Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids in maternal and infant nutrition

Significance of fatty acids in fish broodstock nutrition

The nutritional status of broodstock profoundly affects their reproductive performance and offspring survival. Studies on lipids and essential fatty acids in broodstock diets highlight their importance in cell structure, fecundity, fertilization, egg and larval quality, and providing metabolic energy for reproduction. Long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (Lc-PUFA) like DHA (22:6 n-3) and EPA (20:5 n-3) are vital for egg and larval development, while arachidonic acid (ARA) produces eicosanoids essential for reproduction. The fatty acid requirements vary by habitat; freshwater fish typically lack ∆12 and ∆15 desaturase enzymes to convert oleic acid into vital polyunsaturated fatty acids like linoleic and linolenic acids but can synthesize linoleic (18:2 n-6) and linolenic (18:3 n-3) into Lc-PUFAs such as EPA, DHA, and ARA through desaturation and elongation, whereas marine teleost cannot. Hence, broodstock feed fatty acid composition must be tailored by incorporating ingredients with a specific fatty acid composition to enhance reproductive performance. This review provides updated information on fatty acid supplementation in broodstock diets to improve reproductive outcomes in commercially important finfish, offering valuable insights for researchers, academicians, hatchery owners, and fish farmers to produce better-quality seeds.

Influence of Different Feed Particle Sizes on the Growth Performance and Nutrition Composition in Crayfish, Procambarus clarkii Larvae

A suitable feed size has a positive effect on animal feeding. For aquatic larvae, the correct feed size is very important for their growth. This experiment analyzed and compared the effect of different particle sizes of feed for larval stages on the growth performance, whole body composition, and muscle amino acid and fatty acid composition of crayfish. Five larval crayfish diets of different particle sizes, namely < 0.40 mm (Group A, control group), 0.40-0.50 mm (Group B), 0.71-0.85 mm (Group C), 0.90-1.00 mm (Group D) and 1.5 mm (Group E), were fed to 2000 crayfish (initial weight 0.0786 ± 0.0031 g) for 100 d. The results showed that as the particle size increased, final weight, weight gain (WG, p = 0.001) and specific growth rate (SGR, p = 0.000) of the crayfish tended to increase and then leveled off, with the control group being the lowest. The feed conversion ratio (FCR, p = 0.000) showed a decreasing and then equalizing trend with increasing particle size, but there was no significant difference between the groups except the control group. Broken-line regression analysis showed that the critical values for the appropriate particle feed size for crayfish larvae were 0.55 mm and 0.537 mm using SGR and FCR as indicators. Groups B, C and D had the highest crude protein content and were significantly higher than the control group (p = 0.001). Group E had the highest umami amino acid (UAA) and was significantly higher than the control group (p = 0.026). The content of isoleucine (Ile, p = 0.038) and phenylalanine (Phe, p = 0.038) was highest in group C and significantly higher than in the control group. Through principal component analysis, groups C and D were shown to contain leucine (Leu), glutamic (Glu), methionine (Met), valine (Val), histidine (His), Phe, and Ile levels significantly induced. The content of linoleic acid (C18:2n6, p = 0.000), linolenic acid (C18:3n3, p = 0.000), saturated fatty acid (SFA, p = 0.000), monounsaturated fatty acid (MUFA, p = 0.001), polyunsaturated fatty acid (PUFA, p = 0.000) and n-6 PUFA (p = 0.000) in group C was the highest and significantly higher than the control group. Principal component analysis showed that group C significantly induced the levels of C18:2n6, C18:3n3, DHA, EPA, n-3 PUFA and n-6 PUFA in muscle. Therefore, our results suggest that appropriate feed particle size can improve the growth performance and nutrient composition of crayfish. Based on the broken-line regression analysis of SGR and FCR, the critical values of optimal particle size for crayfish are 0.55 mm and 0.537 mm, and when the particle size exceeds these critical values (not more than 1.5 mm commercial feed), growth performance and FCR of the crayfish are no longer changed. Nevertheless, group C has high protein and low lipid content, as well as better nutrition with amino acids and fatty acids. Overall, combined with growth performance and nutrient composition, it is recommended that the particle size of the diet at the larval stage for crayfish is between 0.71 and 0.85 mm.

Changes in the Fatty Acid Profile of Lactating Women Living in Poland-A Comparison with the Fatty Acid Profile of Selected Infant Formulas

The present study examined the fatty acid content of human milk from Polish women living in the Warmia and Mazury region with regard to different lactation periods and compared it with the fatty acid content of selected infant formulas. The analysis included samples of breast milk-colostrum (n = 21), transitional milk (n = 26), and mature milk (n = 22). Fat was extracted using the Rose-Gottlieb method, and the fatty acid profile was determined by gas chromatography with a flame ionization detector (FID). The proportion of SFAs (saturated fatty acids) > MUFAs (monounsaturated fatty acids) > PUFAs (polyunsaturated fatty acids) was determined in each fraction of breast milk and infant formula. Palmitic, oleic, and linoleic acids predominated in breast milk and infant formulas. Colostrum contained lower contents of selected SFAs (caprylic, capric, lauric) and higher contents of selected MUFAs (ercucic) and PUFAs (arachidonic and docosahexaenoic) (p < 0.05) relative to transitional and mature milk. Infant formulas were distinguished from human milk in terms of their SFA (caproic, caprylic, lauric, arachidic), MUFA (oleic), and PUFA (linoleic, α-linoleic) content. It should be noted that infant formulas contained significantly lower trans fatty acid (TFA) content-more than thirty-six and more than nineteen times lower than in human milk. Furthermore, human milk contained branched-chain fatty acids (BCFAs) at 0.23-0.28%, while infant formulas contained only trace amounts of these acids. The average ratio of n-6 to n-3 fatty acids for human milk was 6.59:1 and was close to the worldwide ratio of 6.53 ± 1.72:1. Both principal component analysis (PCA) and cluster analysis (CA) indicated significant differences in the fatty acid profile relative to lactation and a different profile of infant formulas relative to breast milk.

Maternal safflower oil consumption improve reflex maturation, memory and reduces hippocampal oxidative stress in the offspring rats treated during pregnancy and lactation

OBJECTIVE

Evaluate the influence of maternal consumption of safflower oil on reflex maturation, memory and offspring hippocampal oxidative stress.

METHODOLOGY

Two groups were formed: control group (C), whose mothers received a standard diet, and Safflower group (SF), whose mothers received a normolipidic diet with safflower oil as lipid source. Treatment was given from the 14th day of gestation and throughout lactation. To evaluate newborn development, the reflex ontogeny indicators between the 1st and the 21st days of life were evaluated; to assess memory, from the 42nd day of life on these animals were examined on open field habituation and novel object recognition test. Following behavioral analysis, the animals were anesthetized and decapitated. Hippocampus was rapidly dissected. In the hippocampal tissues, we evaluated the levels of malondialdehyde (MDA), superoxide dismutase (SOD), catalase (CAT), glutathione S transferase (GST) and reduced glutathione (GSH).

RESULTS

SF offspring showed delayed maturation of reflexes and improvement of novel object recognition in short-term and long-term (p < 0.05). Safflower oil decreases lipid peroxidation evaluated by MDA levels (p < 0.001) and increases antioxidant defenses as shown by SOD, CAT, GST and GSH levels (p < 0.05). In our study, the composition of flavonoids present in the oil was not evaluated. Furthermore, in a future study, the effect of maternal consumption on female offspring should be verified.

CONCLUSION

Maternal intake of safflower oil could: (1) change neonate reflex parameters, (2) promote improvement of cognitive development in adolescence (3) improve antioxidant enzymatic and non-enzymatic defenses in the hippocampus.

Maternal nutritional risk factors for pre-eclampsia incidence: findings from a narrative scoping review

BACKGROUND

Pre-eclampsia is a leading cause of maternal mortality and morbidity that involves pregnancy-related stressors on the maternal cardiovascular and metabolic systems. As nutrition is important to support optimal development of the placenta and for the developing fetus, maternal diets may play a role in preventing pre-eclampsia. The purpose of this scoping review is to map the maternal nutritional deficiencies and imbalances associated with pre-eclampsia incidence and discuss evidence consistency and linkages with current understandings of the etiology of pre-eclampsia.

METHODS

A narrative scoping review was conducted to provide a descriptive account of available research, summarize research findings and identify gaps in the evidence base. Relevant observational studies and reviews of observational studies were identified in an iterative two-stage process first involving electronic database searches then more sensitive searches as familiarity with the literature increased. Results were considered in terms of their consistency of evidence, effect sizes and biological plausibility.

RESULTS

The review found evidence for associations between nutritional inadequacies and a greater risk of pre-eclampsia. These associations were most likely mediated through oxidative stress, inflammation, maternal endothelial dysfunction and blood pressure in the pathophysiology of pre-eclampsia. Maternal nutritional risk factors for pre-eclampsia incidence with the strongest consistency, effect and biological plausibility include vitamin C and its potential relationship with iron status, vitamin D (both on its own and combined with calcium and magnesium), and healthy dietary patterns featuring high consumption of fruits, vegetables, whole grains, fish, seafood and monounsaturated vegetable oils. Foods high in added sugar, such as sugary drinks, were associated with increased risk of pre-eclampsia incidence.

CONCLUSION

A growing body of literature highlights the involvement of maternal dietary factors in the development of pre-eclampsia. Our review findings support the need for further investigation into potential interactions between dietary factors and consideration of nutritional homeostasis and healthy dietary patterns. Further research is recommended to explore gestational age, potential non-linear relationships, dietary diversity and social, cultural contexts of food and meals.

A Tailored Lipid Supplement Restored Membrane Fatty Acid Composition and Ameliorates In Vitro Biological Features of Human Amniotic Epithelial Cells

Cell culture conditions influence several biological and biochemical features of stem cells (SCs), including the membrane lipid profile, thus limiting the use of SCs for cell therapy approaches. The present study aims to investigate whether the in vitro culture may alter the membrane fatty acid signature of human Amniotic Epithelial Cells (hAECs). The analysis of the membrane fatty acid composition of hAECs cultured in basal medium showed a loss in polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA), in particular in omega-6 (ω-6) content, compared to freshly isolated hAECs. The addition to the basal culture medium of a chemically defined and animal-free tailored lipid supplement, namely Refeed^®, partially restored the membrane fatty acid signature of hAECs. Although the amelioration of the membrane composition did not prolong hAECs culture lifespan, Refeed^® influenced cell morphology, counteracted the onset of senescence, and increased the migratory capacity as well as the ability of hAECs to inhibit Peripheral Blood Mononuclear Cell (PBMC) proliferation. This study provides new information on hAEC features during culture passages and demonstrates that the maintenance of the membrane fatty acid signature preserved higher cell quality during in vitro expansion, suggesting the use of lipid supplementation for SC expansion in cell-based therapies.

The Impact of Medium Chain and Polyunsaturated ω-3-Fatty Acids on Amyloid-β Deposition, Oxidative Stress and Metabolic Dysfunction Associated with Alzheimer's Disease

Alzheimer’s disease (AD), the most common cause of dementia in the elderly population, is closely linked to a dysregulated cerebral lipid homeostasis and particular changes in brain fatty acid (FA) composition. The abnormal extracellular accumulation and deposition of the peptide amyloid-β (Aβ) is considered as an early toxic event in AD pathogenesis, which initiates a series of events leading to neuronal dysfunction and death. These include the induction of neuroinflammation and oxidative stress, the disruption of calcium homeostasis and membrane integrity, an impairment of cerebral energy metabolism, as well as synaptic and mitochondrial dysfunction. Dietary medium chain fatty acids (MCFAs) and polyunsaturated ω-3-fatty acids (ω-3-PUFAs) seem to be valuable for disease modification. Both classes of FAs have neuronal health-promoting and cognition-enhancing properties and might be of benefit for patients suffering from mild cognitive impairment (MCI) and AD. This review summarizes the current knowledge about the molecular mechanisms by which MCFAs and ω-3-PUFAs reduce the cerebral Aβ deposition, improve brain energy metabolism, and lessen oxidative stress levels.

Temporal Changes in Breast Milk Fatty Acids Contents: A Case Study of Malay Breastfeeding Women

The composition of human breast milk changes in the first two months of life, adapting itself to the evolving needs of the growing new-born. Lipids in milk are a source of energy, essential fatty acids (FA), fat-soluble vitamins, and vital bioactive components. Information on breast milk FA of Malaysian lactating women is scarce. Based on convenience sampling, a total of 20 Malay breastfeeding women who fulfilled the inclusion criteria were recruited. Breast milk was collected three times from each subject at consecutive intervals of 2–3 weeks apart. A total of 60 breast milk samples were collected and classified into “transitional milk” (n = 8), “early milk” (n = 26) and “mature milk” (n = 26). All milk samples were air freighted to University of Groningen, Netherlands for analysis. The dominant breast milk FA were oleic acid, constituting 33% of total fatty acids, followed by palmitic acid (26%). Both these FA and the essential FA, linoleic acid (10%) and alpha-linolenic acid (0.4%), showed no significant changes from transitional to mature milk. Breast milk ratio of n-6:n-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) was comparatively high, exceeding 10 throughout the lactation period, suggesting a healthier balance of PUFA intake is needed in pregnancy and at postpartum.

Moderate High Caloric Maternal Diet Impacts Dam Breast Milk Metabotype and Offspring Lipidome in a Sex-Specific Manner

Lactation is a critical period during which maternal sub- or over-nutrition affect milk composition and offspring development that can have lasting health effects. The consequences of moderate high-fat, high-simple carbohydrate diet (WD) consumption by rat dams, during gestation and lactation, on milk composition and offspring blood lipidome and its growth, at weaning, were investigated by using a comprehensive lipidomic study on mass-spectrometric platform combined to targeted fatty- and free amino-acids analysis. This holistic approach allowed clear-cut differences in mature milk-lipidomic signature according to maternal diet with a similar content of protein, lactose and leptin. The lower WD-milk content in total fat and triglycerides (TGs), particularly in TGs-with saturated medium-chain, and higher levels in both sphingolipid (SL) and TG species with unsaturated long-chain were associated to a specific offspring blood-lipidome with decreased levels in TGs-containing saturated fatty acid (FA). The sexual-dimorphism in the FA-distribution in TG (higher TGs-rich in oleic and linoleic acids, specifically in males) and SL species (increased levels in very long-chain ceramides, specifically in females) could be associated with some differences that we observed between males and females like a higher total body weight gain in females and an increased preference for fatty taste in males upon weaning.

MAM and C99, key players in the pathogenesis of Alzheimer's disease

Inter-organelle communication is a rapidly-expanding field that has transformed our understanding of cell biology and pathology. Organelle-organelle contact sites can generate transient functional domains that act as enzymatic hubs involved in the regulation of cellular metabolism and intracellular signaling. One of these hubs is located in areas of the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) connected to mitochondria, called mitochondria-associated ER membranes (MAM). These MAM are transient lipid rafts intimately involved in cholesterol and phospholipid metabolism, calcium homeostasis, and mitochondrial function and dynamics. In addition, γ-secretase-mediated proteolysis of the amyloid precursor protein 99-aa C-terminal fragment (C99) to form amyloid β also occurs at the MAM. Our most recent data indicates that in Alzheimer's disease, increases in uncleaved C99 levels at the MAM provoke the upregulation of MAM-resident functions, resulting in the loss of lipid homeostasis, and mitochondrial dysfunction. Here, we discuss the relevance of these findings in the field, and the contribution of C99 and MAM dysfunction to Alzheimer's disease neuropathology.

Effects of Dietary Fat Profile on Gut Microbiota in Valproate Animal Model of Autism

Autism spectrum disorder (ASD) is a developmental disability which may cause significant social, communication, and behavioral challenges. Besides certain essential symptoms, a lot of ASD individuals also suffer the comorbidity of gut microbiota dysbiosis, which possibly causes a variety of gastrointestinal (GI) difficulties. Interestingly, evidence has indicated that behavioral output may be modulated through the communication between the central nervous system and gut microbiota via the gut-brain axis. Polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) and n-3 fatty acids (n-3 PUFA) are structurally and functionally crucial components for the brain, and the state of n-3 PUFAs also affects the gut microbiota. However, how varying intake ratios of n-3/n6 PUFAs affect the gut microbiota composition in ASDs is not well-understood. Pregnant female Wistar rats with intraperitoneal administration of valproate acid (VPA) at embryonic day (E) 12.5 and their male offspring were grouped and fed three diets: a control chow (VPA group), omega-3 deficient (A group), and n-3/n6 (1:5) diet (B group). The diet of pregnant female Wistar rats with intraperitoneal administration of saline and their male offspring was a control chow (normal group). Microbial composition and species abundance were investigated accordingly by the 16S rRNA gene-based metagenomics analysis on the fecal samples. Results showed that fecal microbial abundance was decreased because of VPA administration in the period of pregnancy, and the changing pattern of gut microbiota was similar to that reported in ASD patients. Furthermore, the n-3/n6 (1:5) diet increased the fecal microbial abundance and decreased the elevated Firmicutes. In conclusion, n-3/n6 PUFAs (1:5) diet supplementation may alter gut microbiota composition in VPA-exposed rats. This study put forward a new strategy for the intervention and treatment of autism by n-3/n-6 PUFAs ratio supplementation intakes.

The Kansas University DHA Outcomes Study (KUDOS) clinical trial: long-term behavioral follow-up of the effects of prenatal DHA supplementation

BACKGROUND

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) is a long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid that has been linked to improved vision and cognition in postnatal feeding studies and has been consistently associated with reduction of early preterm birth in prenatal supplementation trials. This is a report of the first long-term follow-up of infants from mothers receiving prenatal DHA supplementation in a US cohort.

OBJECTIVE

Our objective was to evaluate the efficacy of the prenatal supplementation on both global and granular longitudinal assessments of cognitive and behavioral development.

METHODS

In a randomized double-blind clinical trial, mothers received either 600 mg/d of DHA or a placebo beginning at 14.5 weeks of gestation and capsules were provided until delivery. Children from those pregnancies were followed by cognitive and behavioral assessments administered from 10 mo through 6 y of age. From 301 mothers in the initial study, ∼200 infants completed the longitudinal schedule.

RESULTS

Although this intervention had been shown to reduce high-risk pregnancies and improve visual attention in infants during the first year, only a few positive long-term effects of prenatal DHA supplementation emerged from analyses of this follow-up. Increases in maternal blood DHA during pregnancy were related to verbal and full scale intelligence quotient (IQ) scores at 5 and 6 y, but these effects disappeared after controlling for SES. Maternal blood DHA concentrations at delivery were unrelated to outcomes, although maternal DHA at enrollment was related to productive vocabulary at 18 mo.

CONCLUSIONS

Although prenatal DHA supplementation substantially reduced early preterm birth and improved visual attention in infancy in this sample, no consistent long-term benefits were observed into childhood. Increases in maternal blood DHA concentration in pregnancy were related to higher IQs but this effect was confounded with SES and disappeared when SES was statistically controlled. This trial was registered at http://www.clinicaltrials.gov as NCT00266825 and NCT02487771.

Brain Ageing, Cognition and Diet: A Review of the Emerging Roles of Food-Based Nootropics in Mitigating Age-related Memory Decline

BACKGROUND

Age-related cognitive decline has been suggested to result from an increase in the brain neuron loss, which is attributable to continued derangement of the brain's oxidant/ antioxidant balance. Increased oxidative stress and a concomitant decrease in the brain's antioxidant defense system have been associated with functional senescence and organismal ageing. However, nature has configured certain foods to be rich sources of nootropic agents, with research showing that increased consumption of such foods or food ingredients may be protective against ageing-related memory decline. This knowledge is becoming increasingly valuable in an era when the boundary that separates food from medicine is becoming blurred. In this review, we examine extant literature dealing with the impact of ageing on brain structure and function, with an emphasis on the roles of oxidative stress. Secondly, we review the benefits of food-based antioxidants with nootropic effects and/or food-based nootropic agents in mitigating memory decline; with a view to improving our understanding of likely mechanisms. We also highlight some of the limitations to the use of food-based nootropics and suggest ways in which they can be better employed in the clinical management of age-related cognitive decline.

CONCLUSION

While it is known that the human brain endures diverse insults in the process of ageing, food-based nootropics are likely to go a long way in mitigating the impacts of these insults. Further research is needed before we reach a point where food-based nootropics are routinely prescribed.

Maternal long chain polyunsaturated fatty acid status and pregnancy complications

Maternal nutrition plays a crucial role in influencing fetal growth and birth outcome. Any nutritional insult starting several weeks before pregnancy and during critical periods of gestation is known to influence fetal development and increase the risk for diseases during later life. Literature suggests that chronic adult diseases may have their origin during early life - a concept referred to as Developmental Origins of Health and Disease (DOHaD) which states that adverse exposures early in life "program" risks for later chronic disorders. Long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFA), mainly omega-6 and omega-3 fatty acids are known to have an effect on fetal programming. The placental supply of optimal levels of LCPUFA to the fetus during early life is extremely important for the normal growth and development of both placenta and fetus. Any alteration in placental development will result in adverse pregnancy outcome such as gestational diabetes mellitus (GDM), preeclampsia, and intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR). A disturbed materno-fetal LCPUFA supply is known to be linked with each of these pathologies. Further, a disturbed LCPUFA metabolism is reported to be associated with a number of metabolic disorders. It is likely that LCPUFA supplementation during early pregnancy may be beneficial in improving the health of the mother, improving birth outcome and thereby reducing the risk of diseases in later life.

Omega-3 fatty acids, lipids, and apoE lipidation in Alzheimer's disease: a rationale for multi-nutrient dementia prevention

In the last decade, it has become obvious that Alzheimer's disease (AD) is closely linked to changes in lipids or lipid metabolism. One of the main pathological hallmarks of AD is amyloid-β (Aβ) deposition. Aβ is derived from sequential proteolytic processing of the amyloid precursor protein (APP). Interestingly, both, the APP and all APP secretases are transmembrane proteins that cleave APP close to and in the lipid bilayer. Moreover, apoE4 has been identified as the most prevalent genetic risk factor for AD. ApoE is the main lipoprotein in the brain, which has an abundant role in the transport of lipids and brain lipid metabolism. Several lipidomic approaches revealed changes in the lipid levels of cerebrospinal fluid or in post mortem AD brains. Here, we review the impact of apoE and lipids in AD, focusing on the major brain lipid classes, sphingomyelin, plasmalogens, gangliosides, sulfatides, DHA, and EPA, as well as on lipid signaling molecules, like ceramide and sphingosine-1-phosphate. As nutritional approaches showed limited beneficial effects in clinical studies, the opportunities of combining different supplements in multi-nutritional approaches are discussed and summarized.

Fads3 modulates docosahexaenoic acid in liver and brain

Fatty acid desaturase 3 (FADS3) is the third member of the FADS gene cluster. FADS1 and FADS2 code for enzymes required for highly unsaturated fatty acid (HUFA) biosynthesis, but FADS3 function remains elusive. We generated the first Fads3 knockout (KO) mouse with an aim to characterize its metabolic phenotype and clues to in vivo function. All mice (wild type (WT) and KO) were fed facility rodent chow devoid of HUFA. No differences in overt phenotypes (survival, fertility, growth rate) were observed. Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA, 22:6n-3) levels in the brain of postnatal day 1 (P1) KO mice were lower than the WT (P < 0.05). The ratio of docosapentaenoic acid (DPA, 22:5n-3) to DHA in P1 KO liver was higher than in WT suggesting lower desaturase activity. Concomitantly, 20:4n-6 was lower but its elongation product 22:4n-6 was greater in the liver of P1 KO mice. P1 KO liver Fads1 and Fads2 mRNA levels were significantly downregulated whereas expression levels of elongation of very long chain 2 (Elovl2) and Elovl5 genes were upregulated compared to age-matched WT. No Δ13-desaturation of vaccenic acid was observed in liver or heart in WT mice expressing FADS3 as was reported in vitro. Taken together, the fatty acid compositional results suggest that Fads3 enhances liver-mediated 22:6n-3 synthesis to support brain 22:6n-3 accretion before and during the brain growth spurt.

APP Function and Lipids: A Bidirectional Link

Extracellular neuritic plaques, composed of aggregated amyloid-β (Aβ) peptides, are one of the major histopathological hallmarks of Alzheimer's disease (AD), a progressive, irreversible neurodegenerative disorder and the most common cause of dementia in the elderly. One of the most prominent risk factor for sporadic AD, carrying one or two aberrant copies of the apolipoprotein E (ApoE) ε4 alleles, closely links AD to lipids. Further, several lipid classes and fatty acids have been reported to be changed in the brain of AD-affected individuals. Interestingly, the observed lipid changes in the brain seem not only to be a consequence of the disease but also modulate Aβ generation. In line with these observations, protective lipids being able to decrease Aβ generation and also potential negative lipids in respect to AD were identified. Mechanistically, Aβ peptides are generated by sequential proteolytic processing of the amyloid precursor protein (APP) by β- and γ-secretase. The α-secretase appears to compete with β-secretase for the initial cleavage of APP, preventing Aβ production. All APP-cleaving secretases as well as APP are transmembrane proteins, further illustrating the impact of lipids on Aβ generation. Beside the pathological impact of Aβ, accumulating evidence suggests that Aβ and the APP intracellular domain (AICD) play an important role in regulating lipid homeostasis, either by direct effects or by affecting gene expression or protein stability of enzymes involved in the de novo synthesis of different lipid classes. This review summarizes the current literature addressing the complex bidirectional link between lipids and AD and APP processing including lipid alterations found in AD post mortem brains, lipids that alter APP processing and the physiological functions of Aβ and AICD in the regulation of several lipid metabolism pathways.

Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids critically regulate behaviour and gut microbiota development in adolescence and adulthood

BACKGROUND

Neurodevelopment is strongly influenced by maternal and early-postnatal diet. Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (n-3 PUFA) are vital structural and functional components of the developing brain. The gut microbiota is also influenced by n-3 PUFA status, however, little is known about the role of maternal and early-life n-3 PUFA intake on offspring gut microbiota development and subsequent interactions with central nervous system functioning and behavioural outcomes.

METHODS

Pregnant female C57BL/6 mice and their male offspring were fed a control (CON), omega-3 deficient (O3-) or omega-3 supplemented (O3+) diet. Cognitive, depressive and social behaviours were assessed through a battery of behaviour tests in the male offspring at both adolescence (week 4-5) and adulthood (week 11-13). Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA) activation was assessed by analysis of stress-induced corticosterone production. Fecal microbiota composition was analysed by 16S sequencing at both adolescent and adulthood. In addition, stimulated spleen cytokine levels were assessed.

RESULTS

n-3 PUFA interventions induced subtle changes in offspring early-life and adolescent behaviours, which were further evident in adulthood, such that O3- animals displayed impaired communication, social and depression-related behaviours and O3+ animals displayed enhanced cognition. O3- mice displayed an elevated Firmicutes:Bacteroidetes ratio and blunted systemic LPS responsiveness. Contrastingly, O3+ mice displayed greater fecal Bifidobacterium and Lactobacillus abundance and dampened HPA-axis activity.

CONCLUSIONS

Neurobehavioural development related to cognitive, anxiety and social behaviours, is highly dependent upon in utero and lifelong n-3 PUFA availability. In addition, neurobehavioural changes induced by altering n-3 PUFA status are closely associated with comprehensive alterations in gut microbiota composition, HPA-axis activity and inflammation.

Neural substrates and potential treatments for levodopa-induced dyskinesias in Parkinson's disease

Parkinson's disease (PD) is primarily a motor disorder that involves the gradual loss of motor function. Symptoms are observed initially in the extremities, such as hands and arms, while advanced stages of the disease can effect blinking, swallowing, speaking, and breathing. PD is a neurodegenerative disease, with dopaminergic neuronal loss occurring in the substantia nigra pars compacta, thus disrupting basal ganglia functions. This leads to downstream effects on other neurotransmitter systems such as glutamate, γ-aminobutyric acid, and serotonin. To date, one of the main treatments for PD is levodopa. While it is generally very effective, prolonged treatments lead to levodopa-induced dyskinesia (LID). LID encompasses a family of symptoms ranging from uncontrolled repetitive movements to sustained muscle contractions. In many cases, the symptoms of LID can cause more grief than PD itself. The purpose of this review is to discuss the possible clinical features, cognitive correlates, neural substrates, as well as potential psychopharmacological and surgical (including nondopaminergic and deep brain stimulation) treatments of LID.

Validity of a food frequency questionnaire to estimate long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid intake among Japanese women in early and late pregnancy

Background

The relative validity of food frequency questionnaires for estimating long-chain polyunsaturated fatty acid (LC-PUFA) intake among pregnant Japanese women is currently unclear. The aim of this study was to verify the external validity of a food frequency questionnaire, originally developed for non-pregnant adults, to assess the dietary intake of LC-PUFA using dietary records and serum phospholipid levels among Japanese women in early and late pregnancy.

Methods

A validation study involving 188 participants in early pregnancy and 169 participants in late pregnancy was conducted. Intake LC-PUFA was estimated using a food frequency questionnaire and evaluated using a 3-day dietary record and serum phospholipid concentrations in both early and late pregnancy.

Results

The food frequency questionnaire provided estimates of eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) intake with higher precision than dietary records in both early and late pregnancy. Significant correlations were observed for LC-PUFA intake estimated using dietary records in both early and late pregnancy, particularly for EPA and DHA (correlation coefficients ranged from 0.34 to 0.40, p < 0.0001). Similarly, high correlations for EPA and DHA in serum phospholipid composition were also observed in both early and late pregnancy (correlation coefficients ranged 0.27 to 0.34, p < 0.0001).

Conclusions

Our findings suggest that the food frequency questionnaire, which was originally designed for non-pregnant adults and was evaluated in this study against dietary records and biological markers, has good validity for assessing LC-PUFA intake, especially EPA and DHA intake, among Japanese women in early and late pregnancy.

Eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid increase the degradation of amyloid-β by affecting insulin-degrading enzyme

Omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFAs) have been proposed to be highly beneficial in Alzheimer's disease (AD). AD pathology is closely linked to an overproduction and accumulation of amyloid-β (Aβ) peptides as extracellular senile plaques in the brain. Total Aβ levels are not only dependent on its production by proteolytic processing of the amyloid precursor protein (APP), but also on Aβ-clearance mechanisms, including Aβ-degrading enzymes. Here we show that the omega-3 PUFAs eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA) and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) increase Aβ-degradation by affecting insulin-degrading enzyme (IDE), the major Aβ-degrading enzyme secreted into the extracellular space of neuronal and microglial cells. The identification of the molecular mechanisms revealed that EPA directly increases IDE enzyme activity and elevates gene expression of IDE. DHA also directly stimulates IDE enzyme activity and affects IDE sorting by increasing exosome release of IDE, resulting in enhanced Aβ-degradation in the extracellular milieu. Apart from the known positive effect of DHA in reducing Aβ production, EPA and DHA might ameliorate AD pathology by increasing Aβ turnover.

Dietary DHA supplementation causes selective changes in phospholipids from different brain regions in both wild type mice and the Tg2576 mouse model of Alzheimer's disease

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is of major concern in ageing populations and we have used the Tg2576 mouse model to understand connections between brain lipids and amyloid pathology. Because dietary docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) has been identified as beneficial, we compared mice fed with a DHA-supplemented diet to those on a nutritionally-sufficient diet. Major phospholipids from cortex, hippocampus and cerebellum were separated and analysed. Each phosphoglyceride had a characteristic fatty acid composition which was similar in cortex and hippocampus but different in the cerebellum. The biggest changes on DHA-supplementation were within ethanolamine phospholipids which, together with phosphatidylserine, had the highest proportions of DHA. Reciprocal alterations in DHA and arachidonate were found. The main diet-induced alterations were found in ethanolamine phospholipids, (and included their ether derivatives), as were the changes observed due to genotype. Tg mice appeared more sensitive to diet with generally lower DHA percentages when on the standard diet and higher relative proportions of DHA when the diet was supplemented. All four major phosphoglycerides analysed showed age-dependent decreases in polyunsaturated fatty acid contents. These data provide, for the first time, a detailed evaluation of phospholipids in different brain areas previously shown to be relevant to behaviour in the Tg2576 mouse model for AD. The lipid changes observed with genotype are consistent with the subtle alterations found in AD patients, especially for the ethanolamine phospholipid molecular species. They also emphasise the contrasting changes in fatty acid content induced by DHA supplementation within individual phospholipid classes.

Dietary Factors and Cognitive Decline

Cognitive decline is an increasingly important public health problem, with more than 100 million adults worldwide projected to develop dementia by 2050. Accordingly, there has been an increased interest in preventive strategies that diminish this risk. It has been recognized that lifestyle factors including dietary patterns, may be important in the prevention of cognitive decline and dementia in later life. Several dietary components have been examined, including antioxidants, fatty acids, and B vitamins. In addition, whole dietary eating plans, including the Mediterranean diet (MeDi), and the Dietary Approaches to Stop Hypertension (DASH) diet, with and without weight loss, have become areas of increasing interest. Although prospective epidemiological studies have observed that antioxidants, fatty acids, and B vitamins are associated with better cognitive functioning, randomized clinical trials have generally failed to confirm the value of any specific dietary component in improving neurocognition. Several randomized trials have examined the impact of changing 'whole' diets on cognitive outcomes. The MeDi and DASH diets offer promising preliminary results, but data are limited and more research in this area is needed.

Understanding the cholesterol metabolism-perturbing effects of docosahexaenoic acid by gas chromatography-mass spectrometry targeted metabonomic profiling

PURPOSE

Over the past few decades, docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) has gained special attention for management of cholesterol-associated metabolic disorders and neurodegenerative diseases such as Alzheimer's disease (AD) owing to its neuroprotective, anti-inflammatory and hypolipidemic properties. Several epidemiological studies have reported the effect of DHA in reducing the risk of developing AD by lowering cholesterol. Hypercholesterolemia is a pro-amyloidogenic factor influencing the enzymatic processing of amyloid-β precursor protein (AβPP) to toxic β-amyloid. However, the mechanism by which DHA modulates the cholesterol pathway has not been established. Thus, the objective of this study was to investigate the mechanism of regulation of cholesterol metabolism by DHA in an AβPP₆₉₅ overexpressing AD cell model.

METHODS

A gas chromatography/mass spectrometry method was developed and validated for the targeted profiling of 11 cholesterol metabolites in DHA-treated Chinese hamster ovary wild-type (CHO-wt) and AβPP₆₉₅ overexpressing (CHO-AβPP₆₉₅) cells. The differential metabolite profiles between DHA- and vehicle-treated groups were further analyzed using fold change values of the ratio of concentration of metabolites in CHO-AβPP₆₉₅ to CHO-wt cells. Effect of DHA on key rate-limiting enzymatic activities within the cholesterol pathway was established using biochemical assays.

RESULTS

Our results showed that DHA reduced the levels of key cholesterol anabolites and catabolites in CHO-AβPP₆₉₅ cells as compared to CHO-wt cells. Further enzymatic studies revealed that the cholesterol-lowering effect of DHA was mediated by regulating HMG-CoA reductase and squalene epoxidase enzyme activities.

CONCLUSION

We demonstrate for the first time the dual effects of DHA in inhibiting HMG-CoA reductase and squalene epoxidase and modulating the sterol biosynthesis axis of the cholesterol pathway in AβPP₆₉₅ overexpressing AD. Our novel findings underscore the potential of DHA as a multi-target hypocholesterolemic agent for the prophylaxis of AD and other cholesterol-associated diseases.

Metabotyping of docosahexaenoic acid - treated Alzheimer's disease cell model

Background

Despite the significant amount of work being carried out to investigate the therapeutic potential of docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) in Alzheimer’s disease (AD), the mechanism by which DHA affects amyloid-β precursor protein (AβPP)-induced metabolic changes has not been studied.

Objective

To elucidate the metabolic phenotypes (metabotypes) associated with DHA therapy via metabonomic profiling of an AD cell model using gas chromatography time-of-flight mass spectrometry (GC/TOFMS).

Methods

The lysate and supernatant samples of CHO-wt and CHO-AβPP₆₉₅ cells treated with DHA and vehicle control were collected and prepared for GC/TOFMS metabonomics profiling. The metabolic profiles were analyzed by multivariate data analysis techniques using SIMCA-P+ software.

Results

Both principal component analysis and subsequent partial least squares discriminant analysis revealed distinct metabolites associated with the DHA-treated and control groups. A list of statistically significant marker metabolites that characterized the metabotypes associated with DHA treatment was further identified. Increased levels of succinic acid, citric acid, malic acid and glycine and decreased levels of zymosterol, cholestadiene and arachidonic acid correlated with DHA treatment effect. DHA levels were also found to be increased upon treatment.

Conclusion

Our study shows that DHA plays a role in mitigating AβPP-induced impairment in energy metabolism and inflammation by acting on tricarboxylic acid cycle, cholesterol biosynthesis pathway and fatty acid metabolism. The perturbations of these metabolic pathways by DHA in CHO-wt and CHO-AβPP₆₉₅ cells shed further mechanistic insights on its neuroprotective actions.

Motor, mental and behavioral developments in infancy are associated with fatty acid pattern in breast milk and plasma of premature infants

The objective of this study was to investigate any association between infants' early development and PUFA concentrations in early breast milk and infants' plasma phospholipids at 44 weeks gestational age. Fifty-one premature infants were included. The quality of general movement was assessed at 3 months, and motor, mental and behavioral development at 3, 6, 10 and 18 months corrected age using Bayley's Scales of Infant Development (BSID-II). Linoleic acid, the major n-6/n-3 FA ratios, Mead acid and the EFA deficiency index in early breast milk were negatively associated with development up to 18 months of age. DHA and AA, respectively, in infants' plasma phospholipids was positively, but the AA/DHA ratio negatively, associated with development from 6 to 18 months of age. Our data suggest that the commonly found high n-6 concentration in breast milk is associated with less favorable motor, mental and behavioral development up to 18 months of age.

Post term dietary-induced changes in DHA and AA status relate to gains in weight, length, and head circumference in preterm infants

Preterms need supplementation with docosahexaenoic (DHA) and arachidonic (AA) acids to prevent steep postnatal declines. Associations between growth and erythrocyte (RBC) DHA and AA were studied in 139 preterms (51% male, gestational age 30.3±1.5 weeks, birth weight 1341±288g) fed human milk with breast milk fortifier or preterm formula until term, followed by postdischarge formula (PDF; n=52, 0.4% DHA, 0.4% AA), term formula (TF; n=41, 0.2% DHA, 0.2% AA), or human milk (HM; n=46). At six months, PDF resulted in higher RBC-DHA than TF and HM, while RBC-AA was higher than TF, but similar to HM. There were no between-group differences in growth between term and six months. RHC-DHA related positively with gain in weight and length and negatively with gain in head circumference. RBC-AA related positively with gain in head circumference and negatively with gain in weight and length. In conclusion, PDF with higher DHA and AA than TF may promote postnatal growth of preterms.

The potential role of small fish species in improving micronutrient deficiencies in developing countries: building evidence

OBJECTIVE

To build a comprehensive overview of the potential role of fish in improving nutrition with respect to certain micronutrient deficiencies in developing countries.

DESIGN

A comprehensive literature review was completed. For this the electronic library databases ASFA, CABD and Scopus were systematically searched and relevant references cited in these sources were carefully analysed. The search terms used were 'fish', 'small fish species', 'micronutrients', 'food-based strategies', 'fish consumption' and 'developing countries'. The quality of data on nutritional analyses was carefully reviewed and data that lacked proper information on methods, units and samples were excluded.

RESULTS

The evidence collected confirmed the high levels of vitamin A, Fe and Zn in some of the small fish species in developing countries. These small fish are reported to be more affordable and accessible than the larger fish and other usual animal-source foods and vegetables. Evidence suggests that these locally available small fish have considerable potential as cost-effective food-based strategies to enhance micronutrient intakes or as a complementary food for undernourished children. However, the present review shows that only a few studies have been able to rigorously assess the impact of fish consumption on improved nutritional status in developing countries.

CONCLUSIONS

Further research is required in areas such as determination of fish consumption patterns of poor households, the nutritional value of local fish and other aquatic animals and the impact of fish intake on improved nutritional status in developing countries where undernutrition is a major public health problem.

The influence of supplemental docosahexaenoic and arachidonic acids during pregnancy and lactation on neurodevelopment at eighteen months

Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) and arachidonic acid (AA) are important for neurodevelopment. The effects of DHA (220 mg/day, n=41), DHA+AA (220 mg/day, n=39) or placebo (n=34) during pregnancy and lactation on neurodevelopment at 18 months, and the relations between umbilical cord DHA, AA and Mead acid and neurodevelopment were studied. An age-specific, standardized neurological assessment for the evaluation of minor neurological dysfunction (MND), and the Bayley Scales of Infant Development (BSID) were used. The intervention did not influence any of the outcomes. Umbilical venous (UV) Mead acid was negatively and n-6 fatty acids were weakly positively associated to the BSID mental developmental index. Children with simple MND had lower UV DHA compared to normally classified children. We conclude that relatively short-term maternal DHA or DHA+AA supplementation does not influence neurodevelopment at toddler age, although some parameters of brain development are related to perinatal DHA and AA status.

Maternal arachidonic acid supplementation improves neurodevelopment in young adult offspring from rat dams with and without diabetes

Maternal diabetes may compromise infant arachidonic acid (AA) status and development. This study tested if maternal AA supplementation improves neurodevelopment in adult offspring. Rat dams were randomized into 6 groups: Saline-Placebo, streptozotocin-induced diabetes with glucose controlled at <13mmol/L, or poorly controlled at 13-20mmol/L using insulin; and fed either a Control or AA (0.5% fat) diet throughout reproduction. Weaned-offspring were fed regular chow to 12 weeks of age. Testing included exploratory behavior, rota rod and water maze (WM). Poorly controlled offspring showed longer (p≤0.018) escape-latency on testing-day 1 WM but not thereafter (p>0.05). Maternal glucose concentration positively correlated with (p=0.006) male offspring testing-day 1 WM latency. The AA-diet offspring performed better in WM and rota rod (p≤0.032) and showed higher exploratory behavior (p=0.008) than Control-diet offspring. These data suggest maternal hyperglycemia has longstanding consequences to initial stages of learning in the offspring. Maternal AA supplementation and training positively influence learning outcomes.

Increased preconception omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid intake improves embryo morphology

The association between preconception dietary intake of the polyunsaturated fatty acids (LC-PUFAs) omega-6 and omega-3 and the E(2) levels and IVF/intracytoplasmic sperm injection (ICSI) outcome were investigated in women in a prospective study. It revealed that high intakes of omega-3 LC-PUFA alpha-linolenic acid increase baseline E(2), high intakes of eicosapentaenoic acid and docosahexaenoic acid reduce E(2) response and the number of follicles after ovarian stimulation, and total omega-3 intake, in particular alpha-linolenic acid and docosahexaenoic acid, improve embryo morphology.

Neonatal and fetal exposure to trans-fatty acids retards early growth and adiposity while adversely affecting glucose in mice

Industrially produced trans-fatty acids (TFAs) consumed in Western diets are incorporated into maternal and fetal tissues and are passed linearly to offspring via breast milk. We hypothesized that TFA exposure in utero and during lactation in infants would promote obesity and poor glycemic control as compared with unmodified fatty acids. We further hypothesized that in utero exposure alone may program for these outcomes in adulthood. To test this hypothesis, we fed female C57/BL6 mice identical Western diets that differed only in cis- or trans-isomers of C18:1 and then aimed to determine whether maternal transfer of TFAs through pregnancy and lactation alters growth, body composition, and glucose metabolism. Mice were unexposed, exposed during pregnancy, during lactation, or throughout pregnancy and lactation to TFA. Body weight and composition (by computed tomography) and glucose metabolism were assessed at weaning and adulthood. Trans-fatty acid exposure through breast milk caused significant early growth retardation (P < .001) and higher fasting glucose (P = .01), but insulin sensitivity was not different. Elevated plasma insulin-like growth factor-1 in mice consuming TFA-enriched milk (P = .02) may contribute to later catch-up growth and leanness and preserved peripheral insulin sensitivity observed in these mice. Mice exposed to TFA in utero underwent rapid early neonatal growth with TFA-free breast milk and had significantly impaired insulin sensitivity (P < .05) and greater abdominal fat (P = .01). We conclude that very early catch-up growth resulted in impaired peripheral insulin sensitivity in this model of diet-related fetal and neonatal programming. Trans-fatty acid surprisingly retarded growth and adiposity while still adversely affecting glucose metabolism.

FADS1 FADS2 gene variants modify the association between fish intake and the docosahexaenoic acid proportions in human milk

BACKGROUND

The genes encoding Delta(5)- and Delta(6)-desaturases (FADS1 FADS2 gene cluster) were reported to be associated with n-3 (omega-3) and n-6 (omega-6) fatty acid proportions in human plasma, tissues, and milk. Docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) can be supplied especially by dietary fish or fish oil and synthesized from alpha-linolenic acid through a pathway involving these desaturases.

OBJECTIVE

We evaluated whether FADS gene variants modify the effect of maternal fish and fish-oil intake on plasma and milk DHA proportions.

DESIGN

FADS1 rs174561, FADS2 rs174575, and intergenic rs3834458 single nucleotide polymorphisms were genotyped in 309 women from the KOALA Birth Cohort Study in The Netherlands. Plasma was collected at 36 wk of pregnancy, and milk was collected at 1 mo postpartum. Fish and fish-oil intake was assessed by using a food-frequency questionnaire at 34 wk of pregnancy and updated for the week of milk collection. Gene-diet interactions were tested by linear regression analysis.

RESULTS

DHA proportions were lower in women homozygous for the minor allele than in women who were homozygous for the major allele (DHA proportions in plasma phospholipids: P < 0.01; DHA proportions in milk: P < 0.05). Fish intake ranged from 0 to 2.5 portions of fatty fish/wk, and 12 women took fish-oil supplements during pregnancy. DHA proportions in plasma phospholipids increased with increasing fish and fish-oil intake, irrespective of the genotype. DHA proportions in milk increased only with fish and fish-oil intake in the major-allele carriers.

CONCLUSION

Lower proportions of DHA in milk from women who were homozygous for the minor allele could not be compensated for by increasing fish and fish-oil intake, possibly because of limited incorporation into milk.

Serum phospholipid docosahexaenonic acid is associated with cognitive functioning during middle adulthood

Existing evidence links greater dietary intake of fish and (n-3) PUFA to better early brain development and lowered risk of cognitive disorders in late life. The mechanisms for these associations remain unclear and may be related to specific (n-3) fatty acids and may concern cognitive function generally rather than only early brain development and age-related cognitive dysfunction. In this investigation, we tested potential associations between (n-3) fatty acids in serum phospholipids and major dimensions of cognitive functioning in mid-life adults. Participants were 280 community volunteers between 35 and 54 y of age, free of major neuropsychiatric disorders, and not taking fish oil supplements. Dietary biomarkers were alpha-linolenic acid (ALA), eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenonic acid (DHA) in serum phospholipids measured using GC. Five major dimensions of cognitive functioning were assessed with a 75-min battery of neuropsychological tests. In covariate adjusted regression models, higher DHA (mol %) was related to better performance on tests of nonverbal reasoning and mental flexibility, working memory, and vocabulary (P <or= 0.05). These associations were generally linear. Associations between DHA and nonverbal reasoning and working memory persisted with additional adjustment for participant education and vocabulary scores (P <or= 0.05). Neither EPA nor ALA was notably related to any of the 5 tested dimensions of cognitive performance. Among the 3 key (n-3) PUFA, only DHA is associated with major aspects of cognitive performance in nonpatient adults <55 y old. These findings suggest that DHA is related to brain health throughout the lifespan and may have implications for clinical trials of neuropsychiatric disorders.

Maternal caloric restriction spares fetal brain polyunsaturated fatty acids in Wistar rats

There is increasing interest in the role of developmental programming; however, the impact on fetal oxidative stress and brain fatty acid levels has been relatively unexplored. Recent reports have shown that caloric restriction regimens in adult animals reduce the occurrence of chronic diseases by reducing the oxidative stress and altering the long chain polyunsaturated fatty acids (LCPUFA). The present study examined whether caloric restriction during pregnancy alters oxidative stress and essential fatty acid metabolism in mother and offspring at birth. Pregnant female rats were fed either a standard chow (C, n=7) or were calorie restricted (CR, n=7) by feeding 60% of the intake of the control. Oxidative stress marker (malondialdehyde) and polyunsaturated fatty acid profiles in brain and liver were analyzed in both dams and offspring. Total weight gain during pregnancy was lower (p<0.01) in the CR group as compared to the control group but did not affect the litter size and weight. Brain malondialdehyde levels were lower (p<0.05) in dams from the CR group. There was no change in brain and liver LCPUFA levels in both male and female offspring in the CR group. Most of the polyunsaturated fatty acids were reduced (p<0.05) in plasma and brain in the CR dams. Caloric restriction during pregnancy did not alter LCPUFA metabolism in the offspring suggesting that during maternal caloric restriction mothers own stores are mobilized to provide docosahexaenoic acid and arachidonic acid for fetal brain development.

Mildly abnormal general movement quality in infants is associated with higher Mead acid and lower arachidonic acid and shows a U-shaped relation with the DHA/AA ratio

We showed that docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) supplementation during pregnancy and lactation was associated with more mildly abnormal (MA) general movements (GMs) in the infants. Since this finding was unexpected and inter-individual DHA intakes are highly variable, we explored the relationship between GM quality and erythrocyte DHA, arachidonic acid (AA), DHA/AA and Mead acid in 57 infants of this trial. MA GMs were inversely related to AA, associated with Mead acid, and associated with DHA/AA in a U-shaped manner. These relationships may indicate dependence of newborn AA status on synthesis from linoleic acid. This becomes restricted during the intrauterine period by abundant de novo synthesis of oleic and Mead acids from glucose, consistent with reduced insulin sensitivity during the third trimester. The descending part of the U-shaped relation between MA GMs and DHA/AA probably indicates DHA shortage next to AA shortage. The ascending part may reflect a different developmental trajectory that is not necessarily unfavorable.

Can early intake of dietary omega-3 predict childhood externalizing behaviour?

AIM

To determine whether maternal and child intake of dietary omega-3 (n-3) fatty acids (FA), together with the presence or absence of breast-feeding, predicted psychiatric diagnosis of externalizing disorders in childhood.

METHODS

Data concerning childhood externalizing disorders were collected from 8242 children aged 7.9 years in a large British cohort. Intake of n-3 FA was measured for the study mother during pregnancy and for the child at 3 years. Duration of breast-feeding was examined to account for moderating effects. Adjustment was made for a variety of potential confounders.

RESULTS

Maternal intake of n-3 and breast-feeding predicted oppositional/conduct disorder and comorbid externalizing disorder before adjustment for confounding factors. However, there was no association between intake of n-3 by mother or child and any type of externalizing disorder once socio-demographic factors were taken into account.

CONCLUSIONS

Any association between intake of n-3 and childhood externalizing disorders appears to be strongly confounded with socio-demographic factors. This is important to note given the current popularity of n-3 as a possible treatment for behaviour problems related to inattention and impulsivity. Care must be taken that studies investigating this relationship account fully for factors associated with both behaviour and diet.