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Tong J, Zhao W, Wang K, Deng D, Xiao L. Organ-level distribution tandem mass spectrometry analysis of three structural types of brassinosteroids in rapeseed. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2024; 15:1308781. [PMID: 38516662 PMCID: PMC10956354 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2024.1308781] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/07/2023] [Accepted: 02/21/2024] [Indexed: 03/23/2024]
Abstract
Background Brassinosteroids (BRs) are a class of naturally occurring steroidal phytohormones mediating a wide range of pivotal developmental and physiological functions throughout the plant's life cycle. Therefore, it is of great significance to determine the content and the distribution of BRs in plants.Regretfully, although a large number of quantitative methods for BRs by liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry (LC-MS/MS) have been reported, the in planta distribution of BRs is still unclear because of their lower contents in plant tissues and the lack of effective ionizable groups in their chemical structures. Methods We stablished a novel analytical method of BRs based on C18 cartridge solid-phase extraction (SPE) purification, 4-(dimethylamino)-phenylboronic acid (DMAPBA) derivatization, and online valve-switching system coupled with ultra-high performance liquid chromatography-electro spray ionization-triple quadrupole mass spectrometry (UHPLC-ESI-MS/MS). This method has been used to quantify three structural types of BRs (epibrassinolide, epicastasterone, and 6-deoxo-24-epicastaster one) in different organs of Brassica napus L. (rapeseed). Results We obtained the contents of three structural types of BRs in various organ tissues of rapeseed. The contents of three BRs in rapeseed flowers were the highest, followed by tender pods. The levels of three BRs all decreased during the maturation of the organs. We outlined the spatial distribution maps of three BRs in rapeseed based on these results, so as to understand the spatial distribution of BRs at the visual level. Conclusions Our results provided useful information for the precise in situ localization of BRs in plants and the metabolomic research of BRs in future work. The in planta spatial distribution of BRs at the visual level has been studied for the first time.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianhua Tong
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Phytohormones and Growth Development, Laboratory of Yuelu Mountain, College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, China
| | - Wenkui Zhao
- College of Chemistry and Materials, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, China
| | - Keming Wang
- Assets and Laboratory Management Department, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, China
| | - Danyi Deng
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Phytohormones and Growth Development, Laboratory of Yuelu Mountain, College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, China
| | - Langtao Xiao
- Hunan Provincial Key Laboratory of Phytohormones and Growth Development, Laboratory of Yuelu Mountain, College of Bioscience and Biotechnology, Hunan Agricultural University, Changsha, China
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Kumari S, Nazir F, Maheshwari C, Kaur H, Gupta R, Siddique KHM, Khan MIR. Plant hormones and secondary metabolites under environmental stresses: Enlightening defense molecules. PLANT PHYSIOLOGY AND BIOCHEMISTRY : PPB 2024; 206:108238. [PMID: 38064902 DOI: 10.1016/j.plaphy.2023.108238] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/18/2023] [Revised: 11/16/2023] [Accepted: 11/23/2023] [Indexed: 02/15/2024]
Abstract
The climatic changes have great threats to sustainable agriculture and require efforts to ensure global food and nutritional security. In this regard, the plant strategic responses, including the induction of plant hormones/plant growth regulators (PGRs), play a substantial role in boosting plant immunity against environmental stress-induced adversities. In addition, secondary metabolites (SMs) have emerged as potential 'stress alleviators' that help plants to adapt against environmental stressors imposing detrimental impacts on plant health and survival. The introduction of SMs in plant biology has shed light on their beneficial effects in mitigating environmental crises. This review explores SMs-mediated plant defense responses and highlights the crosstalk between PGRs and SMs under diverse environmental stressors. In addition, genetic engineering approaches are discussed as a potential revenue to enhance plant hormone-mediated SM production in response to environmental cues. Thus, the present review aims to emphasize the significance of SMs implications with PGRs association and genetic approachability, which could aid in shaping the future strategies that favor agro-ecosystem compatibility under unpredictable environmental conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarika Kumari
- Department of Botany, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, India
| | - Faroza Nazir
- Department of Botany, Jamia Hamdard, New Delhi, India
| | - Chirag Maheshwari
- Biochemistry Division, Indian Council of Agricultural Research (ICAR)-Indian Agricultural Research Institute (IARI), New Delhi, India
| | - Harmanjit Kaur
- Department of Botany, University of Allahabad, Prayagraj, Uttar Pradesh, India
| | - Ravi Gupta
- College of General Education, Kookmin University, Seoul, 02707, South Korea.
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Das P, Chandra T, Negi A, Jaiswal S, Iquebal MA, Rai A, Kumar D. A comprehensive review on genomic resources in medicinally and industrially important major spices for future breeding programs: Status, utility and challenges. Curr Res Food Sci 2023; 7:100579. [PMID: 37701635 PMCID: PMC10494321 DOI: 10.1016/j.crfs.2023.100579] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/20/2023] [Revised: 08/21/2023] [Accepted: 08/26/2023] [Indexed: 09/14/2023] Open
Abstract
In the global market, spices possess a high-value but low-volume commodities of commerce. The food industry depends largely on spices for taste, flavor, and therapeutic properties in replacement of cheap synthetic ones. The estimated growth rate for spices demand in the world is ∼3.19%. Since spices grow in limited geographical regions, India is one of the leading producer of spices, contributing 25-30 percent of total world trade. Hitherto, there has been no comprehensive review of the genomic resources of industrially important major medicinal spices to overcome major impediments in varietal improvement and management. This review focuses on currently available genomic resources of 24 commercially significant spices, namely, Ajwain, Allspice, Asafoetida, Black pepper, Cardamom large, Cardamom small, Celery, Chillies, Cinnamon, Clove, Coriander, Cumin, Curry leaf, Dill seed, Fennel, Fenugreek, Garlic, Ginger, Mint, Nutmeg, Saffron, Tamarind, Turmeric and Vanilla. The advent of low-cost sequencing machines has contributed immensely to the voluminous data generation of these spices, cracking the complex genomic architecture, marker discovery, and understanding comparative and functional genomics. This review of spice genomics resources concludes the perspective and way forward to provide footprints by uncovering genome assemblies, sequencing and re-sequencing projects, transcriptome-based studies, non-coding RNA-mediated regulation, organelles-based resources, developed molecular markers, web resources, databases and AI-directed resources in candidate spices for enhanced breeding potential in them. Further, their integration with molecular breeding could be of immense use in formulating a strategy to protect and expand the production of the spices due to increased global demand.
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Affiliation(s)
- Parinita Das
- Division of Agricultural Bioinformatics, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute, New Delhi, India
| | - Tilak Chandra
- Division of Agricultural Bioinformatics, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute, New Delhi, India
| | - Ankita Negi
- Division of Agricultural Bioinformatics, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute, New Delhi, India
| | - Sarika Jaiswal
- Division of Agricultural Bioinformatics, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute, New Delhi, India
| | - Mir Asif Iquebal
- Division of Agricultural Bioinformatics, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute, New Delhi, India
| | - Anil Rai
- Division of Agricultural Bioinformatics, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute, New Delhi, India
| | - Dinesh Kumar
- Division of Agricultural Bioinformatics, ICAR-Indian Agricultural Statistics Research Institute, New Delhi, India
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Alyahya N, Taybi T. Comparative transcriptomic profiling reveals differentially expressed genes and important related metabolic pathways in shoots and roots of a Saudi wheat cultivar (Najran) under salinity stress. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2023; 14:1225541. [PMID: 37588415 PMCID: PMC10425591 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1225541] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/19/2023] [Accepted: 06/28/2023] [Indexed: 08/18/2023]
Abstract
High salinity of soil is a threatening constraint for agricultural output worldwide. The adverse effects of salt stress on plants can be revealed in different manners, from phenotypic to genetic changes. A comparative RNA-Sequencing analysis was done in roots and shoots of bread wheat, Najran cultivar between plants grown under unstressed control condition (0 mM NaCl) and salt treatment (200 mM NaCl). More than 135 million and 137 million pair-end reads were obtained from root and shoot samples, respectively. Of which, the mapped reads to Triticum aestivum genome IWGSC_V51 ranged from 83.9% to 85% in the root and 71.6% to 79% in the shoot. Interestingly, a comparison of transcriptomic profiling identified that total number of significantly differentially expressed genes (DEGs) examined in the roots was much higher than that found in the shoots under NaCl treatment, 5829 genes were differentially expressed in the roots whereas 3495 genes in the shoots. The salt-induced change in the transcriptome was confirmed by RT-qPCR using a set of randomly selected genes. KEGG enrichment analysis classified all DEGs in both roots and shoots into 25 enriched KEGG pathways from three main KEGG classes: Metabolism, organismal systems and genetic information processing. According to that, the most significantly regulated pathways in the root and shoot tissues were glutathione metabolism and biosynthesis of secondary metabolites such as phenylpropanoids and galactose metabolism suggesting that these pathways might participate in wheat salt tolerance. The findings highlight the importance of the control of oxidative stress via Glutathione and phenylpropanoids and the regulation of galactose metabolism in the roots and shoots for salt-tolerance in wheat. They open promising prospects for engineering salt-tolerance in this important crop via targeted improvement of the regulation of key genes in the production of these compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Norah Alyahya
- School of Natural and Environmental Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
- Department of Biology, Faculty of Science, King Khalid University, Abha, Saudi Arabia
| | - Tahar Taybi
- School of Natural and Environmental Sciences, Newcastle University, Newcastle upon Tyne, United Kingdom
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Mangal V, Lal MK, Tiwari RK, Altaf MA, Sood S, Gahlaut V, Bhatt A, Thakur AK, Kumar R, Bhardwaj V, Kumar V, Singh B, Singh R, Kumar D. A comprehensive and conceptual overview of omics-based approaches for enhancing the resilience of vegetable crops against abiotic stresses. PLANTA 2023; 257:80. [PMID: 36913037 DOI: 10.1007/s00425-023-04111-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/27/2022] [Accepted: 02/28/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Abiotic stresses adversely affect the productivity and production of vegetable crops. The increasing number of crop genomes that have been sequenced or re-sequenced provides a set of computationally anticipated abiotic stress-related responsive genes on which further research may be focused. Knowledge of omics approaches and other advanced molecular tools have all been employed to understand the complex biology of these abiotic stresses. A vegetable can be defined as any component of a plant that is eaten for food. These plant parts may be celery stems, spinach leaves, radish roots, potato tubers, garlic bulbs, immature cauliflower flowers, cucumber fruits, and pea seeds. Abiotic stresses, such as deficient or excessive water, high temperature, cold, salinity, oxidative, heavy metals, and osmotic stress, are responsible for the adverse activity in plants and, ultimately major concern for decreasing yield in many vegetable crops. At the morphological level, altered leaf, shoot and root growth, altered life cycle duration and fewer or smaller organs can be observed. Likewise different physiological and biochemical/molecular processes are also affected in response to these abiotic stresses. In order to adapt and survive in a variety of stressful situations, plants have evolved physiological, biochemical, and molecular response mechanisms. A comprehensive understanding of the vegetable's response to different abiotic stresses and the identification of tolerant genotypes are essential to strengthening each vegetable's breeding program. The advances in genomics and next-generation sequencing have enabled the sequencing of many plant genomes over the last twenty years. A combination of modern genomics (MAS, GWAS, genomic selection, transgenic breeding, and gene editing), transcriptomics, and proteomics along with next-generation sequencing provides an array of new powerful approaches to the study of vegetable crops. This review examines the overall impact of major abiotic stresses on vegetables, adaptive mechanisms and functional genomic, transcriptomic, and proteomic processes used by researchers to minimize these challenges. The current status of genomics technologies for developing adaptable vegetable cultivars that will perform better in future climates is also examined.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vikas Mangal
- ICAR-Central Potato Research Institute, Shimla, Himachal Pradesh, India.
| | - Milan Kumar Lal
- ICAR-Central Potato Research Institute, Shimla, Himachal Pradesh, India.
| | - Rahul Kumar Tiwari
- ICAR-Central Potato Research Institute, Shimla, Himachal Pradesh, India.
| | | | - Salej Sood
- ICAR-Central Potato Research Institute, Shimla, Himachal Pradesh, India
| | - Vijay Gahlaut
- CSIR-Institute of Himalayan Bioresource Technology, Palampur, Himachal Pradesh, India
- Department of Biotechnology and University Center for Research and Development, Chandigarh University, Mohali, Punjab, India
| | | | - Ajay Kumar Thakur
- ICAR-Central Potato Research Institute, Shimla, Himachal Pradesh, India
| | - Ravinder Kumar
- ICAR-Central Potato Research Institute, Shimla, Himachal Pradesh, India
| | - Vinay Bhardwaj
- ICAR-Central Potato Research Institute, Shimla, Himachal Pradesh, India
| | - Vinod Kumar
- ICAR-Central Potato Research Institute, Shimla, Himachal Pradesh, India
| | - Brajesh Singh
- ICAR-Central Potato Research Institute, Shimla, Himachal Pradesh, India
| | - Rajender Singh
- ICAR-Central Potato Research Institute, Shimla, Himachal Pradesh, India
| | - Devendra Kumar
- ICAR-Central Potato Research Institute, Shimla, Himachal Pradesh, India
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Dabravolski SA, Isayenkov SV. The regulation of plant cell wall organisation under salt stress. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2023; 14:1118313. [PMID: 36968390 PMCID: PMC10036381 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2023.1118313] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 24.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/07/2022] [Accepted: 02/24/2023] [Indexed: 06/18/2023]
Abstract
Plant cell wall biosynthesis is a complex and tightly regulated process. The composition and the structure of the cell wall should have a certain level of plasticity to ensure dynamic changes upon encountering environmental stresses or to fulfil the demand of the rapidly growing cells. The status of the cell wall is constantly monitored to facilitate optimal growth through the activation of appropriate stress response mechanisms. Salt stress can severely damage plant cell walls and disrupt the normal growth and development of plants, greatly reducing productivity and yield. Plants respond to salt stress and cope with the resulting damage by altering the synthesis and deposition of the main cell wall components to prevent water loss and decrease the transport of surplus ions into the plant. Such cell wall modifications affect biosynthesis and deposition of the main cell wall components: cellulose, pectins, hemicelluloses, lignin, and suberin. In this review, we highlight the roles of cell wall components in salt stress tolerance and the regulatory mechanisms underlying their maintenance under salt stress conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Siarhei A. Dabravolski
- Department of Biotechnology Engineering, Braude Academic College of Engineering, Karmiel, Israel
| | - Stanislav V. Isayenkov
- Department of Plant Food Products and Biofortification, Institute of Food Biotechnology and Genomics, National Academy of Science (NAS) of Ukraine, Kyiv, Ukraine
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Zhang K, Duan M, Zhang L, Li J, Shan L, Zheng L, Liu J. HOP1 and HOP2 are involved in salt tolerance by facilitating the brassinosteroid-related nucleo-cytoplasmic partitioning of the HSP90-BIN2 complex. PLANT, CELL & ENVIRONMENT 2022; 45:3551-3565. [PMID: 36123951 DOI: 10.1111/pce.14441] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/21/2022] [Revised: 09/05/2022] [Accepted: 09/15/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The co-chaperone heat shock protein (HSP)70-HSP90 organizing protein (HOP) is involved in plant thermotolerance. However, its function in plant salinity tolerance was not yet studied. We found that Arabidopsis HOP1 and HOP2 play critical roles in salt tolerance by affecting the nucleo-cytoplasmic partitioning of HSP90 and brassinosteroid-insensitive 2 (BIN2). A hop1/2 double mutant was hypersensitive to salt-stress. Interestingly, this sensitivity was remedied by exogenous brassinolide application, while the application of brassinazole impeded growth of both wild-type (WT) and hop1/2 plants under normal and salt stress conditions. This suggested that the insufficient brassinosteroid (BR) content was responsible for the salt-sensitivity of hop1/2. After WT was transferred to salt stress conditions, HOP1/2, BIN2 and HSP90 accumulated in the nucleus, brassinazole-resistant 1 (BZR1) was phosphorylated and accumulated in the cytoplasm, and BR content significantly increased. This initial response resulted in dephosphorylation of BZR1 and BR response. This dynamic regulation of BR content was impeded in salt-stressed hop1/2. Thus, we propose that HOP1 and HOP2 are involved in salt tolerance by affecting BR signalling.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kaiyue Zhang
- College of Life Science, Shandong Normal University, Jinan, China
| | - Meijie Duan
- College of Life Science, Shandong Normal University, Jinan, China
| | - Limin Zhang
- College of Life Science, Shandong Normal University, Jinan, China
| | - Jinge Li
- College of Life Science, Shandong Normal University, Jinan, China
| | - Lele Shan
- College of Life Science, Shandong Normal University, Jinan, China
| | - Lina Zheng
- College of Life Science, Shandong Normal University, Jinan, China
| | - Jian Liu
- College of Life Science, Shandong Normal University, Jinan, China
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Chen S, Shi F, Li C, Sun Q, Ruan Y. Quantitative proteomics analysis of tomato root cell wall proteins in response to salt stress. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2022; 13:1023388. [PMID: 36407585 PMCID: PMC9666776 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.1023388] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/19/2022] [Accepted: 10/10/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Cell wall proteins perform diverse cellular functions in response to abiotic and biotic stresses. To elucidate the possible mechanisms of salt-stress tolerance in tomato. The 30 d seedlings of two tomato genotypes with contrasting salt tolerances were transplanted to salt stress (200 mM NaCl) for three days, and then, the cell wall proteins of seedling roots were analyzed by isobaric tags for relative and absolute quantification (iTRAQ). There were 82 and 81 cell wall proteins that changed significantly in the salt-tolerant tomato IL8-3 and the salt-sensitive tomato M82, respectively. The proteins associated with signal transduction and alterations to cell wall polysaccharides were increased in both IL8-3 and M82 cells wall in response to salt stress. In addition, many different or even opposite metabolic changes occurred between IL8-3 and M82 in response to salt stress. The salt-tolerant tomato IL8-3 experienced not only significantly decreased in Na+ accumulation but also an obviously enhanced in regulating redox balance and cell wall lignification in response to salt stress. Taken together, these results provide novel insight for further understanding the molecular mechanism of salt tolerance in tomato.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Quan Sun
- *Correspondence: Yanye Ruan, ; Quan Sun,
| | - Yanye Ruan
- *Correspondence: Yanye Ruan, ; Quan Sun,
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Zulfiqar F, Nafees M, Chen J, Darras A, Ferrante A, Hancock JT, Ashraf M, Zaid A, Latif N, Corpas FJ, Altaf MA, Siddique KHM. Chemical priming enhances plant tolerance to salt stress. FRONTIERS IN PLANT SCIENCE 2022; 13:946922. [PMID: 36160964 PMCID: PMC9490053 DOI: 10.3389/fpls.2022.946922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2022] [Accepted: 07/25/2022] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
Salt stress severely limits the productivity of crop plants worldwide and its detrimental effects are aggravated by climate change. Due to a significant world population growth, agriculture has expanded to marginal and salinized regions, which usually render low crop yield. In this context, finding methods and strategies to improve plant tolerance against salt stress is of utmost importance to fulfill food security challenges under the scenario of the ever-increasing human population. Plant priming, at different stages of plant development, such as seed or seedling, has gained significant attention for its marked implication in crop salt-stress management. It is a promising field relying on the applications of specific chemical agents which could effectively improve plant salt-stress tolerance. Currently, a variety of chemicals, both inorganic and organic, which can efficiently promote plant growth and crop yield are available in the market. This review summarizes our current knowledge of the promising roles of diverse molecules/compounds, such as hydrogen sulfide (H2S), molecular hydrogen, nitric oxide (NO), hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), melatonin, chitosan, silicon, ascorbic acid (AsA), tocopherols, and trehalose (Tre) as potential primers that enhance the salinity tolerance of crop plants.
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Affiliation(s)
- Faisal Zulfiqar
- Department of Horticultural Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture and Environment, The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur, Pakistan
| | - Muhammad Nafees
- Department of Horticultural Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture and Environment, The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur, Pakistan
| | - Jianjun Chen
- Mid-Florida Research and Education Center, Environmental Horticulture Department, Institute of Food and Agricultural Sciences, University of Florida, Apopka, FL, United States
| | - Anastasios Darras
- Department of Agriculture, University of the Peloponnese, Kalamata, Greece
| | - Antonio Ferrante
- Department of Food, Environmental and Nutritional Science, Università degli Studi di Milano, Milano, Italy
| | - John T. Hancock
- Department of Applied Sciences, University of the West of England, Bristol, United Kingdom
| | - Muhammad Ashraf
- Institute of Molecular Biology and Biotechnology, The University of Lahore, Lahore, Pakistan
| | - Abbu Zaid
- Plant Physiology and Biochemistry Section, Department of Botany, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh, India
| | - Nadeem Latif
- Department of Horticultural Sciences, Faculty of Agriculture and Environment, The Islamia University of Bahawalpur, Bahawalpur, Pakistan
| | - Francisco J. Corpas
- Antioxidant, Free Radical and Nitric Oxide in Biotechnology, Food and Agriculture Group, Department of Biochemistry, Cell and Molecular Biology of Plants, Estación Experimental del Zaidín, Consejo Superior de Investigaciones Científicas (CSIC), Granada, Spain
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Han Y, Yang R, Zhang X, Wang Q, Wang B, Zheng X, Li Y, Prusky D, Bi Y. Brassinosteroid Accelerates Wound Healing of Potato Tubers by Activation of Reactive Oxygen Metabolism and Phenylpropanoid Metabolism. Foods 2022; 11:foods11070906. [PMID: 35406993 PMCID: PMC8997868 DOI: 10.3390/foods11070906] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2022] [Revised: 03/15/2022] [Accepted: 03/19/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Wound healing could effectively reduce the decay rate of potato tubers after harvest, but it took a long time to form typical and complete healing structures. Brassinosteroid (BR), as a sterol hormone, is important for enhancing plant resistance to abiotic and biotic stresses. However, it has not been reported that if BR affects wound healing of potato tubers. In the present study, we observed that BR played a positive role in the accumulation of lignin and suberin polyphenolic (SPP) at the wounds, and effectively reduced the weight loss and disease index of potato tubers (cv. Atlantic) during healing. At the end of healing, the weight loss and disease index of BR group was 30.8% and 23.1% lower than the control, respectively. Furthermore, BR activated the expression of StPAL, St4CL, StCAD genes and related enzyme activities in phenylpropanoid metabolism, and promoted the synthesis of lignin precursors and phenolic acids at the wound site, mainly by inducing the synthesis of caffeic acid, sinapic acid and cinnamyl alcohol. Meanwhile, the expression of StNOX was induced and the production of O2− and H2O2 was promoted, which mediated oxidative crosslinking of above phenolic acids and lignin precursors to form SPP and lignin. In addition, the expression level of StPOD was partially increased. In contrast, the inhibitor brassinazole inhibited phenylpropanoid metabolism and reactive oxygen metabolism, and demonstrated the function of BR hormone in healing in reverse. Taken together, the activation of reactive oxygen metabolism and phenylpropanoid metabolism by BR could accelerate the wound healing of potato tubers.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ye Han
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou 730070, China; (Y.H.); (R.Y.); (X.Z.); (Q.W.); (B.W.); (X.Z.); (Y.L.)
| | - Ruirui Yang
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou 730070, China; (Y.H.); (R.Y.); (X.Z.); (Q.W.); (B.W.); (X.Z.); (Y.L.)
| | - Xuejiao Zhang
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou 730070, China; (Y.H.); (R.Y.); (X.Z.); (Q.W.); (B.W.); (X.Z.); (Y.L.)
| | - Qihui Wang
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou 730070, China; (Y.H.); (R.Y.); (X.Z.); (Q.W.); (B.W.); (X.Z.); (Y.L.)
| | - Bin Wang
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou 730070, China; (Y.H.); (R.Y.); (X.Z.); (Q.W.); (B.W.); (X.Z.); (Y.L.)
| | - Xiaoyuan Zheng
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou 730070, China; (Y.H.); (R.Y.); (X.Z.); (Q.W.); (B.W.); (X.Z.); (Y.L.)
| | - Yongcai Li
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou 730070, China; (Y.H.); (R.Y.); (X.Z.); (Q.W.); (B.W.); (X.Z.); (Y.L.)
| | - Dov Prusky
- Department of Postharvest Science of Fresh Produce, Agricultural Research Organization, Rishon LeZion 7505101, Israel;
| | - Yang Bi
- College of Food Science and Engineering, Gansu Agricultural University, Lanzhou 730070, China; (Y.H.); (R.Y.); (X.Z.); (Q.W.); (B.W.); (X.Z.); (Y.L.)
- Correspondence: ; Tel./Fax: +86-0931-7631201
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11
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Cornelis S, Hazak O. Understanding the root xylem plasticity for designing resilient crops. PLANT, CELL & ENVIRONMENT 2022; 45:664-676. [PMID: 34971462 PMCID: PMC9303747 DOI: 10.1111/pce.14245] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2021] [Revised: 11/30/2021] [Accepted: 12/01/2021] [Indexed: 06/14/2023]
Abstract
Xylem is the main route for transporting water, minerals and a myriad of signalling molecules within the plant. With its onset during early embryogenesis, the development of the xylem relies on hormone gradients, the activity of unique transcription factors, the distribution of mobile microRNAs, and receptor-ligand pathways. These regulatory mechanisms are often interconnected and together contribute to the plasticity of this water-conducting tissue. Environmental stresses, such as drought and salinity, have a great impact on xylem patterning. A better understanding of how the structural properties of the xylem are regulated in normal and stress conditions will be instrumental in developing crops of the future. In addition, vascular wilt pathogens that attack the xylem are becoming increasingly problematic. Further knowledge of xylem development in response to these pathogens will bring new solutions against these diseases. In this review, we summarize recent findings on the molecular mechanisms of xylem formation that largely come from Arabidopsis research with additional insights from tomato and monocot species. We emphasize the impact of abiotic factors and pathogens on xylem plasticity and the urgent need to uncover the underlying mechanisms. Finally, we discuss the multidisciplinary approach to model xylem capacities in crops.
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Affiliation(s)
- Salves Cornelis
- Department of BiologyUniversity of FribourgFribourgSwitzerland
| | - Ora Hazak
- Department of BiologyUniversity of FribourgFribourgSwitzerland
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12
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Mansour MMF, Hassan FAS. How salt stress-responsive proteins regulate plant adaptation to saline conditions. PLANT MOLECULAR BIOLOGY 2022; 108:175-224. [PMID: 34964081 DOI: 10.1007/s11103-021-01232-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/16/2021] [Accepted: 12/06/2021] [Indexed: 05/20/2023]
Abstract
An overview is presented of recent advances in our knowledge of candidate proteins that regulate various physiological and biochemical processes underpinning plant adaptation to saline conditions. Salt stress is one of the environmental constraints that restrict plant distribution, growth and yield in many parts of the world. Increased world population surely elevates food demands all over the globe, which anticipates to add a great challenge to humanity. These concerns have necessitated the scientists to understand and unmask the puzzle of plant salt tolerance mechanisms in order to utilize various strategies to develop salt tolerant crop plants. Salt tolerance is a complex trait involving alterations in physiological, biochemical, and molecular processes. These alterations are a result of genomic and proteomic complement readjustments that lead to tolerance mechanisms. Proteomics is a crucial molecular tool that indicates proteins expressed by the genome, and also identifies the functions of proteins accumulated in response to salt stress. Recently, proteomic studies have shed more light on a range of promising candidate proteins that regulate various processes rendering salt tolerance to plants. These proteins have been shown to be involved in photosynthesis and energy metabolism, ion homeostasis, gene transcription and protein biosynthesis, compatible solute production, hormone modulation, cell wall structure modification, cellular detoxification, membrane stabilization, and signal transduction. These candidate salt responsive proteins can be therefore used in biotechnological approaches to improve tolerance of crop plants to salt conditions. In this review, we provided comprehensive updated information on the proteomic data of plants/genotypes contrasting in salt tolerance in response to salt stress. The roles of salt responsive proteins that are potential determinants for plant salt adaptation are discussed. The relationship between changes in proteome composition and abundance, and alterations observed in physiological and biochemical features associated with salt tolerance are also addressed.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Fahmy A S Hassan
- Department of Horticulture, Faculty of Agriculture, Tanta University, Tanta, Egypt
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13
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Roy S, Chakraborty AP, Chakraborty R. Understanding the potential of root microbiome influencing salt-tolerance in plants and mechanisms involved at the transcriptional and translational level. PHYSIOLOGIA PLANTARUM 2021; 173:1657-1681. [PMID: 34549441 DOI: 10.1111/ppl.13570] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/31/2021] [Revised: 09/10/2021] [Accepted: 09/20/2021] [Indexed: 06/13/2023]
Abstract
Soil salinity severely affects plant growth and development and imparts inevitable losses to crop productivity. Increasing the concentration of salts in the vicinity of plant roots has severe consequences at the morphological, biochemical, and molecular levels. These include loss of chlorophyll, decrease in photosynthetic rate, reduction in cell division, ROS generation, inactivation of antioxidative enzymes, alterations in phytohormone biosynthesis and signaling, and so forth. The association of microorganisms, viz. plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria, endophytes, and mycorrhiza, with plant roots constituting the root microbiome can confer a greater degree of salinity tolerance in addition to their inherent ability to promote growth and induce defense mechanisms. The mechanisms involved in induced stress tolerance bestowed by these microorganisms involve the modulation of phytohormone biosynthesis and signaling pathways (including indole acetic acid, gibberellic acid, brassinosteroids, abscisic acid, and jasmonic acid), accumulation of osmoprotectants (proline, glycine betaine, and sugar alcohols), and regulation of ion transporters (SOS1, NHX, HKT1). Apart from this, salt-tolerant microorganisms are known to induce the expression of salt-responsive genes via the action of several transcription factors, as well as by posttranscriptional and posttranslational modifications. Moreover, the potential of these salt-tolerant microflora can be employed for sustainably improving crop performance in saline environments. Therefore, this review will briefly focus on the key responses of plants under salinity stress and elucidate the mechanisms employed by the salt-tolerant microorganisms in improving plant tolerance under saline environments.
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Affiliation(s)
- Swarnendu Roy
- Plant Biochemistry Laboratory, Department of Botany, University of North Bengal, Darjeeling, West Bengal, India
| | | | - Rakhi Chakraborty
- Department of Botany, Acharya Prafulla Chandra Roy Government College, Darjeeling, West Bengal, India
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14
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Hu D, Wei L, Liao W. Brassinosteroids in Plants: Crosstalk with Small-Molecule Compounds. Biomolecules 2021; 11:biom11121800. [PMID: 34944444 PMCID: PMC8698649 DOI: 10.3390/biom11121800] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/22/2021] [Revised: 11/23/2021] [Accepted: 11/29/2021] [Indexed: 01/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Brassinosteroids (BRs) are known as the sixth type of plant hormone participating in various physiological and biochemical activities and play an irreplaceable role in plants. Small-molecule compounds (SMCs) such as nitric oxide (NO), ethylene, hydrogen peroxide (H2O2), and hydrogen sulfide (H2S) are involved in plant growth and development as signaling messengers. Recently, the involvement of SMCs in BR-mediated growth and stress responses is gradually being discovered in plants, including seed germination, adventitious rooting, stem elongation, fruit ripening, and stress responses. The crosstalk between BRs and SMCs promotes plant development and alleviates stress damage by modulating the antioxidant system, photosynthetic capacity, and carbohydrate metabolism, as well as osmotic adjustment. In the present review, we try to explain the function of BRs and SMCs and their crosstalk in the growth, development, and stress resistance of plants.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | - Weibiao Liao
- Correspondence: ; Tel.: +86-931-763-2155; Fax: +86-931-763-2155
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15
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Wu J, Niu Z, Lu X, Tang X, Qiao X, Ma L, Liu C, Li N. Transcriptome in Combination Proteome Unveils the Phenylpropane Pathway Involved in Garlic ( Allium sativum) Greening. Front Nutr 2021; 8:764133. [PMID: 34790689 PMCID: PMC8591526 DOI: 10.3389/fnut.2021.764133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2021] [Accepted: 09/14/2021] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Garlic (Allium sativum) is an important vegetable crop that is widely used in cooking and medicine. The greening phenomenon of garlic severely decreases the quality of garlic and hinders garlic processing. To study the mechanism of garlic greening, comprehensive full-length transcript sets were constructed. We detected the differences in greening between Pizhou (PZ) garlic and Laiwu (LW) garlic that were both stored at −2.5°C and protected from light at the same time. The results showed that 60,087 unigenes were respectively annotated to the NR, KEGG, GO, Pfam, eggNOG and Swiss Prot databases, and a total of 30,082 unigenes were annotated. The analysis of differential genes and differential proteins showed that PZ garlic and LW garlic had 923 differentially expressed genes (DEGs), of which 529 genes were up regulated and 394 genes were downregulated. Through KEGG and GO enrichment analysis, it was found that the most significant way of enriching DEGs was the phenylpropane metabolic pathway. Proteomics analysis found that there were 188 differentially expressed proteins (DAPs), 162 up-regulated proteins, and 26 down-regulated proteins between PZ garlic and LW garlic. The content of 10 proteins related to phenylpropanoid biosynthesis in PZ garlic was significantly higher than that of LW garlic. This study explored the mechanisms of garlic greening at a molecular level and further discovered that the formation of garlic green pigment was affected significantly by the phenylpropanoid metabolic pathway. This work provided a theoretical basis for the maintenance of garlic quality during garlic processing and the future development of the garlic processing industries.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jinxiang Wu
- Key Laboratory of Food Processing Technology and Quality Control in Shandong Province, College of Food Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, China
| | - Zhonglu Niu
- Key Laboratory of Food Processing Technology and Quality Control in Shandong Province, College of Food Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, China
| | - Xiaoming Lu
- Key Laboratory of Food Processing Technology and Quality Control in Shandong Province, College of Food Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, China
| | - Xiaozhen Tang
- Key Laboratory of Food Processing Technology and Quality Control in Shandong Province, College of Food Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, China
| | - Xuguang Qiao
- Key Laboratory of Food Processing Technology and Quality Control in Shandong Province, College of Food Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, China
| | - Longchuan Ma
- Garlic Science and Technology Research Center of Jinxiang, Jining, China
| | - Chao Liu
- Key Laboratory of Novel Food Resources Processing, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs/Key Laboratory of Agro-Products Processing Technology of Shandong Province/Institute of Agro-Food Science and Technology, Shandong Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Jinan, China
| | - Ningyang Li
- Key Laboratory of Food Processing Technology and Quality Control in Shandong Province, College of Food Science and Engineering, Shandong Agricultural University, Tai'an, China
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Significance of brassinosteroids and their derivatives in the development and protection of plants under abiotic stress. Biologia (Bratisl) 2021. [DOI: 10.1007/s11756-021-00853-3] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
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17
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Zhang Q, Li M, Xia CY, Zhang WJ, Yin ZG, Zhang YL, Fang QX, Liu YC, Zhang MY, Zhang WH, Du JD, Du YL. Transcriptome-based analysis of salt-related genes during the sprout stage of common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) under salt stress conditions. BIOTECHNOL BIOTEC EQ 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/13102818.2021.1954091] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/15/2023] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Qi Zhang
- Cereals Germplasm Resources Innovation Laboratory, College of Agriculture, National Coarse Cereals Engineering Research Center, Heilongjiang Bayi Agricultural University, Daqing, Heilongjiang, PR China
| | - Ming Li
- Cereals Germplasm Resources Innovation Laboratory, College of Agriculture, National Coarse Cereals Engineering Research Center, Heilongjiang Bayi Agricultural University, Daqing, Heilongjiang, PR China
| | - Chun Yang Xia
- Cereals Germplasm Resources Innovation Laboratory, College of Agriculture, National Coarse Cereals Engineering Research Center, Heilongjiang Bayi Agricultural University, Daqing, Heilongjiang, PR China
| | - Wen Jing Zhang
- Cereals Germplasm Resources Innovation Laboratory, College of Agriculture, National Coarse Cereals Engineering Research Center, Heilongjiang Bayi Agricultural University, Daqing, Heilongjiang, PR China
| | - Zhen Gong Yin
- Bean Crops Laboratory, Crop Resources Institute of Heilongjiang Academy of Agricultural Sciences, Harbin, Heilongjiang, PR China
| | - You Li Zhang
- Cereals Germplasm Resources Innovation Laboratory, College of Agriculture, National Coarse Cereals Engineering Research Center, Heilongjiang Bayi Agricultural University, Daqing, Heilongjiang, PR China
| | - Qing Xi Fang
- Cereals Germplasm Resources Innovation Laboratory, College of Agriculture, National Coarse Cereals Engineering Research Center, Heilongjiang Bayi Agricultural University, Daqing, Heilongjiang, PR China
| | - Yang Cheng Liu
- Cereals Germplasm Resources Innovation Laboratory, College of Agriculture, National Coarse Cereals Engineering Research Center, Heilongjiang Bayi Agricultural University, Daqing, Heilongjiang, PR China
| | - Ming Yu Zhang
- Cereals Germplasm Resources Innovation Laboratory, College of Agriculture, National Coarse Cereals Engineering Research Center, Heilongjiang Bayi Agricultural University, Daqing, Heilongjiang, PR China
| | - Wen Hui Zhang
- Cereals Germplasm Resources Innovation Laboratory, College of Agriculture, National Coarse Cereals Engineering Research Center, Heilongjiang Bayi Agricultural University, Daqing, Heilongjiang, PR China
| | - Ji Dao Du
- Cereals Germplasm Resources Innovation Laboratory, College of Agriculture, National Coarse Cereals Engineering Research Center, Heilongjiang Bayi Agricultural University, Daqing, Heilongjiang, PR China
- Cereals Germplasm Resources Innovation Laboratory, College of Agriculture, National Coarse Cereals Engineering Research Center, Daqing, Heilongjiang, PR China
| | - Yan Li Du
- Cereals Germplasm Resources Innovation Laboratory, College of Agriculture, National Coarse Cereals Engineering Research Center, Heilongjiang Bayi Agricultural University, Daqing, Heilongjiang, PR China
- Cereals Germplasm Resources Innovation Laboratory, College of Agriculture, National Coarse Cereals Engineering Research Center, Daqing, Heilongjiang, PR China
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Zhu Y, Wang Q, Wang Y, Xu Y, Li J, Zhao S, Wang D, Ma Z, Yan F, Liu Y. Combined Transcriptomic and Metabolomic Analysis Reveals the Role of Phenylpropanoid Biosynthesis Pathway in the Salt Tolerance Process of Sophora alopecuroides. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:ijms22052399. [PMID: 33673678 PMCID: PMC7957753 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22052399] [Citation(s) in RCA: 33] [Impact Index Per Article: 11.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2021] [Revised: 02/22/2021] [Accepted: 02/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Salt stress is the main abiotic stress that limits crop yield and agricultural development. Therefore, it is imperative to study the effects of salt stress on plants and the mechanisms through which plants respond to salt stress. In this study, we used transcriptomics and metabolomics to explore the effects of salt stress on Sophora alopecuroides. We found that salt stress incurred significant gene expression and metabolite changes at 0, 4, 24, 48, and 72 h. The integrated transcriptomic and metabolomic analysis revealed that the differentially expressed genes (DEGs) and differential metabolites (DMs) obtained in the phenylpropanoid biosynthesis pathway were significantly correlated under salt stress. Of these, 28 DEGs and seven DMs were involved in lignin synthesis and 23 DEGs and seven DMs were involved in flavonoid synthesis. Under salt stress, the expression of genes and metabolites related to lignin and flavonoid synthesis changed significantly. Lignin and flavonoids may participate in the removal of reactive oxygen species (ROS) in the root tissue of S. alopecuroides and reduced the damage caused under salt stress. Our research provides new ideas and genetic resources to study the mechanism of plant responses to salt stress and further improve the salt tolerance of plants.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Fan Yan
- Correspondence: (F.Y.); (Y.L.)
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Yang QQ, Yang F, Zhao YQ, Lu XJ, Liu CY, Zhang BW, Ge J, Fan JD. Genome-wide identification and functional characterization of WRKY transcription factors involved in the response to salt and heat stress in garlic ( Allium sativum L). BIOTECHNOL BIOTEC EQ 2021. [DOI: 10.1080/13102818.2022.2045218] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/19/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Qing-Qing Yang
- Xuzhou Institute of Agricultural Sciences in Jiangsu Xuhuai Area, Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Breeding of Sweetpotato, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, PR China
| | - Feng Yang
- Xuzhou Institute of Agricultural Sciences in Jiangsu Xuhuai Area, Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Breeding of Sweetpotato, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, PR China
| | - Yong-Qiang Zhao
- Xuzhou Institute of Agricultural Sciences in Jiangsu Xuhuai Area, Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Breeding of Sweetpotato, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, PR China
| | - Xin-Juan Lu
- Xuzhou Institute of Agricultural Sciences in Jiangsu Xuhuai Area, Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Breeding of Sweetpotato, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, PR China
| | - Can-Yu Liu
- Xuzhou Institute of Agricultural Sciences in Jiangsu Xuhuai Area, Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Breeding of Sweetpotato, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, PR China
| | - Bi-Wei Zhang
- Xuzhou Institute of Agricultural Sciences in Jiangsu Xuhuai Area, Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Breeding of Sweetpotato, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, PR China
| | - Jie Ge
- Xuzhou Institute of Agricultural Sciences in Jiangsu Xuhuai Area, Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Breeding of Sweetpotato, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, PR China
| | - Ji-De Fan
- Xuzhou Institute of Agricultural Sciences in Jiangsu Xuhuai Area, Key Laboratory of Biology and Genetic Breeding of Sweetpotato, Ministry of Agriculture and Rural Affairs, Xuzhou, Jiangsu, PR China
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