Synthesis, characterization and in vitro degradation study of a novel and rapidly degradable elastomer

Citrate-Based Polyester Elastomer with Artificially Regulatable Degradation Rate on Demand

Citrate-based polymers are commonly used to create biodegradable implants. In an era of personalized medicine, it is highly desired that the degradation rates of citrate-based implants can be artificially regulated as required during clinical applications. Unfortunately, current citrate-based polymers only undergo passive degradation, which follows a specific degradation profile. This presents a considerable challenge for the use of citrate-based implants. To address this, a novel citrate-based polyester elastomer (POCSS) with artificially regulatable degradation rate is developed by incorporating disulfide bonds (S-S) into the backbone chains of the crosslinking network of poly(octamethylene citrate) (POC). This POCSS exhibits excellent and tunable mechanical properties, notable antibacterial properties, good biocompatibility, and low biotoxicity of its degradation products. The degradation rate of the POCSS can be regulated by breaking the S-S in its crosslinking network using glutathione (GSH). After a period of subcutaneous implantation of POCSS scaffolds in mice, the degradation rate eventually increased by 2.46 times through the subcutaneous administration of GSH. Notably, we observed no significant adverse effects on its surrounding tissues, the balance of the physiological environment, major organs, and the health status of the mice during degradation.

Bulk Erosion Degradation Mechanism for Poly(1,8-octanediol-co-citrate) Elastomer: An In Vivo and In Vitro Investigation

As a biodegradable elastomer, poly(1,8-octanediol-co-citrate) (POC) has been widely applied in tissue engineering and implantable electronics. However, the unclear degradation mechanism has posed a great challenge for the better application and development of POC. To reveal the degradation mechanism, here, we present a systematic investigation into in vivo and in vitro degradation behaviors of POC. Initially, critical factors, including chemical structures, hydrophilic and water-absorbency characteristics, and degradation reaction of POC, are investigated. Then, various degradation-induced changes during in vitro degradation of POC-x (POC with different cross-linking densities) are monitored and discussed. The results show that (1) cross-linking densities exponentially drop with degradation time; (2) mass loss and PBS-absorption ratio grow nonlinearly; (3) the morphology on the cross-section changes from flat to rough at a microscopic level; (4) the cubic samples keep swelling until they collapse into fragments from a macro view; and (5) the mechanical properties experience a sharp drop at the beginning of degradation. Finally, the in vivo degradation behaviors of POC-x are investigated, and the results are similar to those in vitro. The comprehensive assessment suggests that the in vitro and in vivo degradation of POC occurs primarily through bulk erosion. Inflammation responses triggered by the degradation of POC-x are comparable to poly(lactic acid), or even less obvious. In addition, the mechanical evaluation of POC in the simulated application environment is first proposed and conducted in this work for a more appropriate application. The degradation mechanism of POC revealed will greatly promote the further development and application of POC-based materials in the biomedical field.

Biodegradable polymeric materials for flexible and degradable electronics

Biodegradable electronics have great potential to reduce the environmental footprint of electronic devices and to avoid secondary removal of implantable health monitors and therapeutic electronics. Benefiting from the intensive innovation on biodegradable nanomaterials, current transient electronics can realize full components’ degradability. However, design of materials with tissue-comparable flexibility, desired dielectric properties, suitable biocompatibility and programmable biodegradability will always be a challenge to explore the subtle trade-offs between these parameters. In this review, we firstly discuss the general chemical structure and degradation behavior of polymeric biodegradable materials that have been widely studied for various applications. Then, specific properties of different degradable polymer materials such as biocompatibility, biodegradability, and flexibility were compared and evaluated for real-life applications. Complex biodegradable electronics and related strategies with enhanced functionality aimed for different components including substrates, insulators, conductors and semiconductors in complex biodegradable electronics are further researched and discussed. Finally, typical applications of biodegradable electronics in sensing, therapeutic drug delivery, energy storage and integrated electronic systems are highlighted. This paper critically reviews the significant progress made in the field and highlights the future prospects.

Advanced spectroscopy, microscopy, diffraction and thermal analysis of polyamide adhesives and prediction of their functional properties with solid-state NMR spectroscopy

Advanced spectroscopy, microscopy, diffraction and thermal analysis reveal heterogeneity and dynamics in polyamide industrial adhesives; solid-state NMR spectroscopy enable the prediction of their functional properties.

Mass spectrometry in bioresorbable polymer development, degradation and drug-release tracking

A detailed characterization of polymeric matrices and appropriate degradation monitoring techniques are required to sustain the development of new materials as well as to enlarge the applications of the old ones. In fact, polymer analysis is essential for the clarification of the intrinsic relationship between structure and properties that ascertains the industrial applications in diverse fields. In bioresorbable and biodegradable polymers, the role of analytical methods is dual since it is pointed both at the polymeric matrices and at degradation tracking. The structural architectures, the mechanical and morphological properties, and the degradation rate, are of outstanding importance for a specific application. In some cases, the complexity of the polymer structure, the processes of decomposition or the low concentration of the degradation products need the concurrent use of different complementary analytical techniques to give detailed information of the reactions taking place. Several analytical methods are used in bioresorbable polymer development and degradation tracking. Among them, mass spectrometry (MS) plays an essential role and it is used to refine polymer syntheses, for its high sensitivity, to highlight degradation mechanism by detecting compounds present in trace amounts, or to track the degradation product profile and to study drug release. In fact, elucidation of reaction mechanisms and polymer structure, attesting to the purity and detecting defects as well as residual catalysts, in biodegradable and bioresorbable polymers, requires sensitive analytical characterization methods that are essential in providing an assurance of safety, efficacy and quality. This review aims to provide an overview of the MS strategies used to support research and development of resorbable polymers as well as to investigate their degradation mechanisms. It is focused on the most significant studies concerning synthetic bioresorbable matrices (polylactide, polyglycolide and their copolymers, polyhydroxybutyrate, etc.), published in the last ten years.

Liquid Crystal Elastomers-A Path to Biocompatible and Biodegradable 3D-LCE Scaffolds for Tissue Regeneration

The development of appropriate materials that can make breakthroughs in tissue engineering has long been pursued by the scientific community. Several types of material have been long tested and re-designed for this purpose. At the same time, liquid crystals (LCs) have captivated the scientific community since their discovery in 1888 and soon after were thought to be, in combination with polymers, artificial muscles. Within the past decade liquid crystal elastomers (LCE) have been attracting increasing interest for their use as smart advanced materials for biological applications. Here, we examine how LCEs can potentially be used as dynamic substrates for culturing cells, moving away from the classical two-dimensional cell-culture nature. We also briefly discuss the integration of a few technologies for the preparation of more sophisticated LCE-composite scaffolds for more dynamic biomaterials. The anisotropic properties of LCEs can be used not only to promote cell attachment and the proliferation of cells, but also to promote cell alignment under LCE-stimulated deformation. 3D LCEs are ideal materials for new insights to simulate and study the development of tissues and the complex interplay between cells.

A comparative study of the mechanical, shape-memory, and degradation properties of poly(lactic acid) nanofiber and cellulose nanocrystal reinforced poly(mannitol sebacate) nanocomposites

Composites based on elastomeric matrices and with enhanced mechanical behaviour at physiological temperatures useful for shape memory biodegradable implantable devices.

Citrate-Based Biomaterials and Their Applications in Regenerative Engineering

Advances in biomaterials science and engineering are crucial to translating regenerative engineering, an emerging field that aims to recreate complex tissues, into clinical practice. In this regard, citrate-based biomaterials have become an important tool owing to their versatile material and biological characteristics including unique antioxidant, antimicrobial, adhesive, and fluorescent properties. This review discusses fundamental design considerations, strategies to incorporate unique functionality, and examples of how citrate-based biomaterials can be an enabling technology for regenerative engineering.

The battle for the "green" polymer. Different approaches for biopolymer synthesis: bioadvantaged vs. bioreplacement

Biopolymers have been used throughout history; however, in the last two centuries they have seen a decrease in their utilization as the proliferation of inexpensive and mass-produced materials from petrochemical feedstocks quickly became better-suited to meeting society's needs. In recent years, high petroleum prices and the concern of society to adopt greener and cleaner products has led to an increased interest in biorenewable polymers and the use of sustainable technologies to produce them. Industrial and academic researchers alike have targeted several routes for producing these renewable materials. In this perspective, we compare and contrast two distinct approaches to the economical realization of these materials. One mentality that has emerged we term "bioreplacement", in which the fields of synthetic biology and catalysis collaborate to coax petrochemical monomers from sugars and lignocellulosic feedstocks that can subsequently be used in precisely the same ways to produce precisely the same polymers as we know today. For example, the metabolic engineering of bacteria is currently being explored as a viable route to common monomers such as butadiene, isoprene, styrene, acrylic acid, and sebacic acid, amongst others. Another motif that has recently gained traction may be referred to as the "bioadvantage" strategy, where the multifunctional "monomers" given to us by nature are combined in novel ways using novel chemistries to yield new polymers with new properties; for these materials to compete with their petroleum-based counterparts, they must add some advantage, for example less cost. For instance, acrylated epoxidized soybean oil readily undergoes polymerization to thermosets and recently, thermoplastic rubbers. Additionally, many plants produce pre-polymeric or polymeric materials that require little or no post modification to extract and make use of these compounds.

Developing chemoselective and biodegradable polyester elastomers for bioscaffold application

Thermal polyesterification has emerged as a successful method for synthesizing polyesters for biomedical applications. However, to date, no general functionalization strategy has been incorporated into materials designed by the thermal polycondensation of polyacids and polyols. Herein, we report the design of several elastomers based on the thermal polycondensation of 4-ketopimelic acid, citric acid, and one of two diols: 1,6-hexanediol or 1,4-cyclohexanedimethanol. By varying the diol and the curing conditions, several elastomers were designed with a range of physical and mechanical properties. Poly(diol 4-ketopimelate-co-diol citrate) achieved Young's modulus, ultimate tensile stress, and rupture strain values of 0.39-1.13 MPa, 0.27-1.04 MPa, and 108-426%, respectively. Additionally, the incorporation of the ketone from 4-ketopimelic acid gave these materials two advantageous characteristics: a site for covalent functionalization through oxime formation and the ability to covalently bond to the surrounding tissue through imine linkages. Biocompatibility was studied both in vitro and in vivo in order to gain a complete understanding as to how biological systems respond to these novel materials. Based on preliminary results, we believe that poly(diol 4-ketopimelate-co-diol citrate) polyketoesters are excellent candidates for biomaterials.

Citric acid-derived in situ crosslinkable biodegradable polymers for cell delivery

Herein, we report a first citric acid (CA)-derived in situ crosslinkable biodegradable polymer, poly(ethylene glycol) maleate citrate (PEGMC). The synthesis of PEGMC could be carried out via a one-pot polycondensation reaction without using organic solvents or catalysts. PEGMC could be in situ crosslinked into elastomeric PPEGMC hydrogels. The performance of hydrogels in terms of swelling, degradation, and mechanical properties were highly dependent on the molar ratio of monomers, crosslinker concentration, and crosslinking mechanism used in the synthesis process. Cyclic conditioning tests showed that PPEGMC hydrogels could be compressed up to 75% strain without permanent deformation and with negligible hysteresis. Water-soluble PEGMC demonstrated excellent cytocompatibilty in vitro. The degradation products of PPEGMC also showed minimal cytotoxicity in vitro. Animal studies in rats clearly demonstrated the excellent injectability of PEGMC and degradability of the in situ-formed PPEGMC. PPEGMC elicited minimal inflammation in the early stages post-injection and was completely degraded within 30 days in rats. In conclusion, the development of CA-derived injectable biodegradable PEGMC presents numerous opportunities for material innovation and offers excellent candidate materials for in situ tissue engineering and drug delivery applications.

Recent advances in synthetic bioelastomers

This article reviews the degradability of chemically synthesized bioelastomers, mainly designed for soft tissue repair. These bioelastomers involve biodegradable polyurethanes, polyphosphazenes, linear and crosslinked poly(ether/ester)s, poly(ε-caprolactone) copolymers, poly(1,3-trimethylene carbonate) and their copolymers, poly(polyol sebacate)s, poly(diol-citrates) and poly(ester amide)s. The in vitro and in vivo degradation mechanisms and impact factors influencing degradation behaviors are discussed. In addition, the molecular designs, synthesis methods, structure properties, mechanical properties, biocompatibility and potential applications of these bioelastomers were also presented.

Enhancing the functionality of biobased polyester coating resins through modification with citric acid

Citric acid (CA) was evaluated as a functionality-enhancing monomer in biobased polyesters suitable for coating applications. Model reactions of CA with several primary and secondary alcohols and diols, including the 1,4:3,6-dianhydrohexitols, revealed that titanium(IV) n-butoxide catalyzed esterification reactions involving these compounds proceed at relatively low temperatures, often via anhydride intermediates. Interestingly, the facile anhydride formation from CA at temperatures around CA's melting temperature ( T m = 153 degrees C) proved to be crucial in modifying sterically hindered secondary hydroxyl end groups. OH-functional polyesters were reacted with CA in the melt between 150 and 165 degrees C, yielding slightly branched carboxylic acid functional materials with strongly enhanced functionality. The acid/epoxy curing reaction of the acid-functional polymers was simulated with a monofunctional glycidyl ether. Finally, the CA-modified polyesters were applied as coatings, using conventional cross-linking agents. The formulations showed rapid curing, resulting in chemically and mechanically stable coatings. These results demonstrate that citric acid can be applied in a new way, making use of its anhydride formation to functionalize OH-functional polyesters, which is an important new step toward fully biobased coating systems.

Curable, biodegradable elastomers: emerging biomaterials for drug delivery and tissue engineering

Biodegradable elastomers have a number of potential applications in the biomedical area, especially in the emerging field of soft-tissue engineering where the mechanical properties of the polymer scaffold should match those of the tissue to be grown. An increasing number of synthesis strategies have been employed in order to prepare such elastomers. In this review, these synthesis strategies and the properties of these elastomers are outlined. The factors that influence the characteristics of these elastomers including mechanical properties, degradation rate, and mechanical property change during degradation, are discussed in terms of the design of the elastomer and their advantages and disadvantages for the biomedical applications considered.

The influence of antioxidant and post-synthetic treatment on the properties of biodegradable poly(butylene succinate)s modified with poly(propylene oxide)

Novel poly(ester-ether)s based on poly(butylene succinate) (PBS) as the hard segments and 30 mass % of poly(propylene oxide) (PPO) as the soft segments were synthesized with varying amount of the antioxidant (N,N'-diphenyl-p-phenylenediamine, DPPD). The influences of the addition of DPPD and the impact of post-synthetic treatment by precipitation on the molecular structure, thermal and physical properties, as well as on the storage stability of the biodegradable aliphatic copolyesters, were investigated. The structure and composition of the copolymers were determined by means of 1H-NMR spectroscopy. The molecular weight and polydispersity of the poly(ester-ether)s were evaluated from solution viscosity and GPC measurements. The thermal properties and stability were evaluated, respecttively, by means of DSC and non-isothermal thermogravimetry in an inert nitrogen atmosphere. The biodegradability potential of the polymers was studied in hydrolytic and enzymatic degradation tests with Candida cylindracea lipase by monitoring the weight loss of polymer films after incubation. The weight losses of the samples increased with time and were in the range from 1 to 5 mass % after 4 weeks. GPC analysis confirmed that there were changes in the molecular weight of the copolyesters during both hydrolytic and enzymatic degradation tests, leading to the conclusion that the degradation mechanism of poly(butylene succinate)s modified with PPO occurred through surface erosion and bulk degradation.