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Gemperli K, Folorunso F, Norin B, Joshua R, Hill C, Rykowski R, Galindo R, Aravamuthan BR. Mice born preterm develop gait dystonia and reduced cortical parvalbumin immunoreactivity. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2024:2024.02.01.578353. [PMID: 38352408 PMCID: PMC10862908 DOI: 10.1101/2024.02.01.578353] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/25/2024]
Abstract
Preterm birth leading to cerebral palsy (CP) is the most common cause of childhood dystonia, a movement disorder that is debilitating and often treatment refractory. Dystonia has been typically associated with dysfunction of striatal cholinergic interneurons, but clinical imaging data suggests that cortical injury may best predict dystonia following preterm birth. Furthermore, abnormal sensorimotor cortex inhibition has been found in many studies of non-CP dystonias. To assess the potential for a cortical etiology of dystonia following preterm birth, we developed a new model of preterm birth in mice. Noting that term delivery in mice on a C57BL/6J background is embryonic day 19.1 (E19.1), we induced preterm birth at the limits of pup viability at embryonic day (E) 18.3, equivalent to human 22 weeks gestation. Mice born preterm demonstrate display clinically validated metrics of dystonia during gait (leg adduction amplitude and variability) and also demonstrate reduced parvalbumin immunoreactivity in the sensorimotor cortex, suggesting dysfunction of cortical parvalbumin-positive inhibitory interneurons. Notably, reduced parvalbumin immunoreactivity or changes in parvalbumin-positive neuronal number were not observed in the striatum. These data support the association between cortical dysfunction and dystonia following preterm birth. We propose that our mouse model of preterm birth can be used to study this association and potentially also study other sequelae of extreme prematurity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kat Gemperli
- Department of Neurology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO
| | - Femi Folorunso
- Department of Neurology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO
| | - Benjamin Norin
- Department of Neurology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO
| | - Rebecca Joshua
- Department of Neurology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO
| | - Clayton Hill
- Department of Neurology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO
| | - Rachel Rykowski
- Department of Neurology, Washington University School of Medicine, St. Louis, MO
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2
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Lüttig A, Perl S, Zetsche M, Richter F, Franz D, Heerdegen M, Köhling R, Richter A. Short-term stimulations of the entopeduncular nucleus induce cerebellar changes of c-Fos expression in an animal model of paroxysmal dystonia. Brain Res 2024; 1823:148672. [PMID: 37956748 DOI: 10.1016/j.brainres.2023.148672] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2023] [Revised: 10/23/2023] [Accepted: 11/07/2023] [Indexed: 11/15/2023]
Abstract
Deep brain stimulation (DBS) of the globus pallidus internus (entopeduncular nucleus, EPN, in rodents) is important for the treatment of drug-refractory dystonia. The pathophysiology of this movement disorder and the mechanisms of DBS are largely unknown. Insights into the mechanisms of DBS in animal models of dystonia can be helpful for optimization of DBS and add-on therapeutics. We recently found that short-term EPN-DBS with 130 Hz (50 µA, 60 µs) for 3 h improved dystonia in dtsz hamsters and reduced spontaneous excitatory cortico-striatal activity in brain slices of this model, indicating fast effects on synaptic plasticity. Therefore, in the present study, we examined if these effects are related to changes of c-Fos, a marker of neuronal activity, in brains derived from dtsz hamsters after these short-term DBS or sham stimulations. After DBS vs. sham, c-Fos intensity was increased around the electrode, but the number of c-Fos+ cells was not altered within the whole EPN and projection areas (habenula, thalamus). DBS did not induce changes in striatal and cortical c-Fos+ cells as GABAergic (GAD67+ and parvalbumin-reactive) neurons in motor cortex and striatum. Unexpectedly, c-Fos+ cells were decreased in deep cerebellar nuclei (DCN) after DBS, suggesting that cerebellar changes may be involved in antidystonic effects already during short-term DBS. However, the present results do not exclude functional changes within the basal ganglia-thalamo-cortical network, which will be further investigated by long-term EPN stimulations. The present study indicates that the cerebellum deserves attention in ongoing examinations on the mechanisms of DBS in dystonia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anika Lüttig
- Institute of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Leipzig University, An den Tierkliniken 15, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Stefanie Perl
- Institute of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Leipzig University, An den Tierkliniken 15, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Maria Zetsche
- Institute of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Leipzig University, An den Tierkliniken 15, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Franziska Richter
- Institute of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Leipzig University, An den Tierkliniken 15, 04103 Leipzig, Germany; Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmacy, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Bünteweg 17, 30559 Hannover, Germany
| | - Denise Franz
- Oscar Langendorff Institute of Physiology, University Rostock, Gertrudenstraße 9, 18057 Rostock, Germany
| | - Marco Heerdegen
- Oscar Langendorff Institute of Physiology, University Rostock, Gertrudenstraße 9, 18057 Rostock, Germany
| | - Rüdiger Köhling
- Oscar Langendorff Institute of Physiology, University Rostock, Gertrudenstraße 9, 18057 Rostock, Germany
| | - Angelika Richter
- Institute of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Leipzig University, An den Tierkliniken 15, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.
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Franz D, Richter A, Köhling R. Electrophysiological insights into deep brain stimulation of the network disorder dystonia. Pflugers Arch 2023; 475:1133-1147. [PMID: 37530804 PMCID: PMC10499667 DOI: 10.1007/s00424-023-02845-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/24/2022] [Revised: 06/02/2023] [Accepted: 07/24/2023] [Indexed: 08/03/2023]
Abstract
Deep brain stimulation (DBS), a treatment for modulating the abnormal central neuronal circuitry, has become the standard of care nowadays and is sometimes the only option to reduce symptoms of movement disorders such as dystonia. However, on the one hand, there are still open questions regarding the pathomechanisms of dystonia and, on the other hand, the mechanisms of DBS on neuronal circuitry. That lack of knowledge limits the therapeutic effect and makes it hard to predict the outcome of DBS for individual dystonia patients. Finding electrophysiological biomarkers seems to be a promising option to enable adapted individualised DBS treatment. However, biomarker search studies cannot be conducted on patients on a large scale and experimental approaches with animal models of dystonia are needed. In this review, physiological findings of deep brain stimulation studies in humans and animal models of dystonia are summarised and the current pathophysiological concepts of dystonia are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Denise Franz
- Oscar Langendorff Institute of Physiology, University Medical Center Rostock, Rostock, Germany
| | - Angelika Richter
- Institute of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Toxicology, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Rüdiger Köhling
- Oscar Langendorff Institute of Physiology, University Medical Center Rostock, Rostock, Germany.
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4
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Schulz A, Richter F, Richter A. In vivo optogenetic inhibition of striatal parvalbumin-reactive interneurons induced genotype-specific changes in neuronal activity without dystonic signs in male DYT1 knock-in mice. J Neurosci Res 2023; 101:448-463. [PMID: 36546658 DOI: 10.1002/jnr.25157] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2022] [Revised: 10/30/2022] [Accepted: 12/10/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022]
Abstract
The pathophysiology of early-onset torsion dystonia (TOR1A/DYT1) remains unclear. Like 70% of human mutation carriers, rodent models with ΔGAG mutation such as DYT1 knock-in (KI) mice do not show overt dystonia but have subtle sensorimotor deficits and pattern of abnormal synaptic plasticity within the striatal microcircuits. There is evidence that dysfunction of striatal parvalbumin-reactive (Parv+) fast-spiking interneurons (FSIs) can be involved in dystonic signs. To elucidate the relevance of these GABAergic interneurons in the pathophysiology of DYT1 dystonia, we used in vivo optogenetics to specifically inhibit Parv+ and to detect changes in motor behavior and neuronal activity. Optogenetic fibers were bilaterally implanted into the dorsal striatum of male DYT1 KI mice and wild-type (WT) littermates expressing halorhodopsin (eNpHR3.0) in Parv+ interneurons. While stimulations with yellow light pulses for up to 60 min at different pulse durations and interval lengths did not induce abnormal movements, such as dystonic signs, immunohistochemical examinations revealed genotype-dependent differences. In contrast to WT mice, stimulated DYT1 KI showed decreased striatal neuronal activity, that is, less c-Fos reactive neurons, and increased activation of cholinergic interneurons after optogenetic inhibition of Parv+ interneurons. These findings suggest an involvement of Parv+ interneurons in an impaired striatal network in DYT1 KI mice, but at least short-term inhibition of these GABAergic interneurons is not sufficient to trigger a dystonic phenotype, similar to previously shown optogenetic activation of cholinergic interneurons.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anja Schulz
- Institute of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Franziska Richter
- Institute of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany.,Institute of Pharmacology, Toxicology and Pharmacy, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany
| | - Angelika Richter
- Institute of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
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Perl S, Bunnemann L, Schmäschke R, Daugschies A, Richter A. Fenbendazole treatment against Dentostomella translucida in Syrian golden hamsters. Exp Parasitol 2023; 245:108458. [PMID: 36592712 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2022.108458] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2022] [Revised: 12/13/2022] [Accepted: 12/30/2022] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
Abstract
Dentostomella translucida is an oxyurid nematode that was first discovered in the Mongolian gerbil but has also been detected in other wild and housed rodents. In conventional laboratory animals, oxyurid nematode parasites are widespread infections. A proven treatment strategy for pinworm eradication is the oral application of benzimidazoles, such as fenbendazole. In general, this drug is regarded as safe with minimal side effects. Nevertheless, in Sprague Dawley rats, a significantly reduced litter size could be seen after longer treatment with fenbendazole. Even though Dentostomella translucida was already described in Syrian golden hamsters (Mesocricetus auratus), data on treatment with fenbendazole and its effects on reproduction is lacking. Therefore, the main purposes of the study were (1) the verification of the effectiveness of fenbendazole as medicated feed (150 ppm) against this parasite in naturally infected Syrian golden hamsters in conventional husbandry and (2) monitoring of possible effects on reproduction during the treatment. Results show that fenbendazole treatment was highly effective against Dentostomella translucida, as numbers of pinworm eggs in the faeces were significantly reduced already after the first week of treatment in all animals. After four weeks of treatment, eggs were eradicated entirely. Interestingly, the average weaning weight was significantly reduced during treatment, but the litters were in good health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefanie Perl
- Institute of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Toxicology, Veterinary Faculty, Leipzig University, An Den Tierkliniken 15, 04103, Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Lea Bunnemann
- Institute of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Toxicology, Veterinary Faculty, Leipzig University, An Den Tierkliniken 15, 04103, Leipzig, Germany; Institute of Parasitology, Veterinary Faculty, Leipzig University, An Den Tierkliniken 35, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Ronald Schmäschke
- Institute of Parasitology, Veterinary Faculty, Leipzig University, An Den Tierkliniken 35, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Arwid Daugschies
- Institute of Parasitology, Veterinary Faculty, Leipzig University, An Den Tierkliniken 35, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Angelika Richter
- Institute of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Toxicology, Veterinary Faculty, Leipzig University, An Den Tierkliniken 15, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
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Becker S, Schulz A, Kreyer S, Dreßler J, Richter A, Helmschrodt C. Sensitive and simultaneous quantification of 16 neurotransmitters and metabolites in murine microdialysate by fast liquid chromatography-tandem mass spectrometry. Talanta 2023; 253:123965. [PMID: 36208557 DOI: 10.1016/j.talanta.2022.123965] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/02/2022] [Accepted: 09/21/2022] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
The sensitive and simultaneous measurement of multiple neurotransmitters in microdialysate (MD) of freely moving mice is a prerequisite to study neurochemical imbalances in specific brain regions. The quantitative analysis of 16 neurotransmitters and metabolites, including serotonin (5-HT), 5-hydroxyindoleacetic acid (5-HIAA), melatonin (ME), dopamine (DA), levodopa (l-DOPA), 3-methoxytyramine (3-MT), norepinephrine (NE), epinephrine (EP), homovanillinic acid (HVA), acetylcholine (ACh), deoxy carnitine (iso-ACh), choline (Ch), and ɣ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), adenosine (ADE), glutamine (Gln), and glutamic acid (Glu) was achieved within a chromatographic separation time of 6.5 min by the application of a biphenyl column coupled to an API-QTrap 5500 (AB SCIEX) mass spectrometer. Optimized chromatographic separation as well as high sensitivity allow the simultaneous analysis and precise quantification of 16 neurotransmitters and metabolites in artificial cerebrospinal fluid (CSF). Sample preparation procedure consisted of simply adding isotopically labeled internal standard solution to the microdialysis sample. The limits of detection in aCSF ranged from 0.025 pg (Ch) to 9.75 pg (Gln) and 85.5 pg (HVA) on column. Recoveries were between 83 and 111% for neurotransmitter concentrations from 0.6 to 45 ng/ml or 200 ng/ml with a mean intra-day and inter-day coefficient of variation of 7.6% and 11.2%, respectively. Basal extracellular concentrations of the following analytes: 5-HT, 5-HIAA, ME, DA, 3-MT, HVA, ACh, iso-ACh, Ch, GABA, ADE, Gln, and Glu were determined in the striatum of mice with a MD flow rate of 0.5 μl/min. This LC-MS/MS method leads to an accurate quantification of ACh and its isobaric structure iso-ACh, which were detected in the MD samples at ratios of 1:8.6. The main advantage of the high sensitivity is the miniaturization of the MD protocol with short sample collection times and volumes down to 5 μl, which makes this method suitable for pharmacological intervention and optogenetic studies to detect neurochemical changes in vivo.
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Affiliation(s)
- Susen Becker
- Institut of Legal Medicine, Department of Forensic Toxicology, University Leipzig, Germany
| | - Anja Schulz
- Institute of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Sophia Kreyer
- Institute of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Jan Dreßler
- Institut of Legal Medicine, Department of Forensic Toxicology, University Leipzig, Germany
| | - Angelika Richter
- Institute of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Christin Helmschrodt
- Institute of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany.
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7
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El Atiallah I, Bonsi P, Tassone A, Martella G, Biella G, Castagno AN, Pisani A, Ponterio G. Synaptic Dysfunction in Dystonia: Update From Experimental Models. Curr Neuropharmacol 2023; 21:2310-2322. [PMID: 37464831 PMCID: PMC10556390 DOI: 10.2174/1570159x21666230718100156] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/11/2022] [Revised: 12/05/2022] [Accepted: 12/12/2022] [Indexed: 07/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Dystonia, the third most common movement disorder, refers to a heterogeneous group of neurological diseases characterized by involuntary, sustained or intermittent muscle contractions resulting in repetitive twisting movements and abnormal postures. In the last few years, several studies on animal models helped expand our knowledge of the molecular mechanisms underlying dystonia. These findings have reinforced the notion that the synaptic alterations found mainly in the basal ganglia and cerebellum, including the abnormal neurotransmitters signalling, receptor trafficking and synaptic plasticity, are a common hallmark of different forms of dystonia. In this review, we focus on the major contribution provided by rodent models of DYT-TOR1A, DYT-THAP1, DYT-GNAL, DYT/ PARK-GCH1, DYT/PARK-TH and DYT-SGCE dystonia, which reveal that an abnormal motor network and synaptic dysfunction represent key elements in the pathophysiology of dystonia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ilham El Atiallah
- Laboratory of Neurophysiology and Plasticity, IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy
- Department of System Medicine, University of Rome Tor Vergata, Rome, Italy
| | - Paola Bonsi
- Laboratory of Neurophysiology and Plasticity, IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy
| | - Annalisa Tassone
- Laboratory of Neurophysiology and Plasticity, IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy
| | - Giuseppina Martella
- Laboratory of Neurophysiology and Plasticity, IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy
| | - Gerardo Biella
- Department of Biology and Biotechnology “L. Spallanzani”, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
| | - Antonio N. Castagno
- Department of Brain and Behavioral Sciences, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
- IRCCS Fondazione Mondino, Pavia, Italy
| | - Antonio Pisani
- Department of Brain and Behavioral Sciences, University of Pavia, Pavia, Italy
- IRCCS Fondazione Mondino, Pavia, Italy
| | - Giulia Ponterio
- Laboratory of Neurophysiology and Plasticity, IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy
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Deep brain stimulation in animal models of dystonia. Neurobiol Dis 2022; 175:105912. [DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2022.105912] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/16/2022] [Revised: 10/24/2022] [Accepted: 10/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
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9
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Abu-hadid O, Jimenez-Shahed J. An overview of the pharmacotherapeutics for dystonia: advances over the past decade. Expert Opin Pharmacother 2022; 23:1927-1940. [DOI: 10.1080/14656566.2022.2147823] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- O. Abu-hadid
- Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York City, NY
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10
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Santifort KM, Mandigers PJJ. Dystonia in veterinary neurology. J Vet Intern Med 2022; 36:1872-1881. [PMID: 36086931 DOI: 10.1111/jvim.16532] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/13/2022] [Accepted: 08/22/2022] [Indexed: 11/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Dystonia is a clinical sign and main feature of many movement disorders in humans as well as veterinary species. It is characterized by sustained or intermittent involuntary muscle contractions causing abnormal (often repetitive) movements, postures, or both. This review discusses the terminology and definition of dystonia, its phenomenology, and its pathophysiology, and provides considerations regarding the diagnosis and treatment of dystonia in dogs and cats. In addition, currently recognized or reported disorders in dogs and cats in which dystonia is a particular or main feature are discussed and comparisons are made between disorders featuring dystonia in humans and animals. We suggest that when describing the phenomenology of dogs and cats with dystonia, if possible the following should be included: activity being performed at onset (e.g., resting or running or exercise-induced), body distribution, duration, responsiveness (subjective), severity, temporal pattern (i.e., paroxysmal or persistent, severity at onset and at later stages), presence or absence of autonomic signs (e.g., salivation), presence or absence of preceding signs (e.g., restlessness), presence or absence of signs after dystonia subsides (e.g., sleepiness), coexistence of other movement disorders, any other neurological manifestations, and possible links to administered medications, intoxications or other associated factors. We also suggest that dystonia be classified based on its etiology as either structural genetic, suspected genetic, reactive, or unknown.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Paul J J Mandigers
- Evidensia Referral Hospitals, Arnhem, The Netherlands.,Department of Clinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Utrecht University, Utrecht, The Netherlands
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Xing H, Yokoi F, Walker AL, Torres-Medina R, Liu Y, Li Y. Electrophysiological characterization of the striatal cholinergic interneurons in Dyt1 ΔGAG knock-in mice. DYSTONIA 2022; 1:10557. [PMID: 36329866 PMCID: PMC9629210 DOI: 10.3389/dyst.2022.10557] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
DYT1 dystonia is an inherited early-onset movement disorder characterized by sustained muscle contractions causing twisting, repetitive movements, and abnormal postures. Most DYT1 patients have a heterozygous trinucleotide GAG deletion mutation (ΔGAG) in DYT1/TOR1A, coding for torsinA. Dyt1 heterozygous ΔGAG knock-in (KI) mice show motor deficits and reduced striatal dopamine receptor 2 (D2R). Striatal cholinergic interneurons (ChIs) are essential in regulating striatal motor circuits. Multiple dystonia rodent models, including KI mice, show altered ChI firing and modulation. However, due to the errors in assigning KI mice, it is essential to replicate these findings in genetically confirmed KI mice. Here, we found irregular and decreased spontaneous firing frequency in the acute brain slices from Dyt1 KI mice. Quinpirole, a D2R agonist, showed less inhibitory effect on the spontaneous ChI firing in Dyt1 KI mice, suggesting decreased D2R function on the striatal ChIs. On the other hand, a muscarinic receptor agonist, muscarine, inhibited the ChI firing in both wild-type (WT) and Dyt1 KI mice. Trihexyphenidyl, a muscarinic acetylcholine receptor M1 antagonist, had no significant effect on the firing. Moreover, the resting membrane property and functions of hyperpolarization-activated cyclic nucleotide-gated (HCN) channels, μ-opioid receptors, and large-conductance calcium-activated potassium (BK) channels were unaffected in Dyt1 KI mice. The results suggest that the irregular and low-frequency firing and decreased D2R function are the main alterations of striatal ChIs in Dyt1 KI mice. These results appear consistent with the reduced dopamine release and high striatal acetylcholine tone in the previous reports.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hong Xing
- Norman Fixel Institute of Neurological Diseases and Department of Neurology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610-0236, USA
| | - Fumiaki Yokoi
- Norman Fixel Institute of Neurological Diseases and Department of Neurology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610-0236, USA
| | - Ariel Luz Walker
- Norman Fixel Institute of Neurological Diseases and Department of Neurology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610-0236, USA
| | - Rosemarie Torres-Medina
- Norman Fixel Institute of Neurological Diseases and Department of Neurology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610-0236, USA
| | - Yuning Liu
- Norman Fixel Institute of Neurological Diseases and Department of Neurology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610-0236, USA
| | - Yuqing Li
- Norman Fixel Institute of Neurological Diseases and Department of Neurology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610-0236, USA
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12
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Rauschenberger L, Knorr S, Pisani A, Hallett M, Volkmann J, Ip CW. Second hit hypothesis in dystonia: Dysfunctional cross talk between neuroplasticity and environment? Neurobiol Dis 2021; 159:105511. [PMID: 34537328 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2021.105511] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/18/2021] [Revised: 09/10/2021] [Accepted: 09/14/2021] [Indexed: 01/08/2023] Open
Abstract
One of the great mysteries in dystonia pathophysiology is the role of environmental factors in disease onset and development. Progress has been made in defining the genetic components of dystonic syndromes, still the mechanisms behind the discrepant relationship between dystonic genotype and phenotype remain largely unclear. Within this review, the preclinical and clinical evidence for environmental stressors as disease modifiers in dystonia pathogenesis are summarized and critically evaluated. The potential role of extragenetic factors is discussed in monogenic as well as adult-onset isolated dystonia. The available clinical evidence for a "second hit" is analyzed in light of the reduced penetrance of monogenic dystonic syndromes and put into context with evidence from animal and cellular models. The contradictory studies on adult-onset dystonia are discussed in detail and backed up by evidence from animal models. Taken together, there is clear evidence of a gene-environment interaction in dystonia, which should be considered in the continued quest to unravel dystonia pathophysiology.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Rauschenberger
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital of Würzburg, Josef-Schneider-Straße 11, 97080 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Susanne Knorr
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital of Würzburg, Josef-Schneider-Straße 11, 97080 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Antonio Pisani
- Department of Brain and Behavioral Sciences, University of Pavia, Italy; IRCCS Mondino Foundation, Pavia, Italy
| | - Mark Hallett
- Human Motor Control Section, Medical Neurology Branch, National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health, Bethesda, MD, USA
| | - Jens Volkmann
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital of Würzburg, Josef-Schneider-Straße 11, 97080 Würzburg, Germany
| | - Chi Wang Ip
- Department of Neurology, University Hospital of Würzburg, Josef-Schneider-Straße 11, 97080 Würzburg, Germany.
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13
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Yokoi F, Chen HX, Oleas J, Dang MT, Xing H, Dexter KM, Li Y. Characterization of the direct pathway in Dyt1 ΔGAG heterozygous knock-in mice and dopamine receptor 1-expressing-cell-specific Dyt1 conditional knockout mice. Behav Brain Res 2021; 411:113381. [PMID: 34038798 PMCID: PMC8323984 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2021.113381] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2020] [Revised: 04/29/2021] [Accepted: 05/21/2021] [Indexed: 10/21/2022]
Abstract
DYT1 dystonia is a movement disorder mainly caused by a trinucleotide deletion (ΔGAG) in DYT1 (TOR1A), coding for torsinA. DYT1 dystonia patients show trends of decreased striatal ligand-binding activities to dopamine receptors 1 (D1R) and 2 (D2R). Dyt1 ΔGAG knock-in (KI) mice, which have the corresponding ΔGAG deletion, similarly exhibit reduced striatal D1R and D2R-binding activities and their expression levels. While the consequences of D2R reduction have been well characterized, relatively little is known about the effect of D1R reduction. Here, locomotor responses to D1R and D2R antagonists were examined in Dyt1 KI mice. Dyt1 KI mice showed significantly less responsiveness to both D1R antagonist SCH 23390 and D2R antagonist raclopride. The electrophysiological recording indicated that Dyt1 KI mice showed a significantly increased paired-pulse ratio of the striatal D1R-expressing medium spiny neurons and altered miniature excitatory postsynaptic currents. To analyze the in vivo torsinA function in the D1R-expressing neurons further, Dyt1 conditional knockout (Dyt1 d1KO) mice in these neurons were generated. Dyt1 d1KO mice had decreased spontaneous locomotor activity and reduced numbers of slips in the beam-walking test. Dyt1 d1KO male mice showed abnormal gait. Dyt1 d1KO mice showed defective striatal D1R maturation. Moreover, the mutant striatal D1R-expressing medium spiny neurons had increased capacitance, decreased sEPSC frequency, and reduced intrinsic excitability. The results suggest that torsinA in the D1R-expressing cells plays an important role in the electrophysiological function and motor performance. Medical interventions to the direct pathway may affect the onset and symptoms of this disorder.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fumiaki Yokoi
- Norman Fixel Institute for Neurological Diseases, McKnight Brain Institute, and Department of Neurology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610-0236, USA.
| | - Huan-Xin Chen
- Norman Fixel Institute for Neurological Diseases, McKnight Brain Institute, and Department of Neurology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610-0236, USA
| | - Janneth Oleas
- Norman Fixel Institute for Neurological Diseases, McKnight Brain Institute, and Department of Neurology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610-0236, USA
| | - Mai Tu Dang
- Norman Fixel Institute for Neurological Diseases, McKnight Brain Institute, and Department of Neurology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610-0236, USA
| | - Hong Xing
- Norman Fixel Institute for Neurological Diseases, McKnight Brain Institute, and Department of Neurology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610-0236, USA
| | - Kelly M Dexter
- Norman Fixel Institute for Neurological Diseases, McKnight Brain Institute, and Department of Neurology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610-0236, USA
| | - Yuqing Li
- Norman Fixel Institute for Neurological Diseases, McKnight Brain Institute, and Department of Neurology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, 32610-0236, USA.
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14
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Yokoi F, Dang MT, Zhang L, Dexter KM, Efimenko I, Krishnaswamy S, Villanueva M, Misztal CI, Gerard M, Lynch P, Li Y. Reversal of motor-skill transfer impairment by trihexyphenidyl and reduction of dorsolateral striatal cholinergic interneurons in Dyt1 ΔGAG knock-in mice. IBRO Neurosci Rep 2021; 11:1-7. [PMID: 34189496 PMCID: PMC8215213 DOI: 10.1016/j.ibneur.2021.05.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2021] [Revised: 03/06/2021] [Accepted: 05/31/2021] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
DYT-TOR1A or DYT1 early-onset generalized dystonia is an inherited movement disorder characterized by sustained muscle contractions causing twisting, repetitive movements, or abnormal postures. The majority of the DYT1 dystonia patients have a trinucleotide GAG deletion in DYT1/TOR1A. Trihexyphenidyl (THP), an antagonist for excitatory muscarinic acetylcholine receptor M1, is commonly used to treat dystonia. Dyt1 heterozygous ΔGAG knock-in (KI) mice, which have the corresponding mutation, exhibit impaired motor-skill transfer. Here, the effect of THP injection during the treadmill training period on the motor-skill transfer to the accelerated rotarod performance was examined. THP treatment reversed the motor-skill transfer impairment in Dyt1 KI mice. Immunohistochemistry showed that Dyt1 KI mice had a significant reduction of the dorsolateral striatal cholinergic interneurons. In contrast, Western blot analysis showed no significant alteration in the expression levels of the striatal enzymes and transporters involved in the acetylcholine metabolism. The results suggest a functional alteration of the cholinergic system underlying the impairment of motor-skill transfer and the pathogenesis of DYT1 dystonia. Training with THP in a motor task may improve another motor skill performance in DYT1 dystonia.
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Key Words
- ACh, acetylcholine
- AChE, acetylcholinesterase
- BSA, bovine serum albumin
- CI, confidence interval
- ChAT, choline acetyltransferase
- ChI, cholinergic interneuron
- ChT, choline transporter
- Cholinergic interneuron
- DAB, 3,3′-diaminobenzidine
- DF, degrees of freedom
- Dystonia
- Dyt1 KI mice, Dyt1 ΔGAG heterozygous knock-in mice
- GAPDH, Glyceraldehyde-3-phosphate dehydrogenase
- KO, knockout
- LTD, long-term depression
- Motor learning
- PB, phosphate buffer
- PBS, phosphate-buffered saline
- PET, positron emission tomography
- Rotarod
- THP, trihexyphenidyl
- TOR1A
- TorsinA
- TrkA, tropomyosin receptor kinase A
- VAChT, vesicular acetylcholine transporter
- WT, wild-type
- n.s., not significant
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Affiliation(s)
- Fumiaki Yokoi
- Norman Fixel Institute of Neurological Diseases, McKnight Brain Institute, and Department of Neurology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610-0236, USA
| | - Mai Tu Dang
- Division of Neurology, Children's Hospital of Philadelphia, Philadelphia, PA 19104, USA
| | - Lin Zhang
- Norman Fixel Institute of Neurological Diseases, McKnight Brain Institute, and Department of Neurology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610-0236, USA.,Department of Biomedical Sciences, Center for Brain Repair, Florida State University College of Medicine, Tallahassee, FL, USA
| | - Kelly M Dexter
- Norman Fixel Institute of Neurological Diseases, McKnight Brain Institute, and Department of Neurology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610-0236, USA
| | - Iakov Efimenko
- Norman Fixel Institute of Neurological Diseases, McKnight Brain Institute, and Department of Neurology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610-0236, USA
| | - Shiv Krishnaswamy
- Norman Fixel Institute of Neurological Diseases, McKnight Brain Institute, and Department of Neurology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610-0236, USA
| | - Matthew Villanueva
- Norman Fixel Institute of Neurological Diseases, McKnight Brain Institute, and Department of Neurology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610-0236, USA
| | - Carly I Misztal
- Norman Fixel Institute of Neurological Diseases, McKnight Brain Institute, and Department of Neurology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610-0236, USA
| | - Malinda Gerard
- Norman Fixel Institute of Neurological Diseases, McKnight Brain Institute, and Department of Neurology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610-0236, USA
| | - Patrick Lynch
- Norman Fixel Institute of Neurological Diseases, McKnight Brain Institute, and Department of Neurology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610-0236, USA
| | - Yuqing Li
- Norman Fixel Institute of Neurological Diseases, McKnight Brain Institute, and Department of Neurology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32610-0236, USA
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15
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Mencacci NE, Brockmann MM, Dai J, Pajusalu S, Atasu B, Campos J, Pino G, Gonzalez-Latapi P, Patzke C, Schwake M, Tucci A, Pittman A, Simon-Sanchez J, Carvill GL, Balint B, Wiethoff S, Warner TT, Papandreou A, Soo A, Rein R, Kadastik-Eerme L, Puusepp S, Reinson K, Tomberg T, Hanagasi H, Gasser T, Bhatia KP, Kurian MA, Lohmann E, Õunap K, Rosenmund C, Südhof TC, Wood NW, Krainc D, Acuna C. Biallelic variants in TSPOAP1, encoding the active-zone protein RIMBP1, cause autosomal recessive dystonia. J Clin Invest 2021; 131:140625. [PMID: 33539324 DOI: 10.1172/jci140625] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/27/2020] [Accepted: 02/03/2021] [Indexed: 12/27/2022] Open
Abstract
Dystonia is a debilitating hyperkinetic movement disorder, which can be transmitted as a monogenic trait. Here, we describe homozygous frameshift, nonsense, and missense variants in TSPOAP1, which encodes the active-zone RIM-binding protein 1 (RIMBP1), as a genetic cause of autosomal recessive dystonia in 7 subjects from 3 unrelated families. Subjects carrying loss-of-function variants presented with juvenile-onset progressive generalized dystonia, associated with intellectual disability and cerebellar atrophy. Conversely, subjects carrying a pathogenic missense variant (p.Gly1808Ser) presented with isolated adult-onset focal dystonia. In mice, complete loss of RIMBP1, known to reduce neurotransmission, led to motor abnormalities reminiscent of dystonia, decreased Purkinje cell dendritic arborization, and reduced numbers of cerebellar synapses. In vitro analysis of the p.Gly1808Ser variant showed larger spike-evoked calcium transients and enhanced neurotransmission, suggesting that RIMBP1-linked dystonia can be caused by either reduced or enhanced rates of spike-evoked release in relevant neural networks. Our findings establish a direct link between dysfunction of the presynaptic active zone and dystonia and highlight the critical role played by well-balanced neurotransmission in motor control and disease pathogenesis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Niccolò E Mencacci
- Ken and Ruth Davee Department of Neurology and Simpson Querrey Center for Neurogenetics, Northwestern University, Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois, USA.,Department of Clinical and Movement Neurosciences, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, London, United Kingdom
| | - Marisa M Brockmann
- Institute of Neurophysiology, Charité Universitätsmedizin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Jinye Dai
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Physiology and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Sander Pajusalu
- Department of Clinical Genetics, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia.,Department of Clinical Genetics, United Laboratories, Tartu University Hospital, Tartu, Estonia.,Department of Genetics, Yale School of Medicine, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Burcu Atasu
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE)-Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.,Center of Neurology, Department of Neurodegeneration, Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Joaquin Campos
- Chica and Heinz Schaller Foundation, Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, and
| | - Gabriela Pino
- Chica and Heinz Schaller Foundation, Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, and
| | - Paulina Gonzalez-Latapi
- Ken and Ruth Davee Department of Neurology and Simpson Querrey Center for Neurogenetics, Northwestern University, Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Christopher Patzke
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Physiology and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Michael Schwake
- Ken and Ruth Davee Department of Neurology and Simpson Querrey Center for Neurogenetics, Northwestern University, Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Arianna Tucci
- Department of Clinical and Movement Neurosciences, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, London, United Kingdom
| | - Alan Pittman
- Department of Clinical and Movement Neurosciences, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, London, United Kingdom
| | - Javier Simon-Sanchez
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE)-Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.,Center of Neurology, Department of Neurodegeneration, Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Gemma L Carvill
- Ken and Ruth Davee Department of Neurology and Simpson Querrey Center for Neurogenetics, Northwestern University, Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Bettina Balint
- Department of Clinical and Movement Neurosciences, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, London, United Kingdom.,Department of Neurology, Heidelberg University Hospital, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Sarah Wiethoff
- Department of Clinical and Movement Neurosciences, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, London, United Kingdom.,Center of Neurology, Department of Neurodegeneration, Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.,Klinik für Neurologie mit Institut für Translationale Neurologie, Albert Schweitzer Campus 1, Gebäude A1, Münster, Germany
| | - Thomas T Warner
- Department of Clinical and Movement Neurosciences, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, London, United Kingdom.,Reta Lila Weston Institute of Neurological Studies, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, London, United Kingdom
| | - Apostolos Papandreou
- Molecular Neurosciences, Developmental Neurosciences, UCL Institute of Child Health, London, United Kingdom.,Department of Neurology, Great Ormond Street Hospital, London, United Kingdom
| | - Audrey Soo
- Molecular Neurosciences, Developmental Neurosciences, UCL Institute of Child Health, London, United Kingdom.,Department of Neurology, Great Ormond Street Hospital, London, United Kingdom
| | | | | | - Sanna Puusepp
- Department of Clinical Genetics, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia.,Department of Clinical Genetics, United Laboratories, Tartu University Hospital, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Karit Reinson
- Department of Clinical Genetics, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia.,Department of Clinical Genetics, United Laboratories, Tartu University Hospital, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Tiiu Tomberg
- Radiology Clinic, Tartu University Hospital, Tartu, Estonia
| | - Hasmet Hanagasi
- Behavioural Neurology and Movement Disorders Unit, Department of Neurology, Istanbul Faculty of Medicine, Istanbul University, Istanbul, Turkey
| | - Thomas Gasser
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE)-Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.,Center of Neurology, Department of Neurodegeneration, Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Kailash P Bhatia
- Department of Clinical and Movement Neurosciences, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, London, United Kingdom
| | - Manju A Kurian
- Reta Lila Weston Institute of Neurological Studies, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, London, United Kingdom.,Molecular Neurosciences, Developmental Neurosciences, UCL Institute of Child Health, London, United Kingdom
| | - Ebba Lohmann
- German Center for Neurodegenerative Diseases (DZNE)-Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany.,Center of Neurology, Department of Neurodegeneration, Hertie Institute for Clinical Brain Research, University of Tübingen, Tübingen, Germany
| | - Katrin Õunap
- Department of Clinical Genetics, Institute of Clinical Medicine, University of Tartu, Tartu, Estonia.,Department of Clinical Genetics, United Laboratories, Tartu University Hospital, Tartu, Estonia
| | | | - Thomas C Südhof
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Physiology and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, USA
| | - Nicholas W Wood
- Department of Clinical and Movement Neurosciences, UCL Queen Square Institute of Neurology, London, United Kingdom
| | - Dimitri Krainc
- Ken and Ruth Davee Department of Neurology and Simpson Querrey Center for Neurogenetics, Northwestern University, Feinberg School of Medicine, Chicago, Illinois, USA
| | - Claudio Acuna
- Department of Cellular and Molecular Physiology and Howard Hughes Medical Institute, Stanford University School of Medicine, Stanford, California, USA.,Chica and Heinz Schaller Foundation, Institute of Anatomy and Cell Biology, and
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16
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Alteration of the cholinergic system and motor deficits in cholinergic neuron-specific Dyt1 knockout mice. Neurobiol Dis 2021; 154:105342. [PMID: 33757902 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2021.105342] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/18/2019] [Revised: 03/11/2021] [Accepted: 03/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Dystonia is a neurological movement disorder characterized by sustained or intermittent muscle contractions, repetitive movement, and sometimes abnormal postures. DYT1 dystonia is one of the most common genetic dystonias, and most patients carry heterozygous DYT1 ∆GAG mutations causing a loss of a glutamic acid of the protein torsinA. Patients can be treated with anticholinergics, such as trihexyphenidyl, suggesting an abnormal cholinergic state. Early work on the cell-autonomous effects of Dyt1 deletion with ChI-specific Dyt1 conditional knockout mice (Dyt1 Ch1KO) revealed abnormal electrophysiological responses of striatal ChIs to muscarine and quinpirole, motor deficits, and no changes in the number or size of the ChIs. However, the Chat-cre line that was used to derive Dyt1 Ch1KO mice contained a neomycin cassette and was reported to have ectopic cre-mediated recombination. In this study, we generated a Dyt1 Ch2KO mouse line by removing the neomycin cassette in Dyt1 Ch1KO mice. The Dyt1 Ch2KO mice showed abnormal paw clenching behavior, motor coordination and balance deficits, impaired motor learning, reduced striatal choline acetyltransferase protein level, and a reduced number of striatal ChIs. Furthermore, the mutant striatal ChIs had a normal muscarinic inhibitory function, impaired quinpirole-mediated inhibition, and altered current density. Our findings demonstrate a cell-autonomous effect of Dyt1 deletion on the striatal ChIs and a critical role for the striatal ChIs and corticostriatal pathway in the pathogenesis of DYT1 dystonia.
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17
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Liu Y, Xing H, Yokoi F, Vaillancourt DE, Li Y. Investigating the role of striatal dopamine receptor 2 in motor coordination and balance: Insights into the pathogenesis of DYT1 dystonia. Behav Brain Res 2021; 403:113137. [PMID: 33476687 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2021.113137] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/08/2020] [Revised: 12/29/2020] [Accepted: 01/13/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
DYT1 or DYT-TOR1A dystonia is early-onset, generalized dystonia. Most DYT1 dystonia patients have a heterozygous trinucleotide GAG deletion in DYT1 or TOR1A gene, with a loss of a glutamic acid residue of the protein torsinA. DYT1 dystonia patients show reduced striatal dopamine D2 receptor (D2R) binding activity. We previously reported reduced striatal D2R proteins and impaired corticostriatal plasticity in Dyt1 ΔGAG heterozygous knock-in (Dyt1 KI) mice. It remains unclear how the D2R reduction contributes to the pathogenesis of DYT1 dystonia. Recent knockout studies indicate that D2R on cholinergic interneurons (Chls) has a significant role in corticostriatal plasticity, while D2R on medium spiny neurons (MSNs) plays a minor role. To determine how reduced D2Rs on ChIs and MSNs affect motor performance, we generated ChI- or MSN-specific D2R conditional knockout mice (Drd2 ChKO or Drd2 sKO). The striatal ChIs in the Drd2 ChKO mice showed an increased firing frequency and impaired quinpirole-induced inhibition, suggesting a reduced D2R function on the ChIs. Drd2 ChKO mice had an age-dependent deficient performance on the beam-walking test similar to the Dyt1 KI mice. The Drd2 sKO mice, conversely, had a deficit on the rotarod but not the beam-walking test. Our findings suggest that D2Rs on Chls and MSNs have critical roles in motor control and balance. The similarity of the beam-walking deficit between the Drd2 ChKO and Dyt1 KI mice supports our earlier notion that D2R reduction on striatal ChIs contributes to the pathophysiology and the motor symptoms of DYT1 dystonia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuning Liu
- Norman Fixel Institute for Neurological Diseases, Department of Neurology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States; Genetics Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Hong Xing
- Norman Fixel Institute for Neurological Diseases, Department of Neurology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Fumiaki Yokoi
- Norman Fixel Institute for Neurological Diseases, Department of Neurology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - David E Vaillancourt
- Department of Applied Physiology and Kinesiology, Biomedical Engineering, and Neurology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States
| | - Yuqing Li
- Norman Fixel Institute for Neurological Diseases, Department of Neurology, College of Medicine, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States; Genetics Institute, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL, United States.
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18
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Paap M, Perl S, Lüttig A, Plocksties F, Niemann C, Timmermann D, Bahls C, van Rienen U, Franz D, Zwar M, Rohde M, Köhling R, Richter A. Deep brain stimulation by optimized stimulators in a phenotypic model of dystonia: Effects of different frequencies. Neurobiol Dis 2020; 147:105163. [PMID: 33166698 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2020.105163] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2020] [Revised: 10/02/2020] [Accepted: 11/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Deep brain stimulation (DBS) of the globus pallidus internus (GPi, entopeduncular nucleus, EPN, in rodents) has become important for the treatment of generalized dystonia, a severe and often intractable movement disorder. It is unclear if lower frequencies of GPi-DBS or stimulations of the subthalamic nucleus (STN) are of advantage. In the present study, the main objective was to examined the effects of bilateral EPN-DBS at different frequencies (130 Hz, 40 Hz, 15 Hz) on the severity of dystonia in the dtsz mutant hamster. In addition, STN stimulations were done at a frequency, proven to be effective by the present EPN-DBS in dystonic hamsters. In order to obtain precise bilateral electrical stimuli with magnitude of 50 μA, a pulse width of 60 μs and defined frequencies, it was necessary to develop a new optimized stimulator prior to the experiments. Since the individual highest severity of dystonic episodes is known to be reached within three hours after induction in dtsz hamsters, the duration of DBS was 180 min. During DBS with 130 Hz the severity of dystonia was significantly lower within the third hour than without DBS in the same animals (p < 0.05). DBS with 40 Hz tended to exert antidystonic effects after three hours, while 15 Hz stimulations of the EPN and 130 Hz stimulations of the STN failed to show any effects on the severity. DBS of the EPN at 130 Hz was most effective against generalized dystonia in the dtsz mutant. The response to EPN-DBS confirms that the dtsz mutant is suitable to further investigate the effects of long-term DBS on severity of dystonia and neuronal network activities, important to give insights into the mechanisms of DBS.
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Affiliation(s)
- Maria Paap
- Institute of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, Germany
| | - Stefanie Perl
- Institute of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, Germany
| | - Anika Lüttig
- Institute of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, Germany
| | - Franz Plocksties
- Institute of Applied Microelectronics and Computer Engineering, University of Rostock, Germany
| | - Christoph Niemann
- Institute of Applied Microelectronics and Computer Engineering, University of Rostock, Germany
| | - Dirk Timmermann
- Institute of Applied Microelectronics and Computer Engineering, University of Rostock, Germany
| | - Christian Bahls
- Institute of General Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Computer Sci. and Electrical Engineering, University of Rostock, Germany
| | - Ursula van Rienen
- Institute of General Electrical Engineering, Faculty of Computer Sci. and Electrical Engineering, University of Rostock, Germany
| | - Denise Franz
- Oscar Langendorff Institute of Physiology, University Rostock, Germany
| | - Monique Zwar
- Oscar Langendorff Institute of Physiology, University Rostock, Germany
| | - Marco Rohde
- Oscar Langendorff Institute of Physiology, University Rostock, Germany
| | - Rüdiger Köhling
- Oscar Langendorff Institute of Physiology, University Rostock, Germany
| | - Angelika Richter
- Institute of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, Germany.
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19
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Perl S, Richter F, Richter A. Striatal and cortical metabotropic glutamate 5 receptor expression and behavioral effects of the positive allosteric modulator CDPPB in a model of DYT1 dystonia. Pharmacol Biochem Behav 2020; 196:172977. [PMID: 32615137 DOI: 10.1016/j.pbb.2020.172977] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/02/2020] [Revised: 06/09/2020] [Accepted: 06/23/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The metabotropic glutamate 5 (mGlu5) receptor is critically involved in corticostriatal plasticity which is disturbed in various animal models of dystonia. Recently, the positive allosteric modulator 3-cyano-N-(1,3-diphenyl-1H-pyrazol-5-yl)benzamide (CDPPB) exerted prodyskinetic effects in a phenotypic model of episodic dystonia. In the DYT1 knock-in (KI) mouse, a model for a persistent type of dystonia, previous ex vivo electrophysiological experiments indicated that mGlu5 receptors are involved in abnormal striatal plasticity. Therefore, in the present study we examined the mGlu5 receptor expression in the striatum and cortex of DYT1 KI mice in comparison with wildtype littermates. By immunohistochemistry (IHC) we found a lower expression of mGlu5 receptors in the cortex (16%) and ventral striatum (10%) but not in the whole striatum of DYT1 KI mice, while mRNA levels were merely lower in the striatum of DYT1 KI mice (43%). However, mGlu5 receptor protein levels measured by western blotting showed no significant differences in tissue of the whole striatum and in the cortex between both genotypes. Since DYT1 KI mice do not exhibit dystonic symptoms, we investigated if CDPPB provokes dystonia or dyskinesia. CDPPB (10, 20 and 30 mg/kg intraperitoneal, i.p.) did not induce abnormal movements and the locomotor activity did not differ between DYT1 KI and wildtype mice. The present data do not provide evidence for a crucial role of the mGlu5 receptor in the pathophysiology of DYT1 dystonia, but corticostriatal changes are in line with the hypothesis of maladaptive plasticity in dystonia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefanie Perl
- Institute of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Franziska Richter
- Institute of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany; Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Pharmacy, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, 30559 Hannover, Germany.
| | - Angelika Richter
- Institute of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.
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20
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Lungu C, Ozelius L, Standaert D, Hallett M, Sieber BA, Swanson-Fisher C, Berman BD, Calakos N, Moore JC, Perlmutter JS, Pirio Richardson SE, Saunders-Pullman R, Scheinfeldt L, Sharma N, Sillitoe R, Simonyan K, Starr PA, Taylor A, Vitek J. Defining research priorities in dystonia. Neurology 2020; 94:526-537. [PMID: 32098856 DOI: 10.1212/wnl.0000000000009140] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/27/2019] [Accepted: 01/14/2020] [Indexed: 01/14/2023] Open
Abstract
OBJECTIVE Dystonia is a complex movement disorder. Research progress has been difficult, particularly in developing widely effective therapies. This is a review of the current state of knowledge, research gaps, and proposed research priorities. METHODS The NIH convened leaders in the field for a 2-day workshop. The participants addressed the natural history of the disease, the underlying etiology, the pathophysiology, relevant research technologies, research resources, and therapeutic approaches and attempted to prioritize dystonia research recommendations. RESULTS The heterogeneity of dystonia poses challenges to research and therapy development. Much can be learned from specific genetic subtypes, and the disorder can be conceptualized along clinical, etiology, and pathophysiology axes. Advances in research technology and pooled resources can accelerate progress. Although etiologically based therapies would be optimal, a focus on circuit abnormalities can provide a convergent common target for symptomatic therapies across dystonia subtypes. The discussions have been integrated into a comprehensive review of all aspects of dystonia. CONCLUSION Overall research priorities include the generation and integration of high-quality phenotypic and genotypic data, reproducing key features in cellular and animal models, both of basic cellular mechanisms and phenotypes, leveraging new research technologies, and targeting circuit-level dysfunction with therapeutic interventions. Collaboration is necessary both for collection of large data sets and integration of different research methods.
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Affiliation(s)
- Codrin Lungu
- From the Division of Clinical Research (C.L.), National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health; Harvard Medical School (L.O., N.S.), Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA; University of Alabama, Birmingham (D.S.), Birmingham, AL; Medical Neurology Branch (M.H.), NINDS, NIH, Bethesda, MD; Division of Neuroscience (B.-A.S., C.S.-F.), NINDS, NIH, Bethesda, MD; Department of Neurology (B.D.B.), University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, CO; Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC; RUCDR/Infinite Biologics (J.C.M.), Department of Genetics, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ; Washington University School of Medicine (J.S.P.), St Louis, MO; Department of Neurology (S.E.P.R.), University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM; Department of Neurology (R.S.-P.), Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY; Coriell Institute for Medical Research (L.S.), Camden, NJ; Department of Neuroscience (R.S.), Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX; Harvard Medical School (K.S.), Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Institute, Boston, MA; Department of Neurological Surgery (P.A.S.), University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA; Division of Extramural Activities (A.T.), NINDS, NIH, Rockville, MD; and Department of Neurology (J.V.), University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN.
| | - Laurie Ozelius
- From the Division of Clinical Research (C.L.), National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health; Harvard Medical School (L.O., N.S.), Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA; University of Alabama, Birmingham (D.S.), Birmingham, AL; Medical Neurology Branch (M.H.), NINDS, NIH, Bethesda, MD; Division of Neuroscience (B.-A.S., C.S.-F.), NINDS, NIH, Bethesda, MD; Department of Neurology (B.D.B.), University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, CO; Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC; RUCDR/Infinite Biologics (J.C.M.), Department of Genetics, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ; Washington University School of Medicine (J.S.P.), St Louis, MO; Department of Neurology (S.E.P.R.), University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM; Department of Neurology (R.S.-P.), Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY; Coriell Institute for Medical Research (L.S.), Camden, NJ; Department of Neuroscience (R.S.), Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX; Harvard Medical School (K.S.), Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Institute, Boston, MA; Department of Neurological Surgery (P.A.S.), University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA; Division of Extramural Activities (A.T.), NINDS, NIH, Rockville, MD; and Department of Neurology (J.V.), University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN
| | - David Standaert
- From the Division of Clinical Research (C.L.), National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health; Harvard Medical School (L.O., N.S.), Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA; University of Alabama, Birmingham (D.S.), Birmingham, AL; Medical Neurology Branch (M.H.), NINDS, NIH, Bethesda, MD; Division of Neuroscience (B.-A.S., C.S.-F.), NINDS, NIH, Bethesda, MD; Department of Neurology (B.D.B.), University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, CO; Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC; RUCDR/Infinite Biologics (J.C.M.), Department of Genetics, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ; Washington University School of Medicine (J.S.P.), St Louis, MO; Department of Neurology (S.E.P.R.), University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM; Department of Neurology (R.S.-P.), Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY; Coriell Institute for Medical Research (L.S.), Camden, NJ; Department of Neuroscience (R.S.), Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX; Harvard Medical School (K.S.), Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Institute, Boston, MA; Department of Neurological Surgery (P.A.S.), University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA; Division of Extramural Activities (A.T.), NINDS, NIH, Rockville, MD; and Department of Neurology (J.V.), University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN
| | - Mark Hallett
- From the Division of Clinical Research (C.L.), National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health; Harvard Medical School (L.O., N.S.), Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA; University of Alabama, Birmingham (D.S.), Birmingham, AL; Medical Neurology Branch (M.H.), NINDS, NIH, Bethesda, MD; Division of Neuroscience (B.-A.S., C.S.-F.), NINDS, NIH, Bethesda, MD; Department of Neurology (B.D.B.), University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, CO; Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC; RUCDR/Infinite Biologics (J.C.M.), Department of Genetics, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ; Washington University School of Medicine (J.S.P.), St Louis, MO; Department of Neurology (S.E.P.R.), University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM; Department of Neurology (R.S.-P.), Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY; Coriell Institute for Medical Research (L.S.), Camden, NJ; Department of Neuroscience (R.S.), Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX; Harvard Medical School (K.S.), Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Institute, Boston, MA; Department of Neurological Surgery (P.A.S.), University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA; Division of Extramural Activities (A.T.), NINDS, NIH, Rockville, MD; and Department of Neurology (J.V.), University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN
| | - Beth-Anne Sieber
- From the Division of Clinical Research (C.L.), National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health; Harvard Medical School (L.O., N.S.), Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA; University of Alabama, Birmingham (D.S.), Birmingham, AL; Medical Neurology Branch (M.H.), NINDS, NIH, Bethesda, MD; Division of Neuroscience (B.-A.S., C.S.-F.), NINDS, NIH, Bethesda, MD; Department of Neurology (B.D.B.), University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, CO; Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC; RUCDR/Infinite Biologics (J.C.M.), Department of Genetics, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ; Washington University School of Medicine (J.S.P.), St Louis, MO; Department of Neurology (S.E.P.R.), University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM; Department of Neurology (R.S.-P.), Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY; Coriell Institute for Medical Research (L.S.), Camden, NJ; Department of Neuroscience (R.S.), Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX; Harvard Medical School (K.S.), Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Institute, Boston, MA; Department of Neurological Surgery (P.A.S.), University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA; Division of Extramural Activities (A.T.), NINDS, NIH, Rockville, MD; and Department of Neurology (J.V.), University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN
| | - Christine Swanson-Fisher
- From the Division of Clinical Research (C.L.), National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health; Harvard Medical School (L.O., N.S.), Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA; University of Alabama, Birmingham (D.S.), Birmingham, AL; Medical Neurology Branch (M.H.), NINDS, NIH, Bethesda, MD; Division of Neuroscience (B.-A.S., C.S.-F.), NINDS, NIH, Bethesda, MD; Department of Neurology (B.D.B.), University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, CO; Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC; RUCDR/Infinite Biologics (J.C.M.), Department of Genetics, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ; Washington University School of Medicine (J.S.P.), St Louis, MO; Department of Neurology (S.E.P.R.), University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM; Department of Neurology (R.S.-P.), Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY; Coriell Institute for Medical Research (L.S.), Camden, NJ; Department of Neuroscience (R.S.), Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX; Harvard Medical School (K.S.), Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Institute, Boston, MA; Department of Neurological Surgery (P.A.S.), University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA; Division of Extramural Activities (A.T.), NINDS, NIH, Rockville, MD; and Department of Neurology (J.V.), University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN
| | - Brian D Berman
- From the Division of Clinical Research (C.L.), National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health; Harvard Medical School (L.O., N.S.), Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA; University of Alabama, Birmingham (D.S.), Birmingham, AL; Medical Neurology Branch (M.H.), NINDS, NIH, Bethesda, MD; Division of Neuroscience (B.-A.S., C.S.-F.), NINDS, NIH, Bethesda, MD; Department of Neurology (B.D.B.), University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, CO; Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC; RUCDR/Infinite Biologics (J.C.M.), Department of Genetics, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ; Washington University School of Medicine (J.S.P.), St Louis, MO; Department of Neurology (S.E.P.R.), University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM; Department of Neurology (R.S.-P.), Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY; Coriell Institute for Medical Research (L.S.), Camden, NJ; Department of Neuroscience (R.S.), Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX; Harvard Medical School (K.S.), Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Institute, Boston, MA; Department of Neurological Surgery (P.A.S.), University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA; Division of Extramural Activities (A.T.), NINDS, NIH, Rockville, MD; and Department of Neurology (J.V.), University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN
| | - Nicole Calakos
- From the Division of Clinical Research (C.L.), National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health; Harvard Medical School (L.O., N.S.), Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA; University of Alabama, Birmingham (D.S.), Birmingham, AL; Medical Neurology Branch (M.H.), NINDS, NIH, Bethesda, MD; Division of Neuroscience (B.-A.S., C.S.-F.), NINDS, NIH, Bethesda, MD; Department of Neurology (B.D.B.), University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, CO; Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC; RUCDR/Infinite Biologics (J.C.M.), Department of Genetics, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ; Washington University School of Medicine (J.S.P.), St Louis, MO; Department of Neurology (S.E.P.R.), University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM; Department of Neurology (R.S.-P.), Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY; Coriell Institute for Medical Research (L.S.), Camden, NJ; Department of Neuroscience (R.S.), Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX; Harvard Medical School (K.S.), Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Institute, Boston, MA; Department of Neurological Surgery (P.A.S.), University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA; Division of Extramural Activities (A.T.), NINDS, NIH, Rockville, MD; and Department of Neurology (J.V.), University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN
| | - Jennifer C Moore
- From the Division of Clinical Research (C.L.), National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health; Harvard Medical School (L.O., N.S.), Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA; University of Alabama, Birmingham (D.S.), Birmingham, AL; Medical Neurology Branch (M.H.), NINDS, NIH, Bethesda, MD; Division of Neuroscience (B.-A.S., C.S.-F.), NINDS, NIH, Bethesda, MD; Department of Neurology (B.D.B.), University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, CO; Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC; RUCDR/Infinite Biologics (J.C.M.), Department of Genetics, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ; Washington University School of Medicine (J.S.P.), St Louis, MO; Department of Neurology (S.E.P.R.), University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM; Department of Neurology (R.S.-P.), Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY; Coriell Institute for Medical Research (L.S.), Camden, NJ; Department of Neuroscience (R.S.), Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX; Harvard Medical School (K.S.), Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Institute, Boston, MA; Department of Neurological Surgery (P.A.S.), University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA; Division of Extramural Activities (A.T.), NINDS, NIH, Rockville, MD; and Department of Neurology (J.V.), University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN
| | - Joel S Perlmutter
- From the Division of Clinical Research (C.L.), National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health; Harvard Medical School (L.O., N.S.), Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA; University of Alabama, Birmingham (D.S.), Birmingham, AL; Medical Neurology Branch (M.H.), NINDS, NIH, Bethesda, MD; Division of Neuroscience (B.-A.S., C.S.-F.), NINDS, NIH, Bethesda, MD; Department of Neurology (B.D.B.), University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, CO; Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC; RUCDR/Infinite Biologics (J.C.M.), Department of Genetics, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ; Washington University School of Medicine (J.S.P.), St Louis, MO; Department of Neurology (S.E.P.R.), University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM; Department of Neurology (R.S.-P.), Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY; Coriell Institute for Medical Research (L.S.), Camden, NJ; Department of Neuroscience (R.S.), Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX; Harvard Medical School (K.S.), Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Institute, Boston, MA; Department of Neurological Surgery (P.A.S.), University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA; Division of Extramural Activities (A.T.), NINDS, NIH, Rockville, MD; and Department of Neurology (J.V.), University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN
| | - Sarah E Pirio Richardson
- From the Division of Clinical Research (C.L.), National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health; Harvard Medical School (L.O., N.S.), Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA; University of Alabama, Birmingham (D.S.), Birmingham, AL; Medical Neurology Branch (M.H.), NINDS, NIH, Bethesda, MD; Division of Neuroscience (B.-A.S., C.S.-F.), NINDS, NIH, Bethesda, MD; Department of Neurology (B.D.B.), University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, CO; Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC; RUCDR/Infinite Biologics (J.C.M.), Department of Genetics, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ; Washington University School of Medicine (J.S.P.), St Louis, MO; Department of Neurology (S.E.P.R.), University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM; Department of Neurology (R.S.-P.), Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY; Coriell Institute for Medical Research (L.S.), Camden, NJ; Department of Neuroscience (R.S.), Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX; Harvard Medical School (K.S.), Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Institute, Boston, MA; Department of Neurological Surgery (P.A.S.), University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA; Division of Extramural Activities (A.T.), NINDS, NIH, Rockville, MD; and Department of Neurology (J.V.), University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN
| | - Rachel Saunders-Pullman
- From the Division of Clinical Research (C.L.), National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health; Harvard Medical School (L.O., N.S.), Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA; University of Alabama, Birmingham (D.S.), Birmingham, AL; Medical Neurology Branch (M.H.), NINDS, NIH, Bethesda, MD; Division of Neuroscience (B.-A.S., C.S.-F.), NINDS, NIH, Bethesda, MD; Department of Neurology (B.D.B.), University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, CO; Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC; RUCDR/Infinite Biologics (J.C.M.), Department of Genetics, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ; Washington University School of Medicine (J.S.P.), St Louis, MO; Department of Neurology (S.E.P.R.), University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM; Department of Neurology (R.S.-P.), Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY; Coriell Institute for Medical Research (L.S.), Camden, NJ; Department of Neuroscience (R.S.), Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX; Harvard Medical School (K.S.), Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Institute, Boston, MA; Department of Neurological Surgery (P.A.S.), University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA; Division of Extramural Activities (A.T.), NINDS, NIH, Rockville, MD; and Department of Neurology (J.V.), University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN
| | - Laura Scheinfeldt
- From the Division of Clinical Research (C.L.), National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health; Harvard Medical School (L.O., N.S.), Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA; University of Alabama, Birmingham (D.S.), Birmingham, AL; Medical Neurology Branch (M.H.), NINDS, NIH, Bethesda, MD; Division of Neuroscience (B.-A.S., C.S.-F.), NINDS, NIH, Bethesda, MD; Department of Neurology (B.D.B.), University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, CO; Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC; RUCDR/Infinite Biologics (J.C.M.), Department of Genetics, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ; Washington University School of Medicine (J.S.P.), St Louis, MO; Department of Neurology (S.E.P.R.), University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM; Department of Neurology (R.S.-P.), Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY; Coriell Institute for Medical Research (L.S.), Camden, NJ; Department of Neuroscience (R.S.), Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX; Harvard Medical School (K.S.), Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Institute, Boston, MA; Department of Neurological Surgery (P.A.S.), University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA; Division of Extramural Activities (A.T.), NINDS, NIH, Rockville, MD; and Department of Neurology (J.V.), University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN
| | - Nutan Sharma
- From the Division of Clinical Research (C.L.), National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health; Harvard Medical School (L.O., N.S.), Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA; University of Alabama, Birmingham (D.S.), Birmingham, AL; Medical Neurology Branch (M.H.), NINDS, NIH, Bethesda, MD; Division of Neuroscience (B.-A.S., C.S.-F.), NINDS, NIH, Bethesda, MD; Department of Neurology (B.D.B.), University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, CO; Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC; RUCDR/Infinite Biologics (J.C.M.), Department of Genetics, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ; Washington University School of Medicine (J.S.P.), St Louis, MO; Department of Neurology (S.E.P.R.), University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM; Department of Neurology (R.S.-P.), Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY; Coriell Institute for Medical Research (L.S.), Camden, NJ; Department of Neuroscience (R.S.), Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX; Harvard Medical School (K.S.), Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Institute, Boston, MA; Department of Neurological Surgery (P.A.S.), University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA; Division of Extramural Activities (A.T.), NINDS, NIH, Rockville, MD; and Department of Neurology (J.V.), University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN
| | - Roy Sillitoe
- From the Division of Clinical Research (C.L.), National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health; Harvard Medical School (L.O., N.S.), Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA; University of Alabama, Birmingham (D.S.), Birmingham, AL; Medical Neurology Branch (M.H.), NINDS, NIH, Bethesda, MD; Division of Neuroscience (B.-A.S., C.S.-F.), NINDS, NIH, Bethesda, MD; Department of Neurology (B.D.B.), University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, CO; Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC; RUCDR/Infinite Biologics (J.C.M.), Department of Genetics, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ; Washington University School of Medicine (J.S.P.), St Louis, MO; Department of Neurology (S.E.P.R.), University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM; Department of Neurology (R.S.-P.), Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY; Coriell Institute for Medical Research (L.S.), Camden, NJ; Department of Neuroscience (R.S.), Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX; Harvard Medical School (K.S.), Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Institute, Boston, MA; Department of Neurological Surgery (P.A.S.), University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA; Division of Extramural Activities (A.T.), NINDS, NIH, Rockville, MD; and Department of Neurology (J.V.), University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN
| | - Kristina Simonyan
- From the Division of Clinical Research (C.L.), National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health; Harvard Medical School (L.O., N.S.), Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA; University of Alabama, Birmingham (D.S.), Birmingham, AL; Medical Neurology Branch (M.H.), NINDS, NIH, Bethesda, MD; Division of Neuroscience (B.-A.S., C.S.-F.), NINDS, NIH, Bethesda, MD; Department of Neurology (B.D.B.), University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, CO; Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC; RUCDR/Infinite Biologics (J.C.M.), Department of Genetics, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ; Washington University School of Medicine (J.S.P.), St Louis, MO; Department of Neurology (S.E.P.R.), University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM; Department of Neurology (R.S.-P.), Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY; Coriell Institute for Medical Research (L.S.), Camden, NJ; Department of Neuroscience (R.S.), Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX; Harvard Medical School (K.S.), Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Institute, Boston, MA; Department of Neurological Surgery (P.A.S.), University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA; Division of Extramural Activities (A.T.), NINDS, NIH, Rockville, MD; and Department of Neurology (J.V.), University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN
| | - Philip A Starr
- From the Division of Clinical Research (C.L.), National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health; Harvard Medical School (L.O., N.S.), Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA; University of Alabama, Birmingham (D.S.), Birmingham, AL; Medical Neurology Branch (M.H.), NINDS, NIH, Bethesda, MD; Division of Neuroscience (B.-A.S., C.S.-F.), NINDS, NIH, Bethesda, MD; Department of Neurology (B.D.B.), University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, CO; Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC; RUCDR/Infinite Biologics (J.C.M.), Department of Genetics, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ; Washington University School of Medicine (J.S.P.), St Louis, MO; Department of Neurology (S.E.P.R.), University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM; Department of Neurology (R.S.-P.), Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY; Coriell Institute for Medical Research (L.S.), Camden, NJ; Department of Neuroscience (R.S.), Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX; Harvard Medical School (K.S.), Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Institute, Boston, MA; Department of Neurological Surgery (P.A.S.), University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA; Division of Extramural Activities (A.T.), NINDS, NIH, Rockville, MD; and Department of Neurology (J.V.), University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN
| | - Anna Taylor
- From the Division of Clinical Research (C.L.), National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health; Harvard Medical School (L.O., N.S.), Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA; University of Alabama, Birmingham (D.S.), Birmingham, AL; Medical Neurology Branch (M.H.), NINDS, NIH, Bethesda, MD; Division of Neuroscience (B.-A.S., C.S.-F.), NINDS, NIH, Bethesda, MD; Department of Neurology (B.D.B.), University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, CO; Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC; RUCDR/Infinite Biologics (J.C.M.), Department of Genetics, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ; Washington University School of Medicine (J.S.P.), St Louis, MO; Department of Neurology (S.E.P.R.), University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM; Department of Neurology (R.S.-P.), Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY; Coriell Institute for Medical Research (L.S.), Camden, NJ; Department of Neuroscience (R.S.), Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX; Harvard Medical School (K.S.), Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Institute, Boston, MA; Department of Neurological Surgery (P.A.S.), University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA; Division of Extramural Activities (A.T.), NINDS, NIH, Rockville, MD; and Department of Neurology (J.V.), University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN
| | - Jerrold Vitek
- From the Division of Clinical Research (C.L.), National Institute of Neurological Disorders and Stroke, National Institutes of Health; Harvard Medical School (L.O., N.S.), Massachusetts General Hospital, Boston, MA; University of Alabama, Birmingham (D.S.), Birmingham, AL; Medical Neurology Branch (M.H.), NINDS, NIH, Bethesda, MD; Division of Neuroscience (B.-A.S., C.S.-F.), NINDS, NIH, Bethesda, MD; Department of Neurology (B.D.B.), University of Colorado Denver, Aurora, CO; Duke University School of Medicine, Durham, NC; RUCDR/Infinite Biologics (J.C.M.), Department of Genetics, Rutgers, The State University of New Jersey, Piscataway, NJ; Washington University School of Medicine (J.S.P.), St Louis, MO; Department of Neurology (S.E.P.R.), University of New Mexico Health Sciences Center, Albuquerque, NM; Department of Neurology (R.S.-P.), Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY; Coriell Institute for Medical Research (L.S.), Camden, NJ; Department of Neuroscience (R.S.), Baylor College of Medicine, Houston, TX; Harvard Medical School (K.S.), Department of Otolaryngology, Head and Neck Surgery, Massachusetts Eye and Ear Institute, Boston, MA; Department of Neurological Surgery (P.A.S.), University of California San Francisco, San Francisco, CA; Division of Extramural Activities (A.T.), NINDS, NIH, Rockville, MD; and Department of Neurology (J.V.), University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN
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Richter F, Klein L, Helmschrodt C, Richter A. Subtle changes in striatal muscarinic M1 and M4 receptor expression in the DYT1 knock-in mouse model of dystonia. PLoS One 2019; 14:e0226080. [PMID: 31805123 PMCID: PMC6894858 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0226080] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2019] [Accepted: 11/18/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
In early-onset generalized torsion dystonia, caused by a GAG deletion in TOR1A (DYT1), enhanced striatal cholinergic activity has been suggested to be critically involved. Previous studies have shown increased acetylcholine levels in the striatum of DYT1 knock-in (KI) mice. Ex vivo data indicated that muscarinic receptor antagonists normalize the activity of striatal cholinergic interneurons. Currently receptor subtype specific antagonists are developed for therapy, however, it is yet unknown whether the levels of targeted receptors are unaltered. In the present study, we firstly examined the expression of M1 and M4 receptors in DYT1 KI mice in comparison to wildtype mice. While no changes in mRNA were found in the motor cortex, the expression of M1 was higher in the striatum of DYT1 KI. However, M1 protein did not differ in striatum and cortex between the animal groups as shown by immunohistochemistry and western blot. M4 receptor protein, unaltered in the cortex, was slightly lower in lateral subparts of the striatum, but unchanged in somata of cholinergic interneurons and substance P immunoreactive projection neurons. Functional alterations of the cholinergic system and of aberrant striatal plasticity, demonstrated by previous studies, seem not to be related to overt changes in M1 and M4 expression. This critically informs the ongoing development of respective antagonists for therapy of dystonia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franziska Richter
- Institute of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Pharmacy, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, Hannover, Germany
- * E-mail: (FR); (AR)
| | - Laura Klein
- Institute of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Christin Helmschrodt
- Institute of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Angelika Richter
- Institute of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
- * E-mail: (FR); (AR)
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22
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Yu-Taeger L, Ott T, Bonsi P, Tomczak C, Wassouf Z, Martella G, Sciamanna G, Imbriani P, Ponterio G, Tassone A, Schulze-Hentrich JM, Goodchild R, Riess O, Pisani A, Grundmann-Hauser K, Nguyen HP. Impaired dopamine- and adenosine-mediated signaling and plasticity in a novel rodent model for DYT25 dystonia. Neurobiol Dis 2019; 134:104634. [PMID: 31678405 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2019.104634] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2019] [Revised: 09/19/2019] [Accepted: 10/02/2019] [Indexed: 12/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Dystonia is a neurological movement disorder characterized by sustained or intermittent involuntary muscle contractions. Loss-of-function mutations in the GNAL gene have been identified to be the cause of "isolated" dystonia DYT25. The GNAL gene encodes for the guanine nucleotide-binding protein G(olf) subunit alpha (Gαolf), which is mainly expressed in the olfactory bulb and the striatum and functions as a modulator during neurotransmission coupling with D1R and A2AR. Previously, heterozygous Gαolf -deficient mice (Gnal+/-) have been generated and showed a mild phenotype at basal condition. In contrast, homozygous deletion of Gnal in mice (Gnal-/-) resulted in a significantly reduced survival rate. In this study, using the CRISPR-Cas9 system we generated and characterized heterozygous Gnal knockout rats (Gnal+/-) with a 13 base pair deletion in the first exon of the rat Gnal splicing variant 2, a major isoform in both human and rat striatum. Gnal+/- rats showed early-onset phenotypes associated with impaired dopamine transmission, including reduction in locomotor activity, deficits in rotarod performance and an abnormal motor skill learning ability. At cellular and molecular level, we found down-regulated Arc expression, increased cell surface distribution of AMPA receptors, and the loss of D2R-dependent corticostriatal long-term depression (LTD) in Gnal+/- rats. Based on the evidence that D2R activity is normally inhibited by adenosine A2ARs, co-localized on the same population of striatal neurons, we show that blockade of A2ARs restores physiological LTD. This animal model may be a valuable tool for investigating Gαolf function and finding a suitable treatment for dystonia associated with deficient dopamine transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Libo Yu-Taeger
- Institute of Medical Genetics and Applied Genomics, University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany; Centre for Rare Diseases (ZSE), University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Thomas Ott
- Institute of Medical Genetics and Applied Genomics, University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany; Core Facility Transgenic Animals, University Clinics Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Paola Bonsi
- Laboratory of Neurophysiology and Plasticity, IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy
| | - Celina Tomczak
- Institute of Medical Genetics and Applied Genomics, University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany; Centre for Rare Diseases (ZSE), University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Zinah Wassouf
- Institute of Medical Genetics and Applied Genomics, University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany; Centre for Rare Diseases (ZSE), University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Giuseppina Martella
- Laboratory of Neurophysiology and Plasticity, IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy; Department of Systems Medicine, University of Rome Tor Vergata,Rome, Italy
| | - Giuseppe Sciamanna
- Laboratory of Neurophysiology and Plasticity, IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy; Department of Systems Medicine, University of Rome Tor Vergata,Rome, Italy
| | - Paola Imbriani
- Laboratory of Neurophysiology and Plasticity, IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy; Department of Systems Medicine, University of Rome Tor Vergata,Rome, Italy
| | - Giulia Ponterio
- Laboratory of Neurophysiology and Plasticity, IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy; Department of Systems Medicine, University of Rome Tor Vergata,Rome, Italy
| | - Annalisa Tassone
- Laboratory of Neurophysiology and Plasticity, IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy; Department of Systems Medicine, University of Rome Tor Vergata,Rome, Italy
| | - Julia M Schulze-Hentrich
- Institute of Medical Genetics and Applied Genomics, University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany; Centre for Rare Diseases (ZSE), University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Rose Goodchild
- VIB-KU Leuven Center for Brain & Disease Research, Leuven, Belgium; KU Leuven, Dept. Neurosciences, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Olaf Riess
- Institute of Medical Genetics and Applied Genomics, University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany; Centre for Rare Diseases (ZSE), University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Antonio Pisani
- Laboratory of Neurophysiology and Plasticity, IRCCS Fondazione Santa Lucia, Rome, Italy; Department of Systems Medicine, University of Rome Tor Vergata,Rome, Italy
| | - Kathrin Grundmann-Hauser
- Institute of Medical Genetics and Applied Genomics, University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany; Centre for Rare Diseases (ZSE), University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany
| | - Huu Phuc Nguyen
- Institute of Medical Genetics and Applied Genomics, University of Tuebingen, Tuebingen, Germany; Department of Human Genetics, Faculty of Medicine, Ruhr University Bochum, Bochum, Germany.
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23
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Perl S, Richter F, Gericke B, Richter A. Expression of metabotropic glutamate 5 receptors in the striatum and cortex and effects of modulators on the severity of dystonia in the phenotypic dt sz model. Eur J Pharmacol 2019; 859:172527. [PMID: 31283933 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2019.172527] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/09/2019] [Revised: 07/01/2019] [Accepted: 07/04/2019] [Indexed: 10/26/2022]
Abstract
The metabotropic glutamate 5 (mGlu5) receptor has been suggested as therapeutic target for L-Dopa-induced dyskinesia which is often associated with dystonic symptoms. Therefore, we investigated the acute effects of the non-competitive mGlu5 receptor antagonist fenobam as well as the positive modulator 3-cyano-N-(1,3-diphenyl-1H-pyrazol-5-yl)benzamide (CDPPB) on the severity of inherited dystonia in the mutant dtsz hamster, a phenotypic model with age-dependent episodes of dystonia. Fenobam did not exert significant antidystonic effects (20-50 mg/kg intraperinoneal, i.p.). CDPPB (10, 20 mg/kg i.p.) which was expected to worsen dystonia also failed to show any effects on the severity of dystonia. Interestingly, CDPPB caused axial dyskinesia in addition to the dystonic symptoms in mutant hamsters. This adverse effect could not be observed in non-dystonic control hamsters, indicating possible changes in the expression of mGlu5 receptors in dystonic hamsters. The mGlu5 receptor mRNA did not differ between the dtsz mutant and control hamsters, while immunohistochemical studies indicated that the mGlu5 receptor expression was about 35% higher in striatum and cortex of mutant hamsters at the age of high dystonia severity scores, notably not after spontaneous remission of dystonia, compared to age-matched controls. This difference in mGlu5 receptor protein may be due to altered protein conformation instead of protein level, as western blots revealed similar amounts of monomeric and dimeric protein in mutant hamsters versus control. Thus, the present data do not provide clear evidence for an important role of the mGlu5 receptor in the pathophysiology and as a therapeutic target for types of inherited dystonia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stefanie Perl
- Institute of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, 04103, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Franziska Richter
- Institute of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, 04103, Leipzig, Germany; Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Pharmacy, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, D-30559, Hannover, Germany
| | - Birthe Gericke
- Department of Pharmacology, Toxicology, and Pharmacy, University of Veterinary Medicine Hannover, D-30559, Hannover, Germany
| | - Angelika Richter
- Institute of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, 04103, Leipzig, Germany.
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24
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Zhunina OA, Yabbarov NG, Orekhov AN, Deykin AV. Modern approaches for modelling dystonia and Huntington's disease in vitro and in vivo. Int J Exp Pathol 2019; 100:64-71. [PMID: 31090117 DOI: 10.1111/iep.12320] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/24/2018] [Revised: 04/02/2019] [Accepted: 04/12/2019] [Indexed: 12/11/2022] Open
Abstract
Dystonia associated with Huntington's disease, Parkinson's disease or other neurodegenerative diseases substantially affects patients' quality of life and is a major health problem worldwide. The above-mentioned diseases are characterized by neurodegeneration accompanied by motor and cognitive impairment and often have complex aetiology. A frequent feature of these conditions is the abnormal accumulation of protein aggregates within specific neuronal populations in the affected brain regions. Familial neurodegenerative diseases are associated with a number of genetic mutations. Identification of these mutations allowed creation of modern model systems for studying neurodegeneration, either in cultured cells or in model animals. Animal models, especially mouse models, have contributed considerably to improving our understanding of the pathophysiology of neurodegenerative diseases. These models have allowed study of the pathogenic mechanisms and development of new disease-modifying strategies and therapeutic approaches. However, due to the complex nature of these pathologies and the irreversible damage that they cause to the neural tissue, effective therapies against neurodegeneration remain to be elaborated. In this review, we provide an overview of cellular and animal models developed for studying neurodegenerative diseases, including Huntington's disease and dystonia of different origins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Olga A Zhunina
- JSC "Russian Research Center for Molecular Diagnostics and Therapy", Moscow, Russia
| | - Nikita G Yabbarov
- JSC "Russian Research Center for Molecular Diagnostics and Therapy", Moscow, Russia
| | - Alexander N Orekhov
- Laboratory of Angiopathology, Institute of General Pathology and Pathophysiology, Moscow, Russia.,Institute for Atherosclerosis Research, Skolkovo Innovative Center, Moscow, Russia
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25
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Richter F, Bauer A, Perl S, Schulz A, Richter A. Optogenetic augmentation of the hypercholinergic endophenotype in DYT1 knock-in mice induced erratic hyperactive movements but not dystonia. EBioMedicine 2019; 41:649-658. [PMID: 30819512 PMCID: PMC6444071 DOI: 10.1016/j.ebiom.2019.02.042] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/23/2018] [Revised: 02/04/2019] [Accepted: 02/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The most prevalent inherited form of generalized dystonia is caused by a mutation in torsinA (DYT1, ∆GAG) with incomplete penetrance. Rodent models with mutated torsinA do not develop dystonic symptoms, but previous ex vivo studies indicated abnormal excitation of cholinergic interneurons (ChI) and increased striatal acetylcholine. METHODS We used in vivo optogenetics to exacerbate this endophenotype in order to determine its capacity to trigger dystonic symptoms in freely behaving mice. Tor1a+/Δgag DYT1 mice and wildtype littermates expressing channelrhodopsin2 under the Chat promotor were implanted bilaterally with optical LED cannulae and stimulated with blue light pulses of varied durations. FINDINGS Six months old DYT1 KI mice but not wildtype controls responded with hyperactivity to blue light specifically at 25 ms pulse duration, 10 Hz frequency. Neuronal activity (c-Fos) in cholinergic interneurons was increased immediately after light stimulation and persisted only in DYT1 KI over 15 min. Substance P was increased specifically in striosome compartments in naïve DYT1 KI mice compared to wildtype. Under optogenetic stimulation substance P increased in wildtype to match levels in Dyt1 KI, and acetylcholinesterase was elevated in the striatum of stimulated DYT1 KI. No signs of dystonic movements were observed under stimulation of up to one hour in both genotypes and age groups, and the sensorimotor deficit previously observed in 6 months old DYT1 KI mice persisted under stimulation. INTERPRETATION Overall this supports an endophenotype of dysregulated cholinergic activity in DYT1 dystonia, but depolarizing cholinergic interneurons was not sufficient to induce overt dystonia in DYT1 KI mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franziska Richter
- Institute of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Toxicology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Leipzig University, An den Tierkliniken 15, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Anne Bauer
- Institute of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Toxicology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Leipzig University, An den Tierkliniken 15, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Stefanie Perl
- Institute of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Toxicology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Leipzig University, An den Tierkliniken 15, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Anja Schulz
- Institute of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Toxicology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Leipzig University, An den Tierkliniken 15, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Angelika Richter
- Institute of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Toxicology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Leipzig University, An den Tierkliniken 15, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.
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26
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Abstract
Dystonia is a heterogeneous disorder characterized by involuntary muscle contractions, twisting movements, and abnormal postures in various body regions. It is widely accepted that the basal ganglia are involved in the pathogenesis of dystonia. A growing body of evidence, however, is challenging the traditional view and suggest that the cerebellum may also play a role in dystonia. Studies on animals indicate that experimental manipulations of the cerebellum lead to dystonic-like movements. Several clinical observations, including those from secondary dystonia cases as well as neurophysiologic and neuroimaging studies in human patients, provide further evidence in humans of a possible relationship between cerebellar abnormalities and dystonia. Claryfing the role of the cerebellum in dystonia is an important step towards providing alternative treatments based on noninvasive brain stimulation techniques.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matteo Bologna
- Department of Human Neuroscience, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy; Neuromed Institute IRCCS, Pozzilli, Italy
| | - Alfredo Berardelli
- Department of Human Neuroscience, Sapienza University of Rome, Rome, Italy; Neuromed Institute IRCCS, Pozzilli, Italy.
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27
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Quartarone A, Rizzo V, Terranova C, Cacciola A, Milardi D, Calamuneri A, Chillemi G, Girlanda P. Therapeutic Use of Non-invasive Brain Stimulation in Dystonia. Front Neurosci 2017; 11:423. [PMID: 28790883 PMCID: PMC5525337 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2017.00423] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2017] [Accepted: 07/06/2017] [Indexed: 12/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Repetitive transcranial magnetic stimulation (rTMS) and transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) are non-invasive methods for stimulating cortical neurons that have been increasingly used in the neurology realm and in the neurosciences applied to movement disorders. In addition, these tools have the potential to be delivered as clinically therapeutic approach. Despite several studies support this hypothesis, there are several limitations related to the extreme variability of the stimulation protocols, clinical enrolment and variability of rTMS and tDCS after effects that make clinical interpretation very difficult. Aim of the present study will be to critically discuss the state of art therapeutically applications of rTMS and tDCS in dystonia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angelo Quartarone
- Department of Biomedical, Dental Sciences and Morphological and Functional Images, University of MessinaMessina, Italy.,Centro Neurolesi Bonino Pulejo (IRCCS)Messina, Italy
| | - Vincenzo Rizzo
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of MessinaMessina, Italy
| | - Carmen Terranova
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of MessinaMessina, Italy
| | | | - Demetrio Milardi
- Department of Biomedical, Dental Sciences and Morphological and Functional Images, University of MessinaMessina, Italy.,Centro Neurolesi Bonino Pulejo (IRCCS)Messina, Italy
| | - Alessandro Calamuneri
- Department of Biomedical, Dental Sciences and Morphological and Functional Images, University of MessinaMessina, Italy
| | - Gaetana Chillemi
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of MessinaMessina, Italy
| | - Paolo Girlanda
- Department of Clinical and Experimental Medicine, University of MessinaMessina, Italy
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28
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Hamann M, Plank J, Richter F, Bode C, Smiljanic S, Creed M, Nobrega JN, Richter A. Alterations of M1 and M4 acetylcholine receptors in the genetically dystonic (dt sz) hamster and moderate antidystonic efficacy of M1 and M4 anticholinergics. Neuroscience 2017; 357:84-98. [PMID: 28596119 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuroscience.2017.05.051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2017] [Revised: 04/28/2017] [Accepted: 05/29/2017] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
Striatal cholinergic dysfunction has been suggested to play a critical role in the pathophysiology of dystonia. In the dtsz hamster, a phenotypic model of paroxysmal dystonia, M1 antagonists exerted moderate antidystonic efficacy after acute systemic administration. In the present study, we examined the effects of the M4 preferring antagonist tropicamid and whether long-term systemic or acute intrastriatal injections of the M1 preferring antagonist trihexyphenidyl are more effective in mutant hamsters. Furthermore, M1 and M4 receptors were analyzed by autoradiography and immunohistochemistry. Tropicamide retarded the onset of dystonic attacks, as previously observed after acute systemic administration of trihexyphenidyl. Combined systemic administration of trihexyphenidyl (30mg/kg) and tropicamide (15mg/kg) reduced the severity in acute trials and delayed the onset of dystonia during long-term treatment. In contrast, acute striatal microinjections of trihexyphenidyl, tropicamid or the positive allosteric M4 receptor modulator VU0152100 did not exert significant effects. Receptor analyses revealed changes of M1 receptors in the dorsomedial striatum, suggesting that the cholinergic system is involved in abnormal striatal plasticity in dtsz hamsters, but the pharmacological data argue against a crucial role on the phenotype in this animal model. However, antidystonic effects of tropicamide after systemic administration point to a novel therapeutic potential of M4 preferring anticholinergics for the treatment of dystonia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Melanie Hamann
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Justus Liebig University Giessen, Schubertstrasse 81, BFS, 35392 Giessen, Germany.
| | - Jagoda Plank
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Koserstrasse 20, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Franziska Richter
- Institute of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, An den Tierkliniken 15, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Christoph Bode
- Institute of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, An den Tierkliniken 15, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Sinisa Smiljanic
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Koserstrasse 20, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Meaghan Creed
- Neuroimaging Research Section, Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, Canada
| | - José N Nobrega
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Freie Universität Berlin, Koserstrasse 20, 14195 Berlin, Germany
| | - Angelika Richter
- Institute of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, An den Tierkliniken 15, Leipzig, Germany.
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Heterozygous Gnal Mice Are a Novel Animal Model with Which to Study Dystonia Pathophysiology. J Neurosci 2017; 37:6253-6267. [PMID: 28546310 DOI: 10.1523/jneurosci.1529-16.2017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 29] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/11/2016] [Revised: 04/15/2017] [Accepted: 05/10/2017] [Indexed: 12/26/2022] Open
Abstract
Dystonia is a movement disorder characterized by sustained or intermittent muscle contractions and its pathophysiological mechanisms are still poorly understood. Dominant mutations of the GNAL gene are a cause of isolated dystonia (DYT25) in patients. Some mutations result in a complete loss of function of the encoded protein, Gαolf, an adenylyl-cyclase-stimulatory G-protein highly enriched in striatal projection neurons, where it mediates the actions of dopamine and adenosine. We used male and female heterozygous Gnal knock-out mice (Gnal+/-) to study how GNAL haplodeficiency is implicated in dystonia. In basal conditions, no overt dystonic movements or postures or change in locomotor activity were observed. However, Gnal haploinsufficiency altered self-grooming, motor coordination, and apparent motivation in operant conditioning, as well as spine morphology and phospho-CaMKIIβ in the striatum. After systemic administration of oxotremorine, an unselective cholinergic agonist, Gnal+/- mice developed more abnormal postures and movements than WT mice. These effects were not caused by seizures as indicated by EEG recordings. They were prevented by the M1-preferring muscarinic antagonists, telenzepine, pirenzepine, and trihexyphenidyl, which alleviate dystonic symptoms in patients. The motor defects were worsened by mecamylamine, a selective nicotinic antagonist. These oxotremorine-induced abnormalities in Gnal+/- mice were replicated by oxotremorine infusion into the striatum, but not into the cerebellum, indicating that defects in striatal neurons favor the appearance of dystonia-like movement alterations after oxotremorine. Untreated and oxotremorine-treated Gnal+/- mice provide a model of presymptomic and symptomatic stages of DYT25-associated dystonia, respectively, and clues about the mechanisms underlying dystonia pathogenesis.SIGNIFICANCE STATEMENT Adult-onset dystonia DYT25 is caused by dominant loss-of-function mutations of GNAL, a gene encoding the stimulatory G-protein Gαolf, which is critical for activation of the cAMP pathway in the striatal projection neurons. Here, we demonstrate that Gnal-haplodeficient mice have a mild neurological phenotype and display vulnerability to developing dystonic movements after systemic or intrastriatal injection of the cholinergic agonist oxotremorine. Therefore, impairment of the cAMP pathway in association with an increased cholinergic tone creates alterations in striatal neuron functions that can promote the onset of dystonia. Our results also provide evidence that untreated and oxotremorine-treated Gnal-haplodeficient mice are powerful models with which to study presymptomic and symptomatic stages of DYT25-associated dystonia, respectively.
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30
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Bologna M, Berardelli A. Cerebellum: An explanation for dystonia? CEREBELLUM & ATAXIAS 2017; 4:6. [PMID: 28515949 PMCID: PMC5429509 DOI: 10.1186/s40673-017-0064-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 44] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/07/2017] [Accepted: 04/28/2017] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Dystonia is a movement disorder that is characterized by involuntary muscle contractions, abnormal movements and postures, as well as by non-motor symptoms, and is due to abnormalities in different brain areas. In this article, we focus on the growing number of experimental studies aimed at explaining the pathophysiological role of the cerebellum in dystonia. Lastly, we highlight gaps in current knowledge and issues that future research studies should focus on as well as some of the potential applications of this research avenue. Clarifying the pathophysiological role of cerebellum in dystonia is an important concern given the increasing availability of invasive and non-invasive stimulation techniques and their potential therapeutic role in this condition.
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Affiliation(s)
- Matteo Bologna
- Department of Neurology and Psychiatry and Neuromed Institute, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale dell'Università, 30, 00185 Rome, Italy.,Neuromed Institute IRCCS, Pozzilli, IS Italy
| | - Alfredo Berardelli
- Department of Neurology and Psychiatry and Neuromed Institute, Sapienza University of Rome, Viale dell'Università, 30, 00185 Rome, Italy.,Neuromed Institute IRCCS, Pozzilli, IS Italy
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31
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Isaksen TJ, Kros L, Vedovato N, Holm TH, Vitenzon A, Gadsby DC, Khodakhah K, Lykke-Hartmann K. Hypothermia-induced dystonia and abnormal cerebellar activity in a mouse model with a single disease-mutation in the sodium-potassium pump. PLoS Genet 2017; 13:e1006763. [PMID: 28472154 PMCID: PMC5436892 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pgen.1006763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 39] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/25/2016] [Revised: 05/18/2017] [Accepted: 04/17/2017] [Indexed: 11/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Mutations in the neuron-specific α3 isoform of the Na+/K+-ATPase are found in patients suffering from Rapid onset Dystonia Parkinsonism and Alternating Hemiplegia of Childhood, two closely related movement disorders. We show that mice harboring a heterozygous hot spot disease mutation, D801Y (α3+/D801Y), suffer abrupt hypothermia-induced dystonia identified by electromyographic recordings. Single-neuron in vivo recordings in awake α3+/D801Y mice revealed irregular firing of Purkinje cells and their synaptic targets, the deep cerebellar nuclei neurons, which was further exacerbated during dystonia and evolved into abnormal high-frequency burst-like firing. Biophysically, we show that the D-to-Y mutation abolished pump-mediated Na+/K+ exchange, but allowed the pumps to bind Na+ and become phosphorylated. These findings implicate aberrant cerebellar activity in α3 isoform-related dystonia and add to the functional understanding of the scarce and severe mutations in the α3 isoform Na+/K+-ATPase. The neurological spectrum associated with mutations in the ATP1A3 gene, encoding the α3 isoform of the Na+/K+-ATPase, is complex and still poorly understood. To elucidate the disease-specific pathophysiology, we examined a mouse model harboring the mutation D801Y, which was originally found in a patient with Rapid onset Dystonia Parkinsonism, but recently, also in a patient with Alternating Hemiplegia of Childhood. We found that this model exhibited motor deficits and developed dystonia when exposed to a drop in body temperature. Cerebellar in vivo recordings in awake mice revealed irregular firing of Purkinje cells and their synaptic targets, the deep cerebellar nuclei neurons, which was further exacerbated and evolved into abnormal high-frequency burst firing during dystonia. The development of specific neurological features within the ATP1A3 mutation spectrum, such as dystonia, are thought to reflect the functional consequences of each mutation, thus to investigate the consequence of the D801Y mutations we characterized mutated D-to-Y Na+/K+-ATPases expressed in Xenopus oocytes. These in vitro studies showed that the D-to-Y mutation abolishes pump-mediated Na+/K+ exchange, but still allows the pumps to bind Na+ and become phosphorylated, trapping them in conformations that instead support proton influx.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toke Jost Isaksen
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
- Centre for Membrane Pumps in Cells and Disease-PUMPKIN, Danish National Research Foundation, Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus University, Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Lieke Kros
- Dominick P Purpura Department of Neuroscience, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, United States of America
| | - Natascia Vedovato
- The Laboratory of Cardiac/Membrane Physiology, The Rockefeller University, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Thomas Hellesøe Holm
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
- Centre for Membrane Pumps in Cells and Disease-PUMPKIN, Danish National Research Foundation, Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus University, Aarhus C, Denmark
| | - Ariel Vitenzon
- Dominick P Purpura Department of Neuroscience, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, United States of America
| | - David C. Gadsby
- The Laboratory of Cardiac/Membrane Physiology, The Rockefeller University, New York, New York, United States of America
| | - Kamran Khodakhah
- Dominick P Purpura Department of Neuroscience, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York, United States of America
| | - Karin Lykke-Hartmann
- Department of Biomedicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
- Centre for Membrane Pumps in Cells and Disease-PUMPKIN, Danish National Research Foundation, Department of Molecular Biology and Genetics, Aarhus University, Aarhus C, Denmark
- Aarhus Institute of Advanced Studies (AIAS), Aarhus University, Aarhus C, Denmark
- Department of Clinical Medicine, Aarhus University, Aarhus, Denmark
- * E-mail:
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Lister J, Andreazza AC, Navaid B, Wilson VS, Teo C, Nesarajah Y, Wilson AA, Nobrega JN, Fletcher PJ, Remington G. Lipoic acid and haloperidol-induced vacuous chewing movements: Implications for prophylactic antioxidant use in tardive dyskinesia. Prog Neuropsychopharmacol Biol Psychiatry 2017; 72:23-29. [PMID: 27565433 DOI: 10.1016/j.pnpbp.2016.08.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/09/2016] [Revised: 08/03/2016] [Accepted: 08/20/2016] [Indexed: 01/30/2023]
Abstract
Tardive dyskinesia (TD), a potentially irreversible antipsychotic (AP)-related movement disorder, is a risk with all currently available antipsychotics. AP-induced vacuous chewing movements (VCMs) in rats, a preclinical model of TD, can be attenuated by antioxidant-based treatments although there is a shortage of well-designed studies. Lipoic acid (LA) represents a candidate antioxidant for the treatment of oxidative stress-related nervous system disorders; accordingly, its effects on AP-induced VCMs and striatal oxidative stress were examined. Rats treated with haloperidol decanoate (HAL; 21mg/kg every 3weeks, IM) for 12weeks were concurrently treated with LA (10 or 20mg/kg, PO). VCMs were assessed weekly by a blinded rater, and locomotor activity was evaluated as were striatal lipid peroxidation markers and serum HAL levels. VCMs were decreased by the lower dose (nonsignificant), whereas a significant increase was recorded with the higher dose of LA. HAL decreased locomotor activity and this was unaffected by LA. Striatal malondialdehyde (MDA) levels in HAL-treated rats were reduced by both LA doses, while 4-hydroxynonenal (4-HNE) levels were predictive of final VCM scores (averaged across weeks 10-12). Study limitations include differences between antipsychotics in terms of oxidative stress, LA dosing, choice of biomarkers for lipid peroxidation, and generalizability to TD in humans. Collectively, current preclinical evidence does not support a "protective" role for antioxidants in preventing TD or its progression, although clinical evidence offers limited evidence supporting such an approach.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua Lister
- Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, ON, Canada; Institute of Medical Science, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Ana C Andreazza
- Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, ON, Canada; Institute of Medical Science, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada; Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada; Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Bushra Navaid
- Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | | | - Celine Teo
- Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | | | - Alan A Wilson
- Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, ON, Canada; Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - José N Nobrega
- Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, ON, Canada; Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada; Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada; Department of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Paul J Fletcher
- Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, ON, Canada; Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada; Department of Psychology, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada
| | - Gary Remington
- Centre for Addiction and Mental Health, Toronto, ON, Canada; Institute of Medical Science, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada; Department of Psychiatry, University of Toronto, Toronto, ON, Canada.
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Bode C, Richter F, Spröte C, Brigadski T, Bauer A, Fietz S, Fritschy JM, Richter A. Altered postnatal maturation of striatal GABAergic interneurons in a phenotypic animal model of dystonia. Exp Neurol 2017; 287:44-53. [PMID: 27780732 DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2016.10.013] [Citation(s) in RCA: 23] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2016] [Revised: 09/30/2016] [Accepted: 10/21/2016] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
GABAergic disinhibition has been suggested to play a critical role in the pathophysiology of several basal ganglia disorders, including dystonia, a common movement disorder. Previous studies have shown a deficit of striatal GABAergic interneurons (IN) in the dtsz mutant hamster, one of the few phenotypic animal models of dystonia. However, mechanisms underlying this deficit are largely unknown. In the present study, we investigated the migration and maturation of striatal IN during postnatal development (18days of age) and at age of highest severity of dystonia (33days of age) in this hamster model. In line with previous findings, the density of GAD67-positive IN and the level of parvalbumin mRNA, a marker for fast spiking GABAergic IN, were lower in the dtsz mutant than in control hamsters. However, an unaltered density of Nkx2.1 labeled cells and Nkx2.1 mRNA level suggested that the migration of GABAergic IN into the striatum was not retarded. Therefore, different factors that indicate maturation of GABAergic IN were determined. While mRNA of the KCC2 cation/chloride transporters and the cytosolic carboanhydrase VII, used as markers for the so called GABA switch, as well as BDNF were unaltered, we found a reduced number of IN expressing the alpha1 subunit of the GABAA-receptor (37.5%) in dtsz hamsters at an age of 33days, but not after spontaneous remission of dystonia at an age of 90days. Since IN shift expression from alpha2 to alpha1 subunits during postnatal maturation, this result together with a decreased parvalbumin mRNA expression suggest a delayed maturation of striatal GABAergic IN in this animal model, which might underlie abnormal neuronal activity and striatal plasticity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Christoph Bode
- Institute of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Franziska Richter
- Institute of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Christine Spröte
- Institute of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Tanja Brigadski
- Institute for Physiology, Medical Faculty, Otto-von-Guericke University, 39120 Magdeburg, Germany; Center of Behavioral Brain Sciences (CBBS), 39120 Magdeburg, Germany
| | - Anne Bauer
- Institute of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Simone Fietz
- Institute of Veterinary Anatomy, Histology and Embryology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany
| | - Jean-Marc Fritschy
- Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, University of Zurich, Zurich 8057, Switzerland
| | - Angelika Richter
- Institute of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Toxicology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, University of Leipzig, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.
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Spröte C, Richter F, Bauer A, Gerstenberger J, Richter A. The α2β3γ2 GABAA receptor preferring agonist NS11394 aggravates dystonia in the phenotypic dt model. Eur J Pharmacol 2016; 791:655-658. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejphar.2016.09.040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/15/2016] [Revised: 09/28/2016] [Accepted: 09/29/2016] [Indexed: 01/13/2023]
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Richter F, Gerstenberger J, Bauer A, Liang CC, Richter A. Sensorimotor tests unmask a phenotype in the DYT1 knock-in mouse model of dystonia. Behav Brain Res 2016; 317:536-541. [PMID: 27769743 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2016.10.028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/01/2016] [Revised: 10/13/2016] [Accepted: 10/17/2016] [Indexed: 02/06/2023]
Abstract
Hereditary generalized dystonia is often caused by a GAG deletion in TOR1A (DYT1) that encodes for the protein torsinA. Although mutation carriers show alterations in neuronal connectivity and sensorimotor deficits, only 30% develop dystonia. Uncovering the factors triggering the dystonic symptoms and underlying pathophysiology would greatly benefit the development of more effective therapies. In DYT1 knock-in (KI) mice, the expression of torsinA mutant alters the connectivity of neurons and the function of striatal cholinergic interneurons. We aimed to determine if heterozygous DYT1 KI mice exhibit deficits in behavioural tests that explore the connectivity of the sensory and motor system. DYT1 KI mice were tested in cognitive tests and challenging motor paradigms, followed by the adhesive removal test and the adaptive rotating beam test which both require sensorimotor integration. DYT1 KI mice did not exhibit cognitive deficits and were able to perform similarly to wild type mice even in challenging motor tests with relatively stable sensory input. Conversely, DYT1 KI mice spent more time on sensing and removing an adhesive sticker from the back of the nose; they exhibited difficulty to traverse rotating rods, especially if the surface was smooth and the diameter small. Our observations further support a role of sensorimotor integration in manifestation of this movement disorder. Future studies in DYT1 KI mice will explore the involved neurocircuitry and underlying molecular mechanisms.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franziska Richter
- Institute of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Toxicology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Leipzig University, An den Tierkliniken 15, 04103, Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Julia Gerstenberger
- Institute of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Toxicology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Leipzig University, An den Tierkliniken 15, 04103, Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Anne Bauer
- Institute of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Toxicology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Leipzig University, An den Tierkliniken 15, 04103, Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Chun-Chi Liang
- Department of Neurology and Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor, MI, USA.
| | - Angelika Richter
- Institute of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Toxicology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Leipzig University, An den Tierkliniken 15, 04103, Leipzig, Germany.
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Gerstenberger J, Bauer A, Helmschrodt C, Richter A, Richter F. The novel adaptive rotating beam test unmasks sensorimotor impairments in a transgenic mouse model of Parkinson's disease. Behav Brain Res 2016; 304:102-10. [PMID: 26880341 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2016.02.017] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2016] [Revised: 02/08/2016] [Accepted: 02/11/2016] [Indexed: 10/22/2022]
Abstract
Development of disease modifying therapeutics for Parkinson's disease (PD), the second most common neurodegenerative disorder, relies on availability of animal models which recapitulate the disease hallmarks. Only few transgenic mouse models, which mimic overexpression of alpha-synuclein, show dopamine loss, behavioral impairments and protein aggregation. Mice overexpressing human wildtype alpha-synuclein under the Thy-1 promotor (Thy1-aSyn) replicate these features. However, female mice do not exhibit a phenotype. This was attributed to a potentially lower transgene expression located on the X chromosome. Here we support that female mice overexpress human wildtype alpha-synuclein only about 1.5 fold in the substantia nigra, compared to about 3 fold in male mice. Since female Thy1-aSyn mice were shown previously to exhibit differences in corticostriatal communication and synaptic plasticity similar to their male counterparts we hypothesized that female mice use compensatory mechanisms and strategies to not show overt motor deficits despite an underlying endophenotype. In order to unmask these deficits we translated recent findings in PD patients that sensory abnormalities can enhance motor dysfunction into a novel behavioral test, the adaptive rotating beam test. We found that under changing sensory input female Thy1-aSyn mice showed an overt phenotype. Our data supports that the integration of sensorimotor information is likely a major contributor to symptoms of movement disorders and that even low levels of overexpression of human wildtype alpha-synuclein has the potential to disrupt processing of these information. The here described adaptive rotating beam test represents a sensitive behavioral test to detect moderate sensorimotor alterations in mouse models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia Gerstenberger
- Institute of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Toxicology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Leipzig University, An den Tierkliniken 15, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Anne Bauer
- Institute of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Toxicology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Leipzig University, An den Tierkliniken 15, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Christin Helmschrodt
- Institute of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Toxicology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Leipzig University, An den Tierkliniken 15, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Angelika Richter
- Institute of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Toxicology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Leipzig University, An den Tierkliniken 15, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.
| | - Franziska Richter
- Institute of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Toxicology, Department of Veterinary Medicine, Leipzig University, An den Tierkliniken 15, 04103 Leipzig, Germany.
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Richter A, Hamann M, Wissel J, Volk HA. Dystonia and Paroxysmal Dyskinesias: Under-Recognized Movement Disorders in Domestic Animals? A Comparison with Human Dystonia/Paroxysmal Dyskinesias. Front Vet Sci 2015; 2:65. [PMID: 26664992 PMCID: PMC4672229 DOI: 10.3389/fvets.2015.00065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/29/2015] [Accepted: 11/13/2015] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Dystonia is defined as a neurological syndrome characterized by involuntary sustained or intermittent muscle contractions causing twisting, often repetitive movements, and postures. Paroxysmal dyskinesias are episodic movement disorders encompassing dystonia, chorea, athetosis, and ballism in conscious individuals. Several decades of research have enhanced the understanding of the etiology of human dystonia and dyskinesias that are associated with dystonia, but the pathophysiology remains largely unknown. The spontaneous occurrence of hereditary dystonia and paroxysmal dyskinesia is well documented in rodents used as animal models in basic dystonia research. Several hyperkinetic movement disorders, described in dogs, horses and cattle, show similarities to these human movement disorders. Although dystonia is regarded as the third most common movement disorder in humans, it is often misdiagnosed because of the heterogeneity of etiology and clinical presentation. Since these conditions are poorly known in veterinary practice, their prevalence may be underestimated in veterinary medicine. In order to attract attention to these movement disorders, i.e., dystonia and paroxysmal dyskinesias associated with dystonia, and to enhance interest in translational research, this review gives a brief overview of the current literature regarding dystonia/paroxysmal dyskinesia in humans and summarizes similar hereditary movement disorders reported in domestic animals.
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Affiliation(s)
- Angelika Richter
- Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Institute of Pharmacology, Pharmacy and Toxicology, University of Leipzig, Leipzig, Germany
| | - Melanie Hamann
- Department of Veterinary Medicine, Institute of Pharmacology and Toxicology, Free University Berlin, Berlin, Germany
| | - Jörg Wissel
- Department of Neurological Rehabilitation and Physical Therapy, Vivantes Hospital Spandau and Humboldt Hospital, Berlin, Germany
- Department of Neurology, Vivantes Hospital Spandau and Humboldt Hospital, Berlin, Germany
| | - Holger A. Volk
- Clinical Science and Services, The Royal Veterinary College, Hatfield, UK
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Ruiz M, Perez-Garcia G, Ortiz-Virumbrales M, Méneret A, Morant A, Kottwitz J, Fuchs T, Bonet J, Gonzalez-Alegre P, Hof PR, Ozelius LJ, Ehrlich ME. Abnormalities of motor function, transcription and cerebellar structure in mouse models of THAP1 dystonia. Hum Mol Genet 2015; 24:7159-70. [PMID: 26376866 DOI: 10.1093/hmg/ddv384] [Citation(s) in RCA: 42] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2015] [Accepted: 09/14/2015] [Indexed: 01/07/2023] Open
Abstract
DYT6 dystonia is caused by mutations in THAP1 [Thanatos-associated (THAP) domain-containing apoptosis-associated protein] and is autosomal dominant and partially penetrant. Like other genetic primary dystonias, DYT6 patients have no characteristic neuropathology, and mechanisms by which mutations in THAP1 cause dystonia are unknown. Thap1 is a zinc-finger transcription factor, and most pathogenic THAP1 mutations are missense and are located in the DNA-binding domain. There are also nonsense mutations, which act as the equivalent of a null allele because they result in the generation of small mRNA species that are likely rapidly degraded via nonsense-mediated decay. The function of Thap1 in neurons is unknown, but there is a unique, neuronal 50-kDa Thap1 species, and Thap1 levels are auto-regulated on the mRNA level. Herein, we present the first characterization of two mouse models of DYT6, including a pathogenic knockin mutation, C54Y and a null mutation. Alterations in motor behaviors, transcription and brain structure are demonstrated. The projection neurons of the deep cerebellar nuclei are especially altered. Abnormalities vary according to genotype, sex, age and/or brain region, but importantly, overlap with those of other dystonia mouse models. These data highlight the similarities and differences in age- and cell-specific effects of a Thap1 mutation, indicating that the pathophysiology of THAP1 mutations should be assayed at multiple ages and neuronal types and support the notion of final common pathways in the pathophysiology of dystonia arising from disparate mutations.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | - Pedro Gonzalez-Alegre
- Department of Neurology, University of Iowa Hospitals and Clinics, Iowa City, IA 52242, USA
| | - Patrick R Hof
- Department of Neurosciences, Icahn School of Medicine at Mount Sinai, New York, NY 10029, USA and
| | - Laurie J Ozelius
- Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Department of Neurology
| | - Michelle E Ehrlich
- Department of Pediatrics, Department of Genetics and Genomic Sciences, Department of Neurology,
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Cerebellar synaptogenesis is compromised in mouse models of DYT1 dystonia. Exp Neurol 2015; 271:457-67. [DOI: 10.1016/j.expneurol.2015.07.005] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/01/2015] [Revised: 07/01/2015] [Accepted: 07/07/2015] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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Fremont R, Tewari A, Khodakhah K. Aberrant Purkinje cell activity is the cause of dystonia in a shRNA-based mouse model of Rapid Onset Dystonia-Parkinsonism. Neurobiol Dis 2015; 82:200-212. [PMID: 26093171 DOI: 10.1016/j.nbd.2015.06.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 47] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2014] [Revised: 06/08/2015] [Accepted: 06/09/2015] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Loss-of-function mutations in the α3 isoform of the sodium pump are responsible for Rapid Onset Dystonia-Parkinsonism (RDP). A pharmacologic model of RDP replicates the most salient features of RDP, and implicates both the cerebellum and basal ganglia in the disorder; dystonia is associated with aberrant cerebellar output, and the parkinsonism-like features are attributable to the basal ganglia. The pharmacologic agent used to generate the model, ouabain, is selective for sodium pumps. However, close to the infusion sites in vivo it likely affects all sodium pump isoforms. Therefore, it remains to be established whether selective loss of α3-containing sodium pumps replicates the pharmacologic model. Moreover, while the pharmacologic model suggested that aberrant firing of Purkinje cells was the main cause of abnormal cerebellar output, it did not allow the scrutiny of this hypothesis. To address these questions RNA interference using small hairpin RNAs (shRNAs) delivered via adeno-associated viruses (AAV) was used to specifically knockdown α3-containing sodium pumps in different regions of the adult mouse brain. Knockdown of the α3-containing sodium pumps mimicked both the behavioral and electrophysiological changes seen in the pharmacologic model of RDP, recapitulating key aspects of the human disorder. Further, we found that knockdown of the α3 isoform altered the intrinsic pacemaking of Purkinje cells, but not the neurons of the deep cerebellar nuclei. Therefore, acute knockdown of proteins associated with inherited dystonias may be a good strategy for developing phenotypic genetic mouse models where traditional transgenic models have failed to produce symptomatic mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rachel Fremont
- Dominick P Purpura Department of Neuroscience, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Ambika Tewari
- Dominick P Purpura Department of Neuroscience, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA
| | - Kamran Khodakhah
- Dominick P Purpura Department of Neuroscience, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, NY 10461, USA.
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Harata NC. Current Gaps in the Understanding of the Subcellular Distribution of Exogenous and Endogenous Protein TorsinA. TREMOR AND OTHER HYPERKINETIC MOVEMENTS (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2014; 4:260. [PMID: 25279252 PMCID: PMC4175402 DOI: 10.7916/d8js9nr2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Download PDF] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/22/2014] [Accepted: 08/25/2014] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
Background An in-frame deletion leading to the loss of a single glutamic acid residue in the protein torsinA (ΔE-torsinA) results in an inherited movement disorder, DYT1 dystonia. This autosomal dominant disease affects the function of the brain without causing neurodegeneration, by a mechanism that remains unknown. Methods We evaluated the literature regarding the subcellular localization of torsinA. Results Efforts to elucidate the pathophysiological basis of DYT1 dystonia have relied partly on examining the subcellular distribution of the wild-type and mutated proteins. A typical approach is to introduce the human torsinA gene (TOR1A) into host cells and overexpress the protein therein. In both neurons and non-neuronal cells, exogenous wild-type torsinA introduced in this manner has been found to localize mainly to the endoplasmic reticulum, whereas exogenous ΔE-torsinA is predominantly in the nuclear envelope or cytoplasmic inclusions. Although these outcomes are relatively consistent, findings for the localization of endogenous torsinA have been variable, leaving its physiological distribution a matter of debate. Discussion As patients’ cells do not overexpress torsinA proteins, it is important to understand why the reported distributions of the endogenous proteins are inconsistent. We propose that careful optimization of experimental methods will be critical in addressing the causes of the differences among the distributions of endogenous (non-overexpressed) vs. exogenously introduced (overexpressed) proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- N Charles Harata
- Department of Molecular Physiology & Biophysics, University of Iowa Carver College of Medicine, Iowa City, IA, USA
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