reversibility of the effects of SPL and found that 36 h of exposure to 25% SPL seemed to be the point at which the effects on the induction of apoptosis became irreversible.

Phytotoxic activity in Flourensia campestris and isolation of (--)-hamanasic acid A as its active principle compound

An aqueous extract from Flourensia campestris (Asteraceae) dry aerial parts showed strong inhibition on the germination and growth of Lactuca sativa. Based on bio-guided chromatographic fractionation of aq. extracts from dry and fresh leaves and spectroscopic means, (-)-hamanasic acid A (7-carboxy-8-hydroxy-1(2), 12(13)-dien-bisabolene (1)) was isolated as the most inhibitory active principle on germination (ECg(50)=2.9 mM) and on root (ECr(50)=1.5 mM)/shoot (ECs(50)=2.0 mM) growth. As measured by GC, and correlated with a simple designed 2D-TLC, compound 1 was distributed throughout the plant, with a remarkably high concentration (1.6%) in the leaves and the inflorescences. At least a quarter of the amount of 1 was found in aqueous extracts suggesting that leaching would be a key route for its release into the environment. By contrast, leaf essential oils (HD) between 0.5 and 1.5 μl ml(-1) did not show herbicidal effects and 1 was not found in them (TLC) nor among volatiles (HS-SPME). Volatile compositions were assessed by GC-FID and GC-MS and led to the identification of 23 compounds (4 monoterpenes and 19 sesquiterpenes) with a wide seasonal (spring-summer%) variation, represented principally by bicyclo-germacrene (37-6%), spathulenol (4-32%), globulol (20-0%), beta-caryophyllene (15-6%), caryophyllene oxide (1-13%) and bicycloelemene (10-1%), respectively. The high amount of 1 in F. campestris together with its feasibility of being extracted with water suggest that (-)-hamanasic acid A is an allelochemical in this species. Species-specific studies must be carried out to evaluate the potential of 1 as a natural herbicidal compound.

Cyanamide mode of action during inhibition of onion (Allium cepa L.) root growth involves disturbances in cell division and cytoskeleton formation

Cyanamide is an allelochemical produced by hairy vetch (Vicia villosa Roth.). Its phyotoxic effect on plant growth was examined on roots of onion (Allium cepa L.) bulbs. Water solution of cyanamide (2-10 mM) restricted growth of onion roots in a dose-dependent manner. Treatment of onion roots with cyanamide resulted in a decrease in root growth rate accompanied by a decrease in accumulation of fresh and dry weight. The inhibitory effect of cyanamide was reversed by its removal from the environment, but full recovery was observed only for tissue treated with this chemical at low concentration (2-6 mM). Cytological observations of root tip cells suggest that disturbances in cell division may explain the strong cyanamide allelopathic activity. Moreover, in cyanamide-treated onion the following changes were detected: reduction of mitotic cells, inhibition of proliferation of meristematic cells and cell cycle, and modifications of cytoskeleton arrangement.

Benzoxazolin-2(3H)-one (BOA) induced changes in leaf water relations, photosynthesis and carbon isotope discrimination in Lactuca sativa

The effects are reported here of Benzoxazolin-2(3H)-one (BOA), an allelopathic compound, on plant water relations, growth, components of chlorophyll fluorescence, and carbon isotope discrimination in lettuce (Lactuca sativa L.). Lettuce seedlings were grown in 1:1 Hoagland solution in perlite culture medium in environmentally controlled glasshouse. After 30 days, BOA was applied at concentration of 0.1, 0.5, 1.0 and 1.5 mM and distilled water (control). BOA, in the range (0.1-1.5 mM), decreased the shoot length, root length, leaf and root fresh weight. Within this concentration range, BOA significantly reduced relative water content while leaf osmotic potential remained unaltered. Stress response of lettuce was evaluated on the basis of six days of treatment with 1.5 mM BOA by analyzing several chlorophyll fluorescence parameters determined under dark-adapted and steady state conditions. There was no change in initial fluorescence (F₀) in response to BOA treatment while maximum chlorophyll fluorescence (F(m)) was significantly reduced. BOA treatment significantly reduced variable fluorescence (F(v)) on first, second, third, fourth, fifth and sixth day. Quantum efficiency of open PSII reaction centers (F(v)/F(m)) in the dark-adapted state was significantly reduced in response to BOA treatment. Quantum yield of photosystem II (ΦPSII) electron transport was significantly reduced because of decrease in the efficiency of excitation energy trapping of PSII reaction centers. Maximum fluorescence in light-adapted leaves (F'(m)) was significantly decreased but there was no change in initial fluorescence in light-adapted state (F'₀) in response to 1.5 mM BOA treatment. BOA application significantly reduced photochemical fluorescence quenching (qP) indicating that the balance between excitation rate and electron transfer rate has changed leading to a more reduced state of PSII reaction centers. Non photochemical quenching (NPQ) was also significantly reduced by BOA treatment on third, fourth and fifth day. BOA had dominant effect on C isotope ratios (δ¹³C) that was significantly less negative (-26.93) at 1.0 mM concentration as compared to control (-27.61). Carbon isotope discrimination (Δ¹³C) values were significantly less (19.45) as compared to control (20.17) at 1.0 mM. BOA also affect ratio of intercellular to air CO₂ concentration (ci/ca) that was significantly less (0.66) as compared to control (0.69) when treated with 1.0 mM BOA. Protein content of lettuce leaf tissue decreased under BOA treatment at 1.5 mM concentration as compared to control.

Early senescence induced by 2-3H-benzoxazolinone (BOA) in Arabidopsis thaliana

Measurements of chlorophyll a fluorescence, nutrient and trace elements, total protein content and malonyldialdehyde in leaves of Arabidopsis thaliana between 1 and 192 h after treatment with 0, 1 or 3 mM 2-3H-benzoxazolinone (BOA), together with imaging of chlorophyll a fluorescence and of the distributions of hydrogen peroxide and superoxide anion, suggested that the primary phytotoxic action of BOA is the induction of premature senescence, and that oxidative stress is a secondary effect that sets in a day or two later.

Reduced photosynthetic activity is directly correlated with 2-(3H)-benzoxazolinone accumulation in lettuce leaves

2-(3H)-benzoxazolinone (BOA) is a secondary plant metabolite previously found to inhibit plant growth and development. The phytotoxic activity of BOA has been extensively demonstrated over the last years. However, the relation of BOA phytotoxicity with BOA accumulation in plant leaves has not been thoroughly investigated. In this work, BOA phytotoxicity on photosynthesis (PhiPSII and Pn) of lettuce (Lactuca sativa L. cv. Great Lakes) was studied, and these results were correlated with BOA quantities in the leaves. BOA-treated plants showed reduced photosynthesis rate 6 h after the beginning of the treatment, and the efficiency of photosystem II started to be affected 10 h after treatment. These results were correlated with an increasing concentration of BOA in leaves that starts 6 h after treatment and shows a maximum at 96 h.

Effects of phenylcarboxylic acids on mitosis, endoreduplication and expression of cell cycle-related genes in roots of cucumber (Cucumis sativus L.)

Several benzoic and cinnamic acid derivatives were identified from cucumber root exudates. The effects of these phenylcarboxylic acids on root growth and cell cycle progression were examined in germinated seeds of cucumber. All 12 phenylcarboxylic acids (0.25 mM) tested significantly inhibited cucumber radicle growth, and cinnamic acid exerted a dose-dependent inhibitory effect. At 6 h after exposure to the acids, transcript levels of the cell cycle-related genes, including two cyclin-dependent kinases (CDKs) and four cyclins were reduced. Among them, transcript of CycB, a marker gene for mitosis showed a remarkable reduction. The temporal analysis showed that expression of mitotic genes (CDKB, CycA, and CycB) were reduced throughout the experiment, while the reduction of the other genes (CDKA, CycD3;1, and CycD3;2) were observed only at earlier time points. At 48 h after treatment with benzoic and cinnamic acids, an enhancement of endoreduplication was observed. Further time course analysis indicated that endoreduplication started as early as 6 h after exposure to cinnamic acid. These results provide evidence that exposure to benzoic and cinnamic acids can induce rapid and dramatic down-regulation of cell cycle-related genes, thus leading to root growth inhibition. Meanwhile, the block of mitosis caused by phenylcarboxylic acids also induced an increased level of endoreduplication.