Covalent organic frameworks: Polymer chemistry and functional design

Heavy-Metal Ions Removal and Iodine Capture by Terpyridine Covalent Organic Frameworks

Porous materials are excellent candidates for water remediation in environmental issues. However, it is still a key challenge to design efficient adsorbents for rapid water purification from various heavy metal ions-contaminated wastewater in one step. Here, two robust nitrogen-rich covalent organic frameworks (COFs) bearing terpyridine units on the pore walls by a "bottom-up" strategy are reported. Benefitting from the strong chelation interaction between the terpyridine units and various heavy metal ions, these two terpyridine COFs show excellent removal efficiency and capability for Pb2+, Hg2+, Cu2+, Ag+, Cd2+, Ni2+, and Cr3+ from water. These COFs are shown to remove such heavy metal ions with >90% of contents at one time after the aqueous metal ions mixture is passed through the COF filter. The nitrogen-rich features of the COFs also endow them with the capability of capturing iodine vapors, offering the terpyridine COFs the potential for environmental remediation applications.

Design of High-Performance Formyl-Functionalized COF Aerogels as Quasi-Solid Lithium Battery Electrolyte by a Solvent Substitution Strategy

Covalent organic framework (COF) aerogels with functional groups offer exceptional processability and functionality for various applications. These hierarchical porous materials combine the advantages of COFs with the benefits of aerogels, overcoming the limitations of conventional insoluble and nonfusible COF powders. However, achieving both high crystallinity and shape retention remains a challenge for functionalized COF aerogels. In this work, we develop a novel and general solvent substitution method for the one-step synthesis of formyl-functionalized COF aerogels without harsh vacuum conditions. These aerogels exhibit excellent processing capabilities, superior mechanical strength, and enhanced functionality. As a proof-of-concept, they were used in adsorption and lithium metal battery applications, significantly maximizing the structural advantages of COFs, e.g.: (i) the hierarchical porous structure is fully wetted by the electrolyte to form continuous transport channels; (ii) the polar groups, which are easier to be acquired, help in desolvation and transfer of Li+; (iii) the regular pore structures stabilize deposition of Li+ and inhibit the growth of lithium dendrites. These combined benefits contribute to a lighter battery with improved energy density and enhanced safety.

Exceptional Anhydrous Proton Conduction in Covalent Organic Frameworks

Covalent organic frameworks (COFs) offer an irreplaceable platform for mass transport, as they provide aligned one-dimensional channels as pathways. Especially, proton conduction is of great scientific interest and technological importance. However, unlike proton conduction under humidity, anhydrous proton conduction remains a challenge, as it requires robust materials and proceeds under harsh conditions. Here, we report exceptional anhydrous proton conduction in stable crystalline porous COFs by integrating neat phosphoric acid into the channels to form extended hydrogen-bonding networks. The phosphoric acid networks in the pores are stabilized by hierarchical multipoint and multichain hydrogen-bonding interactions with the 3D channel walls. We synthesized five hexagonal COFs that possess different pore sizes, which are gradually tuned from micropores to mesopores. Remarkably, mesoporous COFs with a high pore volume exhibit an exceptional anhydrous proton conductivity of 0.31 S cm-1, which marks the highest conductivity among all examples reported for COFs. We observed that the proton conductivity is dependent on the pore volume, pore size, and content of phosphoric acid. Increasing the pore volume improves the proton conductivity in an exponential fashion. Remarkably, changing the pore volume from 0.41 to 1.60 cm3 g-1 increases the proton conductivity by 1150-fold. Interestingly, as the pore size increases, the activation energy barrier of proton conduction decreases in linear mode. The mesopores enable fast proton hopping across the channels, while the micropores follow sluggish vehicle conduction. Experiments on tuning phosphoric acid loading contents revealed that a well-developed hydrogen-bonding phosphoric acid network in the pores is critical for proton conduction.

Deciphering the relationship between the ordered pore structure and solid-phase microextraction behavior of covalent organic frameworks for phenols

The extraction performance of materials is highly related to their physical structure. However, the precise impact of ordered pore structure in covalent organic frameworks (COFs) on extraction performance are still puzzling. To look insight into this, a series of COFs with varying degrees of ordered pore structures were prepared at room temperature by adjusting reaction time and their extraction efficiencies toward phenolic compounds were investigated. The experimental results revealed that the COF with a short range ordered pore structure exhibited a higher affinity for phenolic compounds along with a larger enrichment factor, while the COF with a long range ordered pore structure demonstrated faster extraction kinetics. The investigation into interaction mechanism revealed that the density of available sites is responsible for these differences. Taking COF-OMe-0.5 h as solid-phase microextraction fiber coating, a highly efficient and sensitive quantitative analysis method for phenolic compounds was established by combining it with gas chromatograph-mass spectrometer. The established method boasts high enrichment factors (7192-29440), wide linear ranges (2.0-10000 ng L-1), and low detection limits (0.24-0.54 ng L-1). This study provides a conceptual guide for constructing desirable COFs with controlled pore structures for specific applications.

Mechanochemical Synthesis of Thiadiazole Functionalized COF as Oil-Based Lubricant Additive for Reducing Friction and Wear

In this work, the functionalized covalent organic framework (COF) was prepared via a convenient ball milling process. The aldehyde group terminated COF-F reacted with amino thiadiazole in the ball milling jar under mechanical forces; hence, the thiadiazole functionalized COF-F was obtained and denoted as Thdz@COF-F. The as-prepared Thdz@COF-F serves as an oil-based lubricant additive and exhibits remarkable tribological properties, which can reduce the average friction coefficient of base oil from 0.169 to 0.102 and decrease the wear volume by 87.0%. The antifriction and antiwear performances are mainly due to the repairing effect of Thdz@COF-F nanoparticles and the protective tribo-film that averts the direct contact of friction pairs. In addition, through the ball milling method, triazole and thiazole functionalized COF-F were also prepared and represented good lubrication performance, demonstrating the feasibility of this mechanochemical synthesis method for functionalized COFs.

Recent progress of covalent organic frameworks as attractive materials for solid-phase microextraction: A review

Solid-phase microextraction (SPME) is a green, environmentally friendly, and efficient technique for sample pre-treatment. Covalent organic frameworks (COFs), a class of porous materials formed by covalent bonds, have gained prominence owing to their remarkable attributes, including large specific surface area, tunable pore size, and robust thermal/chemical stability. These characteristics have made COFs highly appealing as potential coatings for SPME fiber over the past decades. In this review, various methods used to prepare SPME coatings based on COFs are presented. These methods encompass physical adhesion, sol-gel processes, in situ growth, and chemical cross-linking strategies. In addition, the applications of COF-based SPME coating fibers for the preconcentration of various targets in environmental, food, and biological samples are summarized. Moreover, not only their advantages but also the challenges they pose in practical applications are highlighted. By shedding light on these aspects, this review aims to contribute to the continued development and utilization of COF materials in the field of sample pretreatment.

Advanced materials for smart protective coatings: Unleashing the potential of metal/covalent organic frameworks, 2D nanomaterials and carbonaceous structures

The detrimental impact of corrosion on metallic materials remains a pressing concern across industries. Recently, intelligent anti-corrosive coatings for safeguarding metal infrastructures have garnered significant interest. These coatings are equipped with micro/nano carriers that store corrosion inhibitors and release them when triggered by external stimuli. These advanced coatings have the capability to elevate the electrochemical impedance values of steel by 2-3 orders of magnitude compared to the blank coating. However, achieving intelligent, durable, and reliable anti-corrosive coatings requires careful consideration in the design of these micro/nano carriers. This review paper primarily focuses on investigating the corrosion inhibition mechanism of various nano/micro carriers/barriers and identifying the challenges associated with using them for achieving desired properties in anti-corrosive coatings. Furthermore, the fundamental aspects required for nano/micro carriers, including compatibility with the coating matrix, high specific surface area, stability in different environments, stimuli-responsive behavior, and facile synthesis were investigated. To achieve this aim, we explored the properties of micro/nanocarriers based on oxide nanoparticles, carbonaceous and two-dimensional (2D) nanomaterials. Finally, we reviewed recent literature on the application of state-of the art nanocarriers based on metal-organic frameworks (MOFs) and covalent-organic frameworks (COFs). We believe that the outcomes of this review paper offer valuable insights for researchers in selecting appropriate materials that can effectively enhance the corrosion resistance of coatings.

Metalation of functionalized benzoquinoline-linked COFs for electrocatalytic oxygen reduction and lithium-sulfur batteries

It is worthwhile to explore and develop multifunctional composites with unique advantages for energy conversion and utilization. Post-synthetic modification (PSM) strategies can endow novel properties to already excellent covalent organic frameworks (COFs). In this study, we prepared a range of COF-based composites via a multi-step PSM strategy. COF-Ph-OH was acquired by demethylation between anhydrous BBr3 and - OMe, and then, M@COF-Ph-OH was further obtained by forming the N - M - O structure. COF-Ph-OH exhibited a 2e--dominated oxygen reduction reaction (ORR) pathway with high H2O2 selectivity, while M@COF-Ph-OH exhibited a 4e--dominated ORR pathway with low H2O2 selectivity, which was due to the introduction of a metal salt with a d electron structure that facilitated the acquisition of electrons and changed the adsorption energy of the reaction intermediate (*OOH). It was proven that the d electron structure was effective at regulating the reaction pathway of the electrocatalytic ORR. Moreover, Co@COF-Ph-OH showed better 4e- ORR properties than Fe@COF-Ph-OH and Ni@COF-Ph-OH. In addition, compared with the other sulfur-impregnated COF-based composites examined in this study, S-Co@COF-Ph-OH had a larger initial capacity, a weaker impedance, and a stronger cycling durability in Li-S batteries, which was attributed to the unique porous structure ensuring high sulfur utilization, the loaded cobalt accelerating LiPS electrostatic adsorption and promoting LiPS catalytic conversion, and the benzoquinoline ring structure being ultra-stable. This work offers not only a rational and feasible strategy for the synthesis of multifunctional COF-based composites, but also promotes their application in electrochemistry.

Nano-scale charge trapping memory based on two-dimensional conjugated microporous polymer

There is a growing interest in new semiconductor nanostructures for future high-density high-performance flexible electronic devices. Two-dimensional conjugated microporous polymers (2D-CMPs) are promising candidates because of their inherent optoelectronic properties. Here, we are reporting a novel donor-acceptor type 2D-CMP based on Pyrene and Isoindigo (PI) for a potential nano-scale charge-trapping memory application. We exfoliated the PI polymer into ~ 2.5 nm thick nanoparticles (NPs) and fabricated a Metal-Insulator-Semiconductor (MIS) device with PI-NPs embedded in the insulator. Conductive AFM (cAFM) is used to examine the confinement mechanism as well as the local charge injection process, where ultrathin high-κ alumina supplied the energy barrier for confining the charge carrier transport. We have achieved a reproducible on-and-off state and a wide memory window (ΔV) of 1.5 V at a relatively small reading current. The device displays a low operation voltage (V < 1 V), with good retention (104 s), and endurance (103 cycles). Furthermore, a theoretical analysis is developed to affirm the measured charge carriers' transport and entrapment mechanisms through and within the fabricated MIS structures. The PI-NPs act as a nanoscale floating gate in the MIS-based memory with deep trapping sites for the charged carriers. Moreover, our results demonstrate that the synthesized 2D-CMP can be promising for future low-power high-density memory applications.

Recent Progress in Design Principles of Covalent Organic Frameworks for Rechargeable Metal-Ion Batteries

Covalent organic frameworks (COFs) are acknowledged as a new generation of crystalline organic materials and have garnered tremendous attention owing to their unique advantages of structural tunability, frameworks diversity, functional versatility, and diverse applications in drug delivery, adsorption/separation, catalysis, optoelectronics, and sensing, etc. Recently, COFs is proven to be promising candidates for electrochemical energy storage materials. Their chemical compositions and structures can be precisely tuned and functionalized at the molecular level, allowing a comprehensive understanding of COFs that helps to make full use of their features and addresses the inherent drawback based on the components and functions of the devices. In this review, the working mechanisms and the distinguishing advantages of COFs as electrodes for rechargeable Li-ion batteries are discussed in detail. Especially, principles and strategies for the rational design of COFs as advanced electrode materials in Li-ion batteries are systematically summarized. Finally, this review is structured to cover recent explorations and applications of COF electrode materials in other rechargeable metal-ion batteries.

Room-Temperature Synthesis of a COFs Membrane Via LBL Self-Assembly Strategy for Energy Harvesting

The covalent organic frameworks (COFs) membrane with ordered and confined one-dimensional channel has been considered as a promising material to harvest the salinity gradient energy from the seawater and river water. However, the application of the COFs in the field of energy conversion still faces the challenges in membrane preparation. Herein, energy harvesting is achieved by taking advantage of a COFs membrane where TpDB-HPAN is synthesized via layer-by-layer self-assembly strategy at room temperature. The carboxy-rich TpDB COFs can be expediently assembled onto the substrate with an environmental-friendly method. The increased open-circuit voltage (Voc ) endows TpDB-HPAN membrane with a remarkable energy harvesting performance. More importantly, the application perspective is also illuminated by the cascade system. With the advantages of green synthesis, the TpDB-HPAN membrane can be considered as a low-cost and promising candidate for energy conversion.

Record Ultralarge-Pores, Low Density Three-Dimensional Covalent Organic Framework for Controlled Drug Delivery

The unique structural characteristics of three-dimensional (3D) covalent organic frameworks (COFs) like high surface areas, interconnected pore system and readily accessible active sites render them promising platforms for a wide set of functional applications. Albeit promising, the reticular construction of 3D COFs with large pores is a very demanding task owing to the formation of interpenetrated frameworks. Herein we report the designed synthesis of a 3D non-interpenetrated stp net COF, namely TUS-64, with the largest pore size of all 3D COFs (47 Å) and record-low density (0.106 g cm^-3 ) by reticulating a 6-connected triptycene-based linker with a 4-connected porphyrin-based linker. Characterized with a highly interconnected mesoporous scaffold and good stability, TUS-64 shows efficient drug loading and controlled release for five different drugs in simulated body fluid environment, demonstrating the competency of TUS-64 as drug nanocarriers.

Designed Synthesis of Three-Dimensional Covalent Organic Frameworks: A Mini Review

Covalent organic frameworks are porous crystals of polymers with two categories based on their covalent linkages: layered structures with two dimensions and networks with three-dimensional structures. Three-dimensional covalent organic frameworks are porous, have large surface areas, and have highly ordered structures. Since covalent bonds are responsible for the formation of three-dimensional covalent organic frameworks, their synthesis has been a challenge and different structures are generated during the synthesis. Moreover, initially, their topologies have been limited to dia, ctn, and bor which are formed by the condensation of triangular or linear units with tetrahedral units. There are very few building units available for their synthesis. Finally, the future perspective of 3D COFs has been designated for the future development of three-dimensional covalent organic frameworks.

2D conjugated microporous polyacetylenes synthesized via halogen-bond-assisted radical solid-phase polymerization for high-performance metal-ion absorbents

The paper reports the first free-radical solid-phase polymerization (SPP) of acetylenes. Acetylene monomers were co-crystalized using halogen bonding, and the obtained cocrystals were polymerized. Notably, because of the alignment of acetylene monomers in the cocrystals, the adjacent C≡C groups were close enough to undergo radical polymerization effectively, enabling the radically low-reactive acetylene monomers to generate high-molecular-weight polyacetylenes that are unattainable in solution-phase radical polymerizations. Furthermore, the SPP of a crosslinkable diacetylene monomer yielded networked two-dimensional conjugated microporous polymers (2D CMPs), where 2D porous polyacetylene nanosheets were cumulated in layer-by-layer manners. Because of the porous structures, the obtained 2D CMPs worked as highly efficient and selective adsorbents of lithium (Li⁺) and boronium (B³⁺) ions, adsorbing up to 312 mg of Li⁺ (31.2 wt%) and 196 mg of B³⁺ (19.6 wt%) per 1 g of CMP. This Li⁺ adsorption capacity is the highest ever record in the area of Li⁺ adsorption.

Organic Higher-Order Topological Insulators: Heterotriangulene-Based Covalent Organic Frameworks

The ability to design and control the chemical characteristics of covalent organic frameworks (COFs) offers a new avenue for the development of functional materials, especially with respect to topological properties. Based on density functional theory calculations, by varying the core units through the choice of bridging groups [O, C═O, CH₂, or C(CH₃)₂] and the linker units [acetylene, diacetylene, or benzene], we have designed heterotriangulene-based COFs that are predicted to be two-dimensional higher-order topological insulators (TIs). The higher-order TI characteristics of these COFs are identified via their topological invariants and the presence of in-gap topological corner modes and gapped edge states. The frontier molecular orbital energies of the building moieties play an important role in determining the size of the higher-order TI gap, which we find to be highly dependent on linker units. We also examined the deposition of the COFs on a boron nitride substrate to assess the feasibility of experimental observation of a higher-order TI phase in the organic layer. This work thus provides new insights into heterotriangulene-based COFs and guidance for the exploration of purely organic topological materials.

Heterostructured two-dimensional covalent organic framework membranes for enhanced ion separation

A heterostructured covalent organic framework (COF) membrane is synthesized via in situ linker exchange. Narrowed pores can be formed at the interface between two types of COFs by adjusting the linker exchange duration. The resultant COF membrane demonstrates a high rejection rate toward Na₂SO₄ of up to 97%.

Large-Area Covalent Organic Polymers Membrane via Sol-Gel Approach for Harvesting the Salinity Gradient Energy

Many materials with nanofluidic channels are exploited to achieve salinity gradient energy conversion. However, most materials are fragile, difficult to process, or only prepared into a limited size, which greatly restricts their practical application in the future. Herein, a covalent organic polymers membrane with high mechanical property and stability is fabricated, which can keep integrity in harsh conditions for up to 1 month. In addition, by using the sol-gel approach, a large-area membrane with an area of 26 × 26 cm is expediently fabricated in lab conditions. When the membrane is applied to salinity gradient energy conversion, the maximum output power density is up to 6.21 W m^-2 . This work provides a simple method for the fabrication of large-area membrane for salinity gradient energy conversion in future real-world applications.

Recent advances in porous organic frameworks for sample pretreatment of pesticide and veterinary drug residues: a review

Rapid and accurate detection of pesticide and veterinary drug residues is a continuing challenge because of the complex matrix effects. Thus, appropriate sample pretreatment is a crucial step for the effective extraction of the analytes and removal of the interferences. Recently, the development of nanomaterial adsorbents has greatly promoted the innovation of food sample pretreatment approaches. Porous organic frameworks (POFs), including polymers of intrinsic microporosity, covalent organic frameworks, hyper crosslinked polymers, conjugated microporous polymers, and porous aromatic frameworks, have been widely utilized due to their tailorable skeletons and pores as well as fascinating features. This review summarizes the recent advances for POFs to be utilized in adsorption and sample preparation of pesticide and veterinary drug residues. In addition, future prospects and challenges are discussed, hoping to offer a reference for further study on POFs in sample pretreatment.

Preparation of hollow tubular TpBD COF and pod-like ZIF-8/H-TpBD COF tubes using a porous anodic aluminum oxide membrane as template

By sacrificing a porous anodic aluminum oxide (AAO) membrane as a template, hollow tubular TpBD (H-TpBD) covalent organic framework (COF) tubes were synthesized in situ and zeolitic imidazolate framework (ZIF-8) nanoparticles were creatively synthesized in situ in H-TpBD tubes at room temperature. H-TpBD COF tubes and ZIF-8/H-TpBD COF tubes were procured by using a strong base or acid to remove the AAO membrane. Then they were analyzed by X-ray diffraction, Fourier infrared spectroscopy, scanning electron microscope, transmission electron microscope, etc. Surprisingly, the obtained TpBD COF has a very small aperture (1.8 nm), thinner tube thickness (50 nm), high stability, and a smooth and homogeneous surface. And the pod-like ZIF-8/H-TpBD COF with complete tubular structure was also obtained.

By sacrificing porous anodic aluminum oxide (AAO) membrane, hollow tubular TpBD (H-TpBD) COF tubes were synthesized and zeolitic imidazolate framework (ZIF-8) nanoparticles were creatively synthesized in situ in H-TpBD tubes at room temperature.

Construction of imine-linked covalent organic framework as advanced adsorbent for the sensitive determination of chlorophenols

Food safety is a great concern of the general public. Chlorophenols (CPs) as organic pollutant can be found in drinking water and foods, causing serious harm to human health. Herein, imine-linked covalent organic frameworks (COFs), named as TAPT-AN-COF, was synthesized by aniline modulation strategy through condensation of 1,3,5-triformylphoroglucinol and 4,4',4''-(1,3,5-Triazine-2,4,6-triyl)trianiline with aniline as modulator. The prepared TAPT-AN-COF possesses good crystallinity and regular morphology, displaying excellent adsorption capability towards CPs pollutants. Thus, the TAPT-AN-COF was used as novel adsorbent for off-line solid-phase extraction of four CPs (2-CP, 3-CP, 2,3-CPs, 2,4-CPs) from bottled water, tea drink and honey samples before high performance liquid chromatography-ultraviolet detection. Under optimal conditions, wide linear range, low detection limits and satisfactory extraction recovery were gained. The π-stacking and hydrophobic interactions between the TAPT-AN-COF and the analytes played an important role in the adsorption. The established method has a great potential in determining other hydrophobic aromatic compounds.

A Review on Polymer Precursors of Carbon Molecular Sieve Membranes for Olefin/Paraffin Separation

Carbon molecular sieve (CMS) membranes have been developed to replace or support energy-intensive cryogenic distillation for olefin/paraffin separation. Olefin and paraffin have similar molecular properties, but can be separated effectively by a CMS membrane with a rigid, slit-like pore structure. A variety of polymer precursors can give rise to different outcomes in terms of the structure and performance of CMS membranes. Herein, for olefin/paraffin separation, the CMS membranes derived from a number of polymer precursors (such as polyimides, phenolic resin, and polymers of intrinsic microporosity, PIM) are introduced, and olefin/paraffin separation properties of those membranes are summarized. The effects from incorporation of inorganic materials into polymer precursors and from a pyrolysis process on the properties of CMS membranes are also reviewed. Finally, the prospects and future directions of CMS membranes for olefin/paraffin separation and aging issues are discussed.

Chemical Conversion and Locking of the Imine Linkage: Enhancing the Functionality of Covalent Organic Frameworks

Imine-based covalent organic frameworks (COFs) are a widely studied class of functional, crystalline, and porous nanostructures which combine a relatively facile crystallization with tuneable compositions and porosities. However, the imine linkage constitutes an intrinsic limitation due to its reduced stability in harsh chemical conditions and its unsuitability for in-plane π-conjugation in COFs. Urgent solutions are therefore required in order to exploit the full potential of these materials, thereby enabling their technological application in electronics, sensing, and energy storage devices. In this context, the advent of a new generation of linkages derived from the chemical conversion and locking of the imine bond represents a cornerstone for the synthesis of new COFs. A marked increase in the framework robustness is in fact often combined with the incorporation of novel functionalities including, for some of these reactions, an extension of the in-plane π-conjugation. This Minireview describes the most enlightening examples of one-pot reactions and post-synthetic modifications towards the chemical locking of the imine bond in COFs.

On-Surface Synthesis of Giant Conjugated Macrocycles

We have achieved an on-surface synthesis of giant conjugated macrocycles having a diameter of ≈7 nm and consisting of up to 30 subunits. The synthesis started with a debrominative coupling of the molecular precursors on a hot Ag(111) surface, leading to the formation of arched oligomeric chains and macrocycles. These products were revealed by scanning tunneling microscopy in combination with density functional theory to be covalent oligomers. These intermediates also display C-Ag organometallic bonds between parallel molecular subunits due to site-selective debromination and the asymmetric molecular conformation. Subsequent cyclodehydrogenation at higher temperatures steered the final conjugation of the macrocycles. Our findings provide a novel design strategy toward π-conjugated macrocycles and open up new opportunities for the precise synthesis of organic nanostructures.

Recent Advances in Covalent Organic Frameworks for Heavy Metal Removal Applications

Covalent organic frameworks comprise a unique class of functional materials that has recently emerged as a versatile tool for energy-related, photocatalytic, environmental, and electrochromic device applications. A plethora of structures can be designed and implemented through a careful selection of ligands and functional units. On the other hand, porous materials for heavy metal absorption are constantly on the forefront of materials science due to the significant health issues that arise from the release of the latter to aquatic environments. In this critical review, we provide insights on the correlation between the structure of functional covalent organic frameworks and their heavy metal absorption. The elements we selected were Pb, Hg, Cr, Cd, and As metal ions, as well as radioactive elements, and we focused on their removal with functional networks. Finally, we outline their advantages and disadvantages compared to other competitive systems such as zeolites and metal organic frameworks (MOFs), we analyze the potential drawbacks for industrial scale applications, and we provide our outlook on the future of this emerging field.

Cross-Linked Covalent Organic Framework-Based Membranes with Trimesoyl Chloride for Enhanced Desalination

The rational design of continuous covalent organic framework (COF)-based membranes is challenging for desalination applications, mainly due to the larger intrinsic pore size of COFs and defects in the crystalline film, which lead to a negligible NaCl rejection ratio. In this work, we first demonstrated a COF-based desalination membrane with in situ cross-linking of a COF-TpPa layer by trimesoyl chloride (TMC) to stitch the defects between COF crystals and cross-link the COF cavity with high-cross-linking degree networks to enhance NaCl rejection. With the addition of TMC monomers, both small spherical nodules and some elongated "leaf-like" features were observed on the membrane surface due to the appearance of nanovoids during cross-linking. The resulting COF-based desalination membrane had a water permeability of approximately 0.81 L m^-2 h^-1 bar^-1 and offered substantial enhancement of the NaCl rejection ratio from being negligible to 93.3% at 5 bar. Mechanistic analysis indicated that the amidation reaction of the secondary amine in keto COF with TMC induced the formation of a highly porous network structure both in the cavity and on the exterior of COF, thereby successfully forming a continuous and nanovoid-containing selective layer for desalination. In addition, the membrane exhibited excellent desalting performance for real industrial wastewater with both low and high salinity. This study proposed that the introduction of a cross-linker to react with the terminal amine group and secondary amine in the backbone of the keto form of COF or its derivatives could provide a facile and scalable approach to fabricate a COF-based membrane with superior NaCl rejection. This opens a new fabrication route for COF-based desalination membranes, as well as extended applications in water desalination.

Diltiazem-imprinted porphyrinic covalent organic frameworks as solid-phase extractants and fluorescent sensors

Diltiazem, which is a calcium channel blocker, is involved in the formation of covalent organic frameworks (COFs) through the Schiff base reaction of tetrakis (4-aminophenyl)-porphine (TAPP) and dihydroxynaphthalene-dicarbaldehyde (DHNDC) and the next enol-to-keto tautomerization. The diltiazem-imprinted COFs (DICOFs) were optimally formed using Sc(OTf)₃ as the catalyst, TAPP/DHNDC/diltiazem in a molar ratio of 2/3/4, N-methylpyrrolidone/mesitylene (v/v = 3/5) as the porogen, and a 1-h reaction with a high imprinting factor of 10.5 compared to the nonimprinted counterparts (NICOFs). The optimized DICOF exhibited a more amorphous XRD pattern, a larger surface area (1650 vs. 930 m²/g), a larger pore volume (1.33 vs. 0.75 cm³/g), and a finer porous SEM feature than NICOF. The selectivity of NICOF toward diltiazem and diazepam at 250 nM (α = 1.03, RSD = 1.3%) was smaller than the selectivity of DICOF (α = 2.94, RSD = 1.6%). The diltiazem samples (5.0-300 ng mL^-1) dynamically quenched the fluorescence of 15 μg/mL DICOF in 50 mM phosphate buffer at pH 6.5 at 8.0 min equilibrium; thus, Stern-Volmer plots were linearly constructed for sensing diltiazem with an LOD of 3.4 ng mL^-1 and an LOQ of 10.2 ng mL^-1. According to the plots, 30 ng mL^-1 diltiazem solutions that were diluted from 30 mg-specified tablets had an average measured concentration of 29.5 ng mL^-1 (σ = 1.3% and n = 5). In addition to application as fluorescent sensors, DICOFs (30 mg) could be used as dispersive extractants to recover 95.2% of 0.6 ng mL^-1 diltiazem from 25 mL phosphate buffer with quadruplicate uses of 0.5 mL methanol/acetic acid (v/v = 9/1) as the eluent. Langmuir and pseudo-second-order models were fitted to the isothermal and kinetic sorption mechanisms, respectively. The maximum sorption capacity of DICOF was ten times larger than that of NICOF (156 vs. 15.2 mg/g). The interday recoveries of 0.6 ng mL^-1 spiked in 20-fold diluted human urine, and 60-fold diluted human serum were 93.2% and 90.6%, respectively.

Greenness of magnetic nanomaterials in miniaturized extraction techniques: A review

Green analytical chemistry principles should be followed, as much as possible, and particularly during the development of analytical sample preparation methods. In the past few years, outstanding materials such as ionic liquids, metal-organic frameworks, carbonaceous materials, molecularly imprinted materials, and many others, have been introduced in a wide variety of miniaturized techniques in order to reduce the amount of solvents and sorbents required during the analytical sample preparation step while pursuing more efficient extraction methods. Among them, magnetic nanomaterials (MNMs) have gained special attention due to their versatile properties. Mainly, their ability to be separated from the sample matrix using an external magnetic field (thus enormously simplifying the entire process) and their easy combination with other materials, which implies the inclusion of a countless number of different functionalities, highly specific in some cases. Therefore, MNMs can be used as sorbents or as magnetic support for other materials which do not have magnetic properties, the latter permiting their combination with novel materials. The greenness of these magnetic sorbents in miniaturized extractions techniques is generally demonstrated in terms of their ease of separation and amount of sorbent required, while the nature of the material itself is left unnoticed. However, the synthesis of MNMs is not always as green as their applications, and the resulting MNMs are not always as safe as desired. Is the analytical sample preparation field ready for using green magnetic nanomaterials? This review offers an overview, from a green analytical chemistry perspective, of the current state of the use of MNMs as sorbents in microextraction strategies, their preparation, and the analytical performance offered, together with a critical discussion on where efforts should go.