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Phase Equilibria, Diffusion and Structure in the Epoxypolycaprolactone System. Polymers (Basel) 2022; 15:polym15010117. [PMID: 36616467 PMCID: PMC9823639 DOI: 10.3390/polym15010117] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2022] [Revised: 12/17/2022] [Accepted: 12/23/2022] [Indexed: 12/29/2022] Open
Abstract
Currently, there is no quantitative approach for the phase structure of cured thermoplastic systems modified with thermoplastic predicting. To solve this problem, we carried out the first stage of the study on a model polycaprolactone-epoxy oligomer (PCL-DGEBA) system. Using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), refractometry and optical interferometry, a phase diagram for PCL-DGEBA mixtures was constructed, and the Flory-Huggins interaction parameters of PCL-DGEBA mixtures were calculated. The structure of PCL-DGEBA mixtures with different PCL content was analyzed by optical microscopy. The change in the structure formation mechanism with increasing PCL concentration was shown. The diffusion coefficients are calculated by the Motano-Boltzmann method. The values of the apparent activation energy of the viscous flow PCL and of self-diffusion of DGEBA are determined. The obtained data will be used for the in situ curing kinetics and phase equilibria in the diffusion zone investigations in order to develop a quantitative method for predicting the phase structure of cured systems.
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Thermal decomposition behavior and flame retardancy of bioepoxies, their blends and composites: A comprehensive review. Eur Polym J 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.eurpolymj.2021.110904] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Experimental Study of Mechanical Properties of Epoxy Compounds Modified with Calcium Carbonate and Carbon after Hygrothermal Exposure. MATERIALS 2020; 13:ma13235439. [PMID: 33260405 PMCID: PMC7730727 DOI: 10.3390/ma13235439] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/29/2020] [Revised: 11/25/2020] [Accepted: 11/26/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
The objective of this paper is to analyze the effects of hygrothermal exposure on the mechanical properties of epoxy compounds modified with calcium carbonate or carbon fillers. In addition, comparative tests were carried out with the same parameters as hygrothermal exposure, but the epoxy compounds were additionally exposed to thermal shocks. The analysis used cylindrical specimens produced from two different epoxy compounds. The specimens were fabricated from compounds of epoxy resins, based on Bisphenol A (one mixture modified, one unmodified) and a polyamide curing agent. Some of the epoxy compounds were modified with calcium carbonate (CaCO3). The remainder were modified with activated carbon (C). Each modifying agent, or filler, was added at a rate of 1 g, 2 g, or 3 g per 100 g of epoxy resin. The effect of the hygrothermal exposure (82 °C temperature and 95% RH humidity) was examined. The effects of thermal shocks, achieved by cycling between 82 °C and -40 °C, on selected mechanical properties of the filler-modified epoxy compounds were investigated. Strength tests were carried out on the cured epoxy compound specimens to determine the shear strength, compression modulus, and compressive strain. The analysis of the results led to the conclusion that the type of tested epoxy compounds and the quantity and type of filler determine the effects of climate chamber aging and thermal shock chamber processing on the compressive strength for the tested epoxy compounds. The different filler quantities, 1-3 g of calcium carbonate (CaCO3) or activated carbon (C), determined the strength parameters, with results varying from the reference compounds and the compounds exposure in the climate chamber and thermal shock chamber. The epoxy compounds which contained unmodified epoxy resin achieved a higher strength performance than the epoxy compounds made with modified epoxy resin. In most instances, the epoxy compounds modified with CaCO3 had a higher compressive strength than the epoxy compounds modified with C (activated carbon).
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Plant-Based Natural Fibre Reinforced Composites: A Review on Fabrication, Properties and Applications. COATINGS 2020. [DOI: 10.3390/coatings10100973] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
Abstract
The increasing global environmental concerns and awareness of renewable green resources is continuously expanding the demand for eco-friendly, sustainable and biodegradable natural fibre reinforced composites (NFRCs). Natural fibres already occupy an important place in the composite industry due to their excellent physicochemical and mechanical properties. Natural fibres are biodegradable, biocompatible, eco-friendly and created from renewable resources. Therefore, they are extensively used in place of expensive and non-renewable synthetic fibres, such as glass fibre, carbon fibre and aramid fibre, in many applications. Additionally, the NFRCs are used in automobile, aerospace, personal protective clothing, sports and medical industries as alternatives to the petroleum-based materials. To that end, in the last few decades numerous studies have been carried out on the natural fibre reinforced composites to address the problems associated with the reinforcement fibres, polymer matrix materials and composite fabrication techniques in particular. There are still some drawbacks to the natural fibre reinforced composites (NFRCs)—for example, poor interfacial adhesion between the fibre and the polymer matrix, and poor mechanical properties of the NFRCs due to the hydrophilic nature of the natural fibres. An up-to-date holistic review facilitates a clear understanding of the behaviour of the composites along with the constituent materials. This article intends to review the research carried out on the natural fibre reinforced composites over the last few decades. Furthermore, up-to-date encyclopaedic information about the properties of the NFRCs, major challenges and potential measures to overcome those challenges along with their prospective applications have been exclusively illustrated in this review work. Natural fibres are created from plant, animal and mineral-based sources. The plant-based cellulosic natural fibres are more economical than those of the animal-based fibres. Besides, these pose no health issues, unlike mineral-based fibres. Hence, in this review, the NFRCs fabricated with the plant-based cellulosic fibres are the main focus.
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Toldy A, Szebényi G, Molnár K, Tóth LF, Magyar B, Hliva V, Czigány T, Szolnoki B. The Effect of Multilevel Carbon Reinforcements on the Fire Performance, Conductivity, and Mechanical Properties of Epoxy Composites. Polymers (Basel) 2019; 11:E303. [PMID: 30960287 PMCID: PMC6419153 DOI: 10.3390/polym11020303] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2018] [Revised: 02/01/2019] [Accepted: 02/06/2019] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
We studied the effect of a multilevel presence of carbon-based reinforcements-a combination of conventional load-bearing unidirectional carbon fiber (CF) with multiwalled carbon nanotubes (CNT) and conductive CNT-containing nonwoven carbon nanofabric (CNF(CNT))-on the fire performance, thermal conductivity, and mechanical properties of reference and flame-retarded epoxy resin (EP) composites. The inclusion of carbon fibers and flame retardant reduced the peak heat release rate (pHRR) of the epoxy resins. The extent to which the nanoreinforcements reduced the pHRR depended on their influence on thermal conductivity. Specifically, high thermal conductivity is advantageous at the early stages of degradation, but after ignition it may lead to more intensive degradation and a higher pHRR; especially in the reference samples without flame retardant. The lowest pHRR (130 kW/m²) and self-extinguishing V-0 UL-94 rating was achieved in the flame-retarded composite containing all three levels of carbon reinforcement (EP + CNF(CNT) + CNT + CF FR). The plasticizing effect of the liquid flame retardant impaired both the tensile and flexural properties; however, it significantly enhanced the impact resistance of the epoxy resin and its composites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Toldy
- Department of Polymer Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Műegyetem rkp. 3-9., H-1111 Budapest, Hungary.
| | - Gábor Szebényi
- Department of Polymer Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Műegyetem rkp. 3-9., H-1111 Budapest, Hungary.
| | - Kolos Molnár
- Department of Polymer Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Műegyetem rkp. 3-9., H-1111 Budapest, Hungary.
- MTA⁻BME Research Group for Composite Science and Technology, Műegyetem rkp. 3., H-1111 Budapest, Hungary.
| | - Levente Ferenc Tóth
- Department of Polymer Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Műegyetem rkp. 3-9., H-1111 Budapest, Hungary.
- Soete Laboratory, Department of Electrical Energy, Metals, Mechanical Constructions and Systems, Faculty of Engineering and Architecture, Ghent University, Technologiepark 903., B-9052 Zwijnaarde, Belgium.
| | - Balázs Magyar
- Department of Polymer Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Műegyetem rkp. 3-9., H-1111 Budapest, Hungary.
| | - Viktor Hliva
- Department of Polymer Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Műegyetem rkp. 3-9., H-1111 Budapest, Hungary.
| | - Tibor Czigány
- Department of Polymer Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Műegyetem rkp. 3-9., H-1111 Budapest, Hungary.
- MTA⁻BME Research Group for Composite Science and Technology, Műegyetem rkp. 3., H-1111 Budapest, Hungary.
| | - Beáta Szolnoki
- Department of Organic Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Chemical Technology and Biotechnology, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Budafoki út 8, H-1111 Budapest, Hungary.
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Szolnoki B, Toldy A, Marosi G. Effect of phosphorus flame retardants on the flammability of sugar-based bioepoxy resin. PHOSPHORUS SULFUR 2019. [DOI: 10.1080/10426507.2018.1539855] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/27/2022]
Affiliation(s)
- Beáta Szolnoki
- Department of Organic Chemistry and Technology, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Budapest, Hungary
| | - Andrea Toldy
- Department of Polymer Engineering, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Budapest, Hungary
| | - György Marosi
- Department of Organic Chemistry and Technology, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Budapest, Hungary
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Pomázi Á, Szolnoki B, Toldy A. Flame Retardancy of Low-Viscosity Epoxy Resins and Their Carbon Fibre Reinforced Composites via a Combined Solid and Gas Phase Mechanism. Polymers (Basel) 2018; 10:E1081. [PMID: 30961006 PMCID: PMC6403879 DOI: 10.3390/polym10101081] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/04/2018] [Revised: 09/25/2018] [Accepted: 09/27/2018] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Low viscosity, potentially renewable aliphatic epoxy resins, appropriate for processing with injection techniques were flame retarded with the use of resorcinol bis(diphenyl phosphate) (RDP), acting predominantly in the gas phase, ammonium polyphosphate (APP), acting in the solid phase, and their combination. Samples of gradually increasing phosphorus (P) content (1%, 2%, 3%, 4%, and 5%) and mixed formulations with 2% P from APP and 2% P from RDP were prepared. The fire retardancy of matrix and carbon fibre reinforced samples was examined by limiting oxygen index (LOI), UL-94 tests, and mass loss calorimetry. The thermal stability of the matrices was investigated by thermogravimetric analysis, whereas the effect of flame retardants (FRs) on the crosslinking process and glass transition temperature was evaluated by differential scanning calorimetry in matrices and by dynamic mechanical analysis in composites. According to the results, although the trifunctional glycerol -based (GER) and the tetrafunctional pentaerythritol-based (PER) epoxy resins have a similar initial LOI and horizontal burning rate, GER has an approximately 1.5 times higher peak of heat release rate (pHRR) than PER. At least 4% P content is necessary to reach a reasonable improvement in fire performance in these resin transfer molding (RTM)-compatible systems and with the same FR-content PER reaches better fire performance. RDP has an early gas phase effect at the beginning of degradation, while later on the solid phase action of APP prevails, although in composites hindered by the reinforcing carbon fibres. In PER composites, the combination of APP and RDP had a synergistic effect, leading to a pHRR of 218 kW/m² and total heat release of 18.2 MJ/m².
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Affiliation(s)
- Ákos Pomázi
- Department of Polymer Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, 1111 Budapest, Hungary.
| | - Beáta Szolnoki
- Department of Organic Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Chemical Technology and Biotechnology, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, 1111 Budapest, Hungary.
| | - Andrea Toldy
- Department of Polymer Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, 1111 Budapest, Hungary.
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Cheng L, Wu W, Meng W, Xu S, Han H, Yu Y, Qu H, Xu J. Application of metallic phytates to poly(vinyl chloride) as efficient biobased phosphorous flame retardants. J Appl Polym Sci 2018. [DOI: 10.1002/app.46601] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/20/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Luyao Cheng
- Engineering Technology Research Center for Flame-Retardant Materials and Processing Technology of Hebei Province, Key Laboratory of Analytical Science and Technology of Hebei Province, College of Chemistry and Environmental Science; Hebei University; Baoding 071002 China
| | - Weihong Wu
- College of Science; Agriculture University of Hebei; Baoding 071000 China
| | - Weihua Meng
- Engineering Technology Research Center for Flame-Retardant Materials and Processing Technology of Hebei Province, Key Laboratory of Analytical Science and Technology of Hebei Province, College of Chemistry and Environmental Science; Hebei University; Baoding 071002 China
| | - Shuo Xu
- Engineering Technology Research Center for Flame-Retardant Materials and Processing Technology of Hebei Province, Key Laboratory of Analytical Science and Technology of Hebei Province, College of Chemistry and Environmental Science; Hebei University; Baoding 071002 China
| | - Hongda Han
- Engineering Technology Research Center for Flame-Retardant Materials and Processing Technology of Hebei Province, Key Laboratory of Analytical Science and Technology of Hebei Province, College of Chemistry and Environmental Science; Hebei University; Baoding 071002 China
| | - Yongfang Yu
- Engineering Technology Research Center for Flame-Retardant Materials and Processing Technology of Hebei Province, Key Laboratory of Analytical Science and Technology of Hebei Province, College of Chemistry and Environmental Science; Hebei University; Baoding 071002 China
| | - Hongqiang Qu
- Engineering Technology Research Center for Flame-Retardant Materials and Processing Technology of Hebei Province, Key Laboratory of Analytical Science and Technology of Hebei Province, College of Chemistry and Environmental Science; Hebei University; Baoding 071002 China
| | - Jianzhong Xu
- Engineering Technology Research Center for Flame-Retardant Materials and Processing Technology of Hebei Province, Key Laboratory of Analytical Science and Technology of Hebei Province, College of Chemistry and Environmental Science; Hebei University; Baoding 071002 China
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Toldy A, Niedermann P, Pomázi Á, Marosi G, Szolnoki B. Flame Retardancy of Carbon Fibre Reinforced Sorbitol Based Bioepoxy Composites with Phosphorus-Containing Additives. MATERIALS (BASEL, SWITZERLAND) 2017; 10:E467. [PMID: 28772825 PMCID: PMC5458979 DOI: 10.3390/ma10050467] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/05/2017] [Revised: 04/20/2017] [Accepted: 04/23/2017] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Carbon fibre reinforced flame-retarded bioepoxy composites were prepared from commercially available sorbitol polyglycidyl ether (SPE) cured with cycloaliphatic amine hardener. Samples containing 1, 2, and 3% phosphorus (P) were prepared using additive type flame retardants (FRs) resorcinol bis(diphenyl phosphate) (RDP), ammonium polyphosphate (APP), and their combinations. The fire performance of the composites was investigated by limiting oxygen index (LOI), UL-94 tests, and mass loss calorimetry. The effect of FRs on the glass transition temperature, and storage modulus was evaluated by dynamic mechanical analysis (DMA), while the mechanical performance was investigated by tensile, bending, and interlaminar shear measurements, as well as by Charpy impact test. In formulations containing both FRs, the presence of RDP, acting mainly in gas phase, ensured balanced gas and solid-phase mechanism leading to best overall fire performance. APP advantageously compensated the plasticizing (storage modulus and glass transition temperature decreasing) effect of RDP in combined formulations; furthermore, it led to increased tensile strength and Charpy impact energy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Andrea Toldy
- Department of Polymer Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Budapest H-1111, Hungary.
| | - Péter Niedermann
- Department of Polymer Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Budapest H-1111, Hungary.
| | - Ákos Pomázi
- Department of Polymer Engineering, Faculty of Mechanical Engineering, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Budapest H-1111, Hungary.
| | - György Marosi
- Department of Organic Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Chemical Technology and Biotechnology, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Budapest H-1111, Hungary.
| | - Beáta Szolnoki
- Department of Organic Chemistry and Technology, Faculty of Chemical Technology and Biotechnology, Budapest University of Technology and Economics, Budapest H-1111, Hungary.
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