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de Miranda AS, de Brito Toscano EC, O'Connor JC, Teixeira AL. Targeting inflammasome complexes as a novel therapeutic strategy for mood disorders. Expert Opin Ther Targets 2024; 28:401-418. [PMID: 38871633 DOI: 10.1080/14728222.2024.2366872] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/11/2024] [Accepted: 06/07/2024] [Indexed: 06/15/2024]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Inflammasome complexes, especially NLRP3, have gained great attention as a potential therapeutic target in mood disorders. NLRP3 triggers a caspase 1-dependent release of the inflammatory cytokines IL-1β and IL-18, and seems to interact with purinergic and kynurenine pathways, all of which are implicated in mood disorders development and progression. AREAS COVERED Emerging evidence supports NLRP3 inflammasome as a promising pharmacological target for mood disorders. We discussed the available evidence from animal models and human studies and provided a reflection on drawbacks and perspectives for this novel target. EXPERT OPINION Several studies have supported the involvement of NLRP3 inflammasome in MDD. However, most of the evidence comes from animal models. The role of NLRP3 inflammasome in BD as well as its anti-manic properties is not very clear and requires further exploration. There is evidence of anti-manic effects of P2×R7 antagonists associated with reduction in the brain levels of IL-1β and TNF-α in a murine model of mania. The involvement of other NLRP3 inflammasome expressing cells besides microglia, like astrocytes, and of other inflammasome complexes in mood disorders also deserves further investigation. Preclinical and clinical characterization of NLRP3 and other inflammasomes in mood disorders is needed before considering translational approaches, including clinical trials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aline Silva de Miranda
- Laboratory of Neurobiology, Department of Morphology, Institute of Biological Science, Federal University of Minas Gerais, Belo Horizonte, MG, Brazil
| | - Eliana Cristina de Brito Toscano
- Laboratory of Research in Pathology, Department of Pathology, Federal University of Juiz de Fora (UFJF) Medical School, Juiz de Fora, Brazil
| | - Jason C O'Connor
- Department of Pharmacology, Lozano Long School of Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA
- Audie L. Murphy VA Hospital, South Texas Veterans Care System, San Antonio, TX, USA
| | - Antonio Lucio Teixeira
- The Glenn Biggs Institute for Alzheimer's & Neurodegenerative Diseases, Lozano Long School of Medicine, University of Texas Health Science Center at San Antonio, San Antonio, TX, USA
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Ren J, Xiao H. Exercise Intervention for Alzheimer's Disease: Unraveling Neurobiological Mechanisms and Assessing Effects. Life (Basel) 2023; 13:2285. [PMID: 38137886 PMCID: PMC10744739 DOI: 10.3390/life13122285] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2023] [Revised: 11/26/2023] [Accepted: 11/29/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disease and a major cause of age-related dementia, characterized by cognitive dysfunction and memory impairment. The underlying causes include the accumulation of beta-amyloid protein (Aβ) in the brain, abnormal phosphorylation, and aggregation of tau protein within nerve cells, as well as neuronal damage and death. Currently, there is no cure for AD with drug therapy. Non-pharmacological interventions such as exercise have been widely used to treat AD, but the specific molecular and biological mechanisms are not well understood. In this narrative review, we integrate the biology of AD and summarize the knowledge of the molecular, neural, and physiological mechanisms underlying exercise-induced improvements in AD progression. We discuss various exercise interventions used in AD and show that exercise directly or indirectly affects the brain by regulating crosstalk mechanisms between peripheral organs and the brain, including "bone-brain crosstalk", "muscle-brain crosstalk", and "gut-brain crosstalk". We also summarize the potential role of artificial intelligence and neuroimaging technologies in exercise interventions for AD. We emphasize that moderate-intensity, regular, long-term exercise may improve the progression of Alzheimer's disease through various molecular and biological pathways, with multimodal exercise providing greater benefits. Through in-depth exploration of the molecular and biological mechanisms and effects of exercise interventions in improving AD progression, this review aims to contribute to the existing knowledge base and provide insights into new therapeutic strategies for managing AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jianchang Ren
- Institute of Sport and Health, Guangdong Provincial Kay Laboratory of Development and Education for Special Needs Child, Lingnan Normal University, Zhanjiang 524037, China
- Institute of Sport and Health, South China Normal University, Guangzhou 510631, China
| | - Haili Xiao
- Institute of Sport and Health, Lingnan Normal University, Zhanjiang 524037, China;
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Kouba BR, Torrá ACNC, Camargo A, Rodrigues ALS. The antidepressant-like effect elicited by vitamin D 3 is associated with BDNF/TrkB-related synaptic protein synthesis. Metab Brain Dis 2023; 38:601-611. [PMID: 36350480 DOI: 10.1007/s11011-022-01115-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2022] [Accepted: 10/21/2022] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Vitamin D3 (cholecalciferol) has been shown to exert antidepressant-like responses, but the role BDNF/TrkB-related synaptic plasticity in this effect remains to be established. Thus, this study investigated the time-course antidepressant-like response of vitamin D3 in female and male mice and the possible role of BDNF/TrkB signaling in this response. The repeated (7 and 21 days), but not acute (60 min), administration of vitamin D3 (2.5 μg/kg, p.o.) exerted an antidepressant-like effect in female and male mice subjected to the tail suspension test, without altering the basal locomotor activity in the open-field test. Notably, vitamin D3 caused a similar time-dependent antidepressant-like effect in male and female mice, suggesting that this behavioral response in the tail suspension test might not be affected by sex differences. Vitamin D3 administration for 21 days, but not for 7 days or 1 h, augmented BDNF levels in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex of mice. No effects on phospho-CREB/CREB levels were detected in the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex after chronic vitamin D3 administration. Additionally, vitamin D3 increased TrkB, GluA1, and PSD-95 levels in the prefrontal cortex, but not in the hippocampus. Furthermore, an upregulation of synapsin level was observed in both brain regions after vitamin D3 administration. These findings reinforce and extend the notion that vitamin D3 is effective to produce antidepressant-like responses in male and female mice and provide novel evidence that this effect could be associated with BDNF/TrkB-related synaptic protein synthesis. Finally, vitamin D3 could be a feasible nutritional strategy for the management of depression.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bruna R Kouba
- Department of Biochemistry, Center of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina, 88040-900, Brazil
| | - Ana Clara N C Torrá
- Department of Biochemistry, Center of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina, 88040-900, Brazil
| | - Anderson Camargo
- Department of Biochemistry, Center of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina, 88040-900, Brazil
| | - Ana Lúcia S Rodrigues
- Department of Biochemistry, Center of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina, 88040-900, Brazil.
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Wang B, Shi H, Yang B, Miao Z, Sun M, Yang H, Xu X. The mitochondrial Ahi1/GR participates the regulation on mtDNA copy numbers and brain ATP levels and modulates depressive behaviors in mice. Cell Commun Signal 2023; 21:21. [PMID: 36691038 PMCID: PMC9869592 DOI: 10.1186/s12964-022-01034-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/26/2022] [Accepted: 12/28/2022] [Indexed: 01/24/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Previous studies have shown that depression is often accompanied by an increase in mtDNA copy number and a decrease in ATP levels; however, the exact regulatory mechanisms remain unclear. METHODS In the present study, Western blot, cell knockdown, immunofluorescence, immunoprecipitation and ChIP-qPCR assays were used to detect changes in the Ahi1/GR-TFAM-mtDNA pathway in the brains of neuronal Abelson helper integration site-1 (Ahi1) KO mice and dexamethasone (Dex)-induced mice to elucidate the pathogenesis of depression. In addition, a rescue experiment was performed to determine the effects of regular exercise on the Ahi1/GR-TFAM-mtDNA-ATP pathway and depression-like behavior in Dex-induced mice and Ahi1 KO mice under stress. RESULTS In this study, we found that ATP levels decreased and mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) copy numbers increased in depression-related brain regions in Dex-induced depressive mice and Ahi1 knockout (KO) mice. In addition, Ahi1 and glucocorticoid receptor (GR), two important proteins related to stress and depressive behaviors, were significantly decreased in the mitochondria under stress. Intriguingly, GR can bind to the D-loop control region of mitochondria and regulate mitochondrial replication and transcription. Importantly, regular exercise significantly increased mitochondrial Ahi1/GR levels and ATP levels and thus improved depression-like behaviors in Dex-induced depressive mice but not in Ahi1 KO mice under stress. CONCLUSIONS In summary, our findings demonstrated that the mitochondrial Ahi1/GR complex and TFAM coordinately regulate mtDNA copy numbers and brain ATP levels by binding to the D-loop region of mtDNA Regular exercise increases the levels of the mitochondrial Ahi1/GR complex and improves depressive behaviors. Video Abstract.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bin Wang
- Department of Fetology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, 215006, China
- Institute of Neuroscience, Soochow University, Suzhou, 215123, China
| | - Haixia Shi
- Institute of Neuroscience, Soochow University, Suzhou, 215123, China
| | - Bo Yang
- Department of Anesthesiology, The Second Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, 215004, China
| | - Zhigang Miao
- Institute of Neuroscience, Soochow University, Suzhou, 215123, China
| | - Miao Sun
- Department of Fetology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, 215006, China
| | - Hao Yang
- Department of Fetology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, 215006, China.
| | - Xingshun Xu
- Institute of Neuroscience, Soochow University, Suzhou, 215123, China.
- Department of Neurology, The First Affiliated Hospital of Soochow University, Suzhou, 215006, China.
- Jiangsu Key Laboratory of Neuropsychiatric Diseases, Soochow University, Suzhou, 215123, Jiangsu, China.
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NLRP3 Inflammasome: From Pathophysiology to Therapeutic Target in Major Depressive Disorder. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 24:ijms24010133. [PMID: 36613574 PMCID: PMC9820112 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24010133] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2022] [Revised: 12/17/2022] [Accepted: 12/19/2022] [Indexed: 12/24/2022] Open
Abstract
Major depressive disorder (MDD) is a highly prevalent psychiatric disorder, whose pathophysiology has been linked to the neuroinflammatory process. The increased activity of the Nod-like receptor pyrin containing protein 3 (NLRP3) inflammasome, an intracellular multiprotein complex, is intrinsically implicated in neuroinflammation by promoting the maturation and release of proinflammatory cytokines such as interleukin (IL)-1β and IL-18. Interestingly, individuals suffering from MDD have higher expression of NLRP3 inflammasome components and proinflammatory cytokines when compared to healthy individuals. In part, intense activation of the inflammasome may be related to autophagic impairment. Noteworthy, some conventional antidepressants induce autophagy, resulting in less activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome. In addition, the fast-acting antidepressant ketamine, some bioactive compounds and physical exercise have also been shown to have anti-inflammatory properties via inflammasome inhibition. Therefore, it is suggested that modulation of inflammasome-driven pathways may have an antidepressant effect. Here, we review the role of the NLRP3 inflammasome in the pathogenesis of MDD, highlighting that pathways related to its priming and activation are potential therapeutic targets for the treatment of MDD.
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Camargo A, Dalmagro AP, Delanogare E, Fraga DB, Wolin IAV, Zeni ALB, Brocardo PS, Rodrigues ALS. Guanosine boosts the fast, but not sustained, antidepressant-like and pro-synaptogenic effects of ketamine by stimulating mTORC1-driven signaling pathway. Eur Neuropsychopharmacol 2022; 57:15-29. [PMID: 35008015 DOI: 10.1016/j.euroneuro.2021.12.010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/30/2021] [Revised: 12/23/2021] [Accepted: 12/27/2021] [Indexed: 12/23/2022]
Abstract
The mTORC1-dependent dendritic spines formation represents a key mechanism for fast and long-lasting antidepressant responses, but it remains to be determined whether this mechanism may account for the ability of guanosine in potentiating ketamine's actions. Here, we investigated the ability of ketamine plus guanosine to elicit fast and sustained antidepressant-like and pro-synaptogenic effects in mice and the role of mTORC1 signaling in these responses. The combined administration of subthreshold doses of ketamine (0.1 mg/kg, i.p.) and guanosine (0.01 mg/kg, p.o.) caused a fast (1 h - 24 h), but not long-lasting (7 days) reduction in the immobility time in the tail suspension test. This behavioral effect was paralleled by a rapid (started in 1 h) and transient (back to baseline in 24 h) increase on BDNF, p-Akt (Ser473), p-GSK-3β (Ser9), p-mTORC1 (Ser2448), p-p70S6K (Thr389) immunocontent in the hippocampus, but not in the prefrontal cortex. Conversely, ketamine plus guanosine increased PSD-95 and GluA1 immunocontent in the prefrontal cortex, but not the hippocampus after 1 h, whereas increased levels of these proteins in both brain structures were observed after 24 h, but these effects did not persist after 7 days. The combined administration of ketamine plus guanosine raised the dendritic spines density in the ventral hippocampal DG and prefrontal cortex after 24 h Rapamycin (0.2 nmol/site, i.c.v.) abrogated the antidepressant-like effect and pro-synaptogenic responses triggered by ketamine plus guanosine. These results indicate that guanosine may boost the antidepressant-like effect of ketamine for up to 24 h by a mTORC1-dependent mechanism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anderson Camargo
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Center of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, 88040-900 SC, Brazil
| | - Ana Paula Dalmagro
- Laboratory of Evaluation of Bioactive Substances, Department of Natural Sciences, Universidade Regional de Blumenau, 89030-903 Blumenau, SC, Brazil
| | - Eslen Delanogare
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Center of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, 88040-900 SC, Brazil
| | - Daiane B Fraga
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Center of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, 88040-900 SC, Brazil
| | - Ingrid A V Wolin
- Department of Biochemistry, Center of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, 88040-900 SC, Brazil
| | - Ana Lúcia B Zeni
- Laboratory of Evaluation of Bioactive Substances, Department of Natural Sciences, Universidade Regional de Blumenau, 89030-903 Blumenau, SC, Brazil
| | - Patricia S Brocardo
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Center of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, 88040-900 SC, Brazil; Department of Morphological Sciences, Center of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Santa Catarina, Florianopolis, 88040-900 SC, Brazil
| | - Ana Lúcia S Rodrigues
- Neuroscience Graduate Program, Center of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, 88040-900 SC, Brazil; Department of Biochemistry, Center of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, 88040-900 SC, Brazil.
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Zhang SS, Zhu L, Peng Y, Zhang L, Chao FL, Jiang L, Xiao Q, Liang X, Tang J, Yang H, He Q, Guo YJ, Zhou CN, Tang Y. Long-term running exercise improves cognitive function and promotes microglial glucose metabolism and morphological plasticity in the hippocampus of APP/PS1 mice. J Neuroinflammation 2022; 19:34. [PMID: 35123512 PMCID: PMC8817568 DOI: 10.1186/s12974-022-02401-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 38] [Impact Index Per Article: 19.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/18/2021] [Accepted: 01/24/2022] [Indexed: 02/06/2023] Open
Abstract
Background The role of physical exercise in the prevention of Alzheimer’s disease (AD) has been widely studied. Microglia play an important role in AD. Triggering receptor expressed in myeloid cells 2 (TREM2) is expressed on microglia and is known to mediate microglial metabolic activity and brain glucose metabolism. However, the relationship between brain glucose metabolism and microglial metabolic activity during running exercise in APP/PS1 mice remains unclear. Methods Ten-month-old male APP/PS1 mice and wild-type mice were randomly divided into sedentary groups or running groups (AD_Sed, WT_Sed, AD_Run and WT_Run, n = 20/group). Running mice had free access to a running wheel for 3 months. Behavioral tests, [18]F-FDG-PET and hippocampal RNA-Seq were performed. The expression levels of microglial glucose transporter (GLUT5), TREM2, soluble TREM2 (sTREM2), TYRO protein tyrosine kinase binding protein (TYROBP), secreted phosphoprotein 1 (SPP1), and phosphorylated spleen tyrosine kinase (p-SYK) were estimated by western blot or ELISA. Immunohistochemistry, stereological methods and immunofluorescence were used to investigate the morphology, proliferation and activity of microglia. Results Long-term voluntary running significantly improved cognitive function in APP/PS1 mice. Although there were few differentially expressed genes (DEGs), gene set enrichment analysis (GSEA) showed enriched glycometabolic pathways in APP/PS1 running mice. Running exercise increased FDG uptake in the hippocampus of APP/PS1 mice, as well as the protein expression of GLUT5, TREM2, SPP1 and p-SYK. The level of sTREM2 decreased in the plasma of APP/PS1 running mice. The number of microglia, the length and endpoints of microglial processes, and the ratio of GLUT5+/IBA1+ microglia were increased in the dentate gyrus (DG) of APP/PS1 running mice. Running exercise did not alter the number of 5-bromo-2′-deoxyuridine (BrdU)+/IBA1+ microglia but reduced the immunoactivity of CD68 in the hippocampus of APP/PS1 mice. Conclusions Running exercise inhibited TREM2 shedding and maintained TREM2 protein levels, which were accompanied by the promotion of brain glucose metabolism, microglial glucose metabolism and morphological plasticity in the hippocampus of AD mice. Microglia might be a structural target responsible for the benefits of running exercise in AD. Promoting microglial glucose metabolism and morphological plasticity modulated by TREM2 might be a novel strategy for AD treatment. Supplementary Information The online version contains supplementary material available at 10.1186/s12974-022-02401-5.
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Wang X, Hu Z, Zhong K. The Role of Brain-Derived Neurotrophic Factor in Epileptogenesis: an Update. Front Pharmacol 2021; 12:758232. [PMID: 34899313 PMCID: PMC8661413 DOI: 10.3389/fphar.2021.758232] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/13/2021] [Accepted: 11/09/2021] [Indexed: 12/02/2022] Open
Abstract
Epilepsy, which is characterized by spontaneous recurrent seizures, is one of the most common and serious chronic neurological diseases in the world. 30% patients failed to control seizures with multiple anti-seizure epileptic drugs, leading to serious outcomes. The pathogenesis of epilepsy is very complex and remains unclear. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), as a member of the neurotrophic factor family, is considered to play an important role in the survival, growth and differentiation of neurons during the development of the central nervous system. Recent years, a series of studies have reported that BDNF can maintain the function of the nervous system and promotes the regeneration of neurons after injury, which is believed to be closely related to epileptogenesis. However, two controversial views (BDNF inhibits or promotes epileptogenesis) still exist. Thus, this mini-review focuses on updating the new evidence of the role of BDNF in epileptogenesis and discussing the possibility of BDNF as an underlying target for the treatment of epilepsy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xinyi Wang
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences and Forensic Medicine, Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou, China
| | - Zhe Hu
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences and Forensic Medicine, Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou, China
| | - Kai Zhong
- Department of Pharmacology, School of Basic Medical Sciences and Forensic Medicine, Hangzhou Medical College, Hangzhou, China
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Liang YY, Zhang LD, Luo X, Wu LL, Chen ZW, Wei GH, Zhang KQ, Du ZA, Li RZ, So KF, Li A. All roads lead to Rome - a review of the potential mechanisms by which exerkines exhibit neuroprotective effects in Alzheimer's disease. Neural Regen Res 2021; 17:1210-1227. [PMID: 34782555 PMCID: PMC8643060 DOI: 10.4103/1673-5374.325012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Age-related neurodegenerative disorders such as Alzheimer’s disease (AD) have become a critical public health issue due to the significantly extended human lifespan, leading to considerable economic and social burdens. Traditional therapies for AD such as medicine and surgery remain ineffective, impractical, and expensive. Many studies have shown that a variety of bioactive substances released by physical exercise (called “exerkines”) help to maintain and improve the normal functions of the brain in terms of cognition, emotion, and psychomotor coordination. Increasing evidence suggests that exerkines may exert beneficial effects in AD as well. This review summarizes the neuroprotective effects of exerkines in AD, focusing on the underlying molecular mechanism and the dynamic expression of exerkines after physical exercise. The findings described in this review will help direct research into novel targets for the treatment of AD and develop customized exercise therapy for individuals of different ages, genders, and health conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yi-Yao Liang
- Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macau Institute of CNS Regeneration, Jinan University; Key Laboratory of CNS Regeneration (Jinan University), Ministry of Education, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Li-Dan Zhang
- Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macau Institute of CNS Regeneration, Jinan University; Key Laboratory of CNS Regeneration (Jinan University), Ministry of Education, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Xi Luo
- Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macau Institute of CNS Regeneration, Jinan University; Key Laboratory of CNS Regeneration (Jinan University), Ministry of Education, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Li-Li Wu
- Department of Medical Ultrasonics, Third Affiliated Hospital of Sun Yat-sen University; Guangdong Key Laboratory of Liver Disease Research, Sun Yat-sen University, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Zhao-Wei Chen
- Department of Clinical Medicine, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Guang-Hao Wei
- Department of Clinical Medicine, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Kai-Qing Zhang
- Department of Clinical Medicine, School of Medicine, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Ze-An Du
- Department of Clinical Medicine, International School, Jinan University, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Ren-Zhi Li
- International Department of the Affiliated High School of South China Normal University, Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
| | - Kwok-Fai So
- Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macau Institute of CNS Regeneration, Jinan University; Key Laboratory of CNS Regeneration (Jinan University), Ministry of Education; Bioland Laboratory (Guangzhou Regenerative Medicine and Health Guangdong Laboratory), Guangzhou, Guangdong Province; Co-Innovation Center of Neuroregeneration, Nantong University, Nantong, Jiangsu Province, China
| | - Ang Li
- Guangdong-Hong Kong-Macau Institute of CNS Regeneration, Jinan University; Key Laboratory of CNS Regeneration (Jinan University), Ministry of Education; Bioland Laboratory (Guangzhou Regenerative Medicine and Health Guangdong Laboratory), Guangzhou, Guangdong Province, China
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Cui F, Gu S, Gu Y, Yin J, Fang C, Liu L. Alteration in the mRNA expression profile of the autophagy-related mTOR pathway in schizophrenia patients treated with olanzapine. BMC Psychiatry 2021; 21:388. [PMID: 34348681 PMCID: PMC8335969 DOI: 10.1186/s12888-021-03394-w] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2021] [Accepted: 07/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND The mammalian target of rapamycin protein (mTOR) signaling pathway is involved in the pathogenesis of schizophrenia and the mechanism of extrapyramidal adverse reactions to antipsychotic drugs, which might be mediated by an mTOR-dependent autophagy impairment. This study aimed to examine the expression of mTOR pathway genes in patients with schizophrenia treated with olanzapine, which is considered an mTOR inhibitor and autophagy inducer. METHODS Thirty-two patients with acute schizophrenia who had been treated with olanzapine for four weeks (average dose 14.24 ± 4.35 mg/d) and 32 healthy volunteers were recruited. Before and after olanzapine treatment, the Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS) was used to evaluate the symptoms of patients with schizophrenia, and the mRNA expression levels of mTOR pathway-related genes, including MTOR, RICTOR, RAPTOR, and DEPTOR, were detected in fasting venous blood samples from all subjects using real-time quantitative PCR. RESULTS The MTOR and RICTOR mRNA expression levels in patients with acute schizophrenia were significantly decreased compared with those of healthy controls and further significantly decreased after four weeks of olanzapine treatment. The DEPTOR mRNA expression levels in patients with acute schizophrenia were not significantly different from those of healthy controls but were significantly increased after treatment. The expression levels of the RAPTOR mRNA were not significantly different among the three groups. The pairwise correlations of MTOR, DEPTOR, RAPTOR, and RICTOR mRNA expression levels in patients with acute schizophrenia and healthy controls were significant. After olanzapine treatment, the correlations between the expression levels of the DEPTOR and MTOR mRNAs and between the DEPTOR and RICTOR mRNAs disappeared. CONCLUSIONS Abnormalities in the mTOR pathway, especially DEPTOR and mTORC2, might play important roles in the autophagy mechanism underlying the pathophysiology of schizophrenia and effects of olanzapine treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fengwei Cui
- grid.89957.3a0000 0000 9255 8984Department of Geriatric Psychiatry, Wuxi Mental Health Center, Nanjing Medical University, Wuxi, 214151 Jiangsu China
| | - Shuguang Gu
- grid.89957.3a0000 0000 9255 8984Department of Geriatric Psychiatry, Wuxi Mental Health Center, Nanjing Medical University, Wuxi, 214151 Jiangsu China
| | - Yue Gu
- grid.89957.3a0000 0000 9255 8984The First Clinical Medical College, Nanjing Medical University, Nanjing, 211166 Jiangsu China
| | - Jiajun Yin
- grid.89957.3a0000 0000 9255 8984Department of Geriatric Psychiatry, Wuxi Mental Health Center, Nanjing Medical University, Wuxi, 214151 Jiangsu China
| | - Chunxia Fang
- Combined TCM & Western Medicine Department, Wuxi Mental Health Center, Nanjing Medical University, Wuxi, 214151, Jiangsu, China.
| | - Liang Liu
- Department of Geriatric Psychiatry, Wuxi Mental Health Center, Nanjing Medical University, Wuxi, 214151, Jiangsu, China.
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Zhang Y, Zhao Y, Ao X, Yu W, Zhang L, Wang Y, Chang W. The Role of Non-coding RNAs in Alzheimer's Disease: From Regulated Mechanism to Therapeutic Targets and Diagnostic Biomarkers. Front Aging Neurosci 2021; 13:654978. [PMID: 34276336 PMCID: PMC8283767 DOI: 10.3389/fnagi.2021.654978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2021] [Accepted: 06/11/2021] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
Alzheimer’s disease (AD) is a progressive neurodegenerative disorder. AD is characterized by the production and aggregation of beta-amyloid (Aβ) peptides, hyperphosphorylated tau proteins that form neurofibrillary tangles (NFTs), and subsequent neuroinflammation, synaptic dysfunction, autophagy and oxidative stress. Non-coding RNAs (ncRNAs) can be used as potential therapeutic targets and biomarkers due to their vital regulatory roles in multiple biological processes involved in disease development. The involvement of ncRNAs in the pathogenesis of AD has been increasingly recognized. Here, we review the ncRNAs implicated in AD and elaborate on their main regulatory pathways, which might have contributions for discovering novel therapeutic targets and drugs for AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yuan Zhang
- Institute for Translational Medicine, The Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Yanfang Zhao
- Institute of Biomedical Research, School for Life Science, Shandong University of Technology, Zibo, China
| | - Xiang Ao
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Wanpeng Yu
- School of Basic Medical Sciences, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Lei Zhang
- Institute for Translational Medicine, The Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Yu Wang
- Institute for Translational Medicine, The Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
| | - Wenguang Chang
- Institute for Translational Medicine, The Affiliated Hospital of Qingdao University, Qingdao University, Qingdao, China
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12
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Rosa JM, Camargo A, Wolin IAV, Kaster MP, Rodrigues ALS. Physical exercise prevents amyloid β 1-40-induced disturbances in NLRP3 inflammasome pathway in the hippocampus of mice. Metab Brain Dis 2021; 36:351-359. [PMID: 33211258 DOI: 10.1007/s11011-020-00646-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2020] [Accepted: 11/11/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Amyloid beta (Aβ), one of the main hallmarks of Alzheimer's Disease (AD), may stimulate pattern recognition receptors (PRR) such as the NLRP3 inflammasome, inducing a pro-inflammatory state in the brain that contributes to disease development. Physical exercise can have multiple beneficial effects on brain function, including anti-inflammatory and neuroprotective roles. The objective of this study was to investigate the prophylactic effect of moderate treadmill exercise for 4 weeks on inflammatory events related to NLRP3 signaling in the hippocampus of mice after intracerebroventricular Aβ1-40 administration. Our results show that Aβ1-40 administration (400 pmol/mouse, i.c.v.) significantly increased the immunocontent Iba-1 (a microglial reactivity marker), NLRP3, TXNIP, and caspase-1 in the hippocampus of mice. However, physical exercise prevented the hippocampal increase in Iba-1, TXNIP, and activation of the NLRP3 inflammasome pathway caused by Aβ1-40. Moreover, physical exercise per se reduced the TXNIP and caspase-1 immunocontent in the hippocampus. No alterations were observed on the immunocontent of GFAP, ASC, and IL-1β in the hippocampus after Aβ1-40 and/or physical exercise. These results reinforce the role of NLRP3 inflammasome pathway in AD and point to physical exercise as a possible non-pharmacological strategy to prevent inflammatory events triggered by Aβ1-40 in mice.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia M Rosa
- Department of Biochemistry, Center of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Campus Universitário, Trindade, Florianópolis, 88040-900, Santa Catarina, Brazil
| | - Anderson Camargo
- Department of Biochemistry, Center of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Campus Universitário, Trindade, Florianópolis, 88040-900, Santa Catarina, Brazil
| | - Ingrid A V Wolin
- Department of Biochemistry, Center of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Campus Universitário, Trindade, Florianópolis, 88040-900, Santa Catarina, Brazil
| | - Manuella P Kaster
- Department of Biochemistry, Center of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Campus Universitário, Trindade, Florianópolis, 88040-900, Santa Catarina, Brazil
| | - Ana Lúcia S Rodrigues
- Department of Biochemistry, Center of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Campus Universitário, Trindade, Florianópolis, 88040-900, Santa Catarina, Brazil.
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13
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Oliveira RF, Paiva KM, da Rocha GS, de Moura Freire MA, de Araújo DP, de Oliveira LC, Guzen FP, de Gois Morais PLA, de Paiva Cavalcanti JRL. Neurobiological effects of forced swim exercise on the rodent hippocampus: a systematic review. Acta Neurobiol Exp (Wars) 2021; 81:58-68. [PMID: 33949162 DOI: 10.21307/ane-2021-007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/24/2020] [Accepted: 01/26/2021] [Indexed: 11/11/2022]
Abstract
Forced swimming is a common exercise method used for its low cost and easy management, as seen in studies with the hippocampus. Since it is applied for varied research purposes many protocols are available with diverse aspects of physical intensity, time and periodicity, which produces variable outcomes. In the present study, we performed a systematic review to stress the neurobiological effects of forced swim exercise on the rodent hippocampus. Behavior, antioxidant levels, neurotrophins and inflammatory markers were the main topics examined upon the swimming effects. Better results among these analyses were associated with forced exercise at moderate intensity with an adaptation period and the opposite for continuous exhausting exercises with no adaptation. On further consideration, a standard swimming protocol is necessary to reduce variability of results for each scenario investigated about the impact of the forced swimming on the hippocampus. Forced swimming is a common exercise method used for its low cost and easy management, as seen in studies with the hippocampus. Since it is applied for varied research purposes many protocols are available with diverse aspects of physical intensity, time and periodicity, which produces variable outcomes. In the present study, we performed a systematic review to stress the neurobiological effects of forced swim exercise on the rodent hippocampus. Behavior, antioxidant levels, neurotrophins and inflammatory markers were the main topics examined upon the swimming effects. Better results among these analyses were associated with forced exercise at moderate intensity with an adaptation period and the opposite for continuous exhausting exercises with no adaptation. On further consideration, a standard swimming protocol is necessary to reduce variability of results for each scenario investigated about the impact of the forced swimming on the hippocampus.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rodrigo Freire Oliveira
- Laboratory of Experimental Neurology , Department of Biomedical Sciences , University of the State of Rio Grande do Norte , Brazil
| | - Karina Maia Paiva
- Laboratory of Experimental Neurology , Department of Biomedical Sciences , University of the State of Rio Grande do Norte , Brazil
| | - Gabriel Sousa da Rocha
- Laboratory of Experimental Neurology , Department of Biomedical Sciences , University of the State of Rio Grande do Norte , Brazil
| | - Marco Aurélio de Moura Freire
- Laboratory of Experimental Neurology , Department of Biomedical Sciences , University of the State of Rio Grande do Norte , Brazil
| | - Dayane Pessoa de Araújo
- Laboratory of Experimental Neurology , Department of Biomedical Sciences , University of the State of Rio Grande do Norte , Brazil
| | - Lucídio Cleberson de Oliveira
- Laboratory of Experimental Neurology , Department of Biomedical Sciences , University of the State of Rio Grande do Norte , Brazil
| | - Fausto Pierdoná Guzen
- Laboratory of Experimental Neurology , Department of Biomedical Sciences , University of the State of Rio Grande do Norte , Brazil
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14
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Radiske A, Gonzalez MC, Nôga DA, Rossato JI, Bevilaqua LRM, Cammarota M. mTOR inhibition impairs extinction memory reconsolidation. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2020; 28:1-6. [PMID: 33323495 PMCID: PMC7747651 DOI: 10.1101/lm.052068.120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2020] [Accepted: 09/10/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Fear-motivated avoidance extinction memory is prone to hippocampal brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF)-dependent reconsolidation upon recall. Here, we show that extinction memory recall activates mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR) in dorsal CA1, and that post-recall inhibition of this kinase hinders avoidance extinction memory persistence and recovers the learned aversive response. Importantly, coadministration of recombinant BDNF impedes the behavioral effect of hippocampal mTOR inhibition. Our results demonstrate that mTOR signaling is necessary for fear-motivated avoidance extinction memory reconsolidation and suggests that BDNF acts downstream mTOR in a protein synthesis-independent manner to maintain the reactivated extinction memory trace.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andressa Radiske
- Memory Research Laboratory, Brain Institute, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, RN 59056-450 Natal, Brazil
| | - Maria Carolina Gonzalez
- Memory Research Laboratory, Brain Institute, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, RN 59056-450 Natal, Brazil.,Edmond and Lily Safra International Institute of Neuroscience, RN 59280-000 Macaiba, Brazil
| | - Diana A Nôga
- Memory Research Laboratory, Brain Institute, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, RN 59056-450 Natal, Brazil
| | - Janine I Rossato
- Memory Research Laboratory, Brain Institute, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, RN 59056-450 Natal, Brazil.,Departament of Physiology, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, RN 59064-741 Natal, Brazil
| | - Lia R M Bevilaqua
- Memory Research Laboratory, Brain Institute, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, RN 59056-450 Natal, Brazil
| | - Martín Cammarota
- Memory Research Laboratory, Brain Institute, Federal University of Rio Grande do Norte, RN 59056-450 Natal, Brazil
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15
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Gruhn K, Siteneski A, Camargo A, Freitas AE, Olescowicz G, Brocardo PS, Rodrigues ALS. Physical exercise stimulates hippocampal mTORC1 and FNDC5/irisin signaling pathway in mice: Possible implication for its antidepressant effect. Behav Brain Res 2020; 400:113040. [PMID: 33279634 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2020.113040] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/17/2020] [Revised: 11/04/2020] [Accepted: 11/30/2020] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Several lines of evidence have consistently indicated that physical exercise has antidepressant effects by improving hippocampal function, although the signaling pathways underpinning these responses are not well established. Therefore, this study investigated the role of mechanistic target of rapamycin complex 1 (mTORC1) and fibronectin type III domain-containing protein 5 (FNDC5)/irisin signaling in the antidepressant-like effect of physical exercise. We showed that physical exercise (treadmill running - 45 min/day/5 days/week for 4 weeks) produced an antidepressant-like effect as indicated by a reduction on the immobility time in mice subjected to the forced swimming test (FST) without altering locomotor activity in the open field test (OFT). Rapamycin (a selective mTORC1 inhibitor, 0.2 nmol/site, i.c.v.) administration completely abolished the antidepressant-like effect of physical exercise in the FST, suggesting that mTORC1 activation plays a role for its behavioral effect. Accordingly, physical exercise increased the number of phosphorylated mTORC1 (Ser2448)-positive cells in the entire and ventral subgranular zone of the hippocampal dentate gyrus. Physical exercise was also effective in augmenting the hippocampal FNDC5/irisin immunocontent, but rapamycin administration did not alter this effect. Our results reinforce the notion that physical exercise exerts an antidepressant-like effect and identifies the mTORC1-mediated signaling pathway as a target for its behavioral effects. This study provides additional evidence that physical exercise increases hippocampal FNDC5/irisin immunocontent, but this effect seems to be independent on hippocampal mTORC1 activation. Altogether the results contribute to elucidate possible molecular targets implicated in the antidepressant effects of physical exercise and highlight the role of mTORC1 signaling for its behavioral response.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karen Gruhn
- Department of Biochemistry, Center of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Santa Catarina, 88040-900, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina, Brazil
| | - Aline Siteneski
- Department of Biochemistry, Center of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Santa Catarina, 88040-900, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina, Brazil; Institute of Investigation, Faculty of Health Sciences, Technical University of Manabí, 130103, Portoviejo, Manabí, Ecuador
| | - Anderson Camargo
- Department of Biochemistry, Center of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Santa Catarina, 88040-900, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina, Brazil
| | - Andiara E Freitas
- Department of Biochemistry, Center of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Santa Catarina, 88040-900, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina, Brazil
| | - Gislaine Olescowicz
- Department of Biochemistry, Center of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Santa Catarina, 88040-900, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina, Brazil
| | - Patricia S Brocardo
- Department of Morphological Sciences, Center of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Santa Catarina, 88040-900, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina, Brazil
| | - Ana Lúcia S Rodrigues
- Department of Biochemistry, Center of Biological Sciences, Federal University of Santa Catarina, 88040-900, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina, Brazil.
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16
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Rosa JM, Pazini FL, Camargo A, Wolin IAV, Olescowicz G, Eslabão LB, Romero OB, Winkelmann-Duarte EC, S Rodrigues AL. Prophylactic effect of physical exercise on Aβ 1-40-induced depressive-like behavior and gut dysfunction in mice. Behav Brain Res 2020; 393:112791. [PMID: 32599000 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbr.2020.112791] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/20/2019] [Revised: 06/23/2020] [Accepted: 06/23/2020] [Indexed: 12/14/2022]
Abstract
Alzheimer's disease (AD) is a prevalent neurodegenerative disease that is highly comorbid with depression. Gut dysfunction has been proposed as a possible risk factor for both clinical conditions. In the present study, we investigated the ability of treadmill exercise for 4 weeks (5 days/week, 40 min/day) to counteract amyloid β1-40 peptide (Aβ1-40)-induced depressive-like behavior, alterations in morphological parameters of the duodenum, and the abundance of Firmicutes and Bacteroidetes phyla. Aβ1-40 administration (400 pmol/mouse, i.c.v.) increased immobility time in the tail suspension test (TST) and reduced time spent sniffing in the female urine sniffing test (FUST), indicating behavioral despair and impairment in reward-seeking behavior. These behavioral alterations, indicative of depressive-like behavior, were accompanied by reduced villus width in the duodenum. Moreover, photomicrographs obtained by transmission electron microscopy revealed abnormal epithelial microvilli in the duodenum from sedentary Aβ1-40-exposed mice, characterized by shorter microvilli and heterogeneity in the length of these structures that exhibit a disordered packing. Regarding the ultrastructure of Paneth cells, Aβ1-40 administration caused a reduction in the secretory granule diameter, as well as an enlarged peripheral halo. These animals also presented reduced Firmicutes and increased Bacteroidetes abundance, and increased Bacteroidetes/Firmicutes ratio. Most of the alterations observed in Aβ1-40-exposed mice were prevented by the practice of physical exercise. Altogether the results provide evidence of the prophylactic effect of physical exercise on Aβ1-40-induced depressive-like behavior and gut dysfunction in mice, suggesting that physical exercise could be useful for preventing depression associated with AD.
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Affiliation(s)
- Julia M Rosa
- Department of Biochemistry, Center of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina 88040-900, Brazil
| | - Francis L Pazini
- Department of Biochemistry, Center of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina 88040-900, Brazil
| | - Anderson Camargo
- Department of Biochemistry, Center of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina 88040-900, Brazil
| | - Ingrid A V Wolin
- Department of Biochemistry, Center of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina 88040-900, Brazil
| | - Gislaine Olescowicz
- Department of Pharmacology, Center of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina 88040-900, Brazil
| | - Livia B Eslabão
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Center of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina 88040-900, Brazil
| | - Oscar Bruna Romero
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology and Parasitology, Center of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina 88040-900, Brazil
| | - Elisa C Winkelmann-Duarte
- Department of Morphological Sciences, Center of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina 88040-900, Brazil
| | - Ana Lúcia S Rodrigues
- Department of Biochemistry, Center of Biological Sciences, Universidade Federal de Santa Catarina, Florianópolis, Santa Catarina 88040-900, Brazil.
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17
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Antidepressant-like and pro-neurogenic effects of physical exercise: the putative role of FNDC5/irisin pathway. J Neural Transm (Vienna) 2020; 127:355-370. [DOI: 10.1007/s00702-020-02143-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2019] [Accepted: 01/12/2020] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
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