Report from the third workshop on future directions of solid-state chemistry: The status of solid-state chemistry and its impact in the physical sciences

Concentration-Dependent Layer-Stacking and the Influence on Phase-Conversion in Colloidally Synthesized WSe2 Nanocrystals

We report a synthesis of WSe2 nanocrystals in which the number of layers is controlled by varying the precursor concentration. By altering the ratios and concentrations of W(CO)6 and Ph2Se2 in trioctylphosphine oxide, we show that high [Se] and large Se/W ratios lead to an increased number of layers per nanocrystal. As the number of layers per nanocrystal is increased, the nanocrystal ensembles show less phase-conversion from the metastable 2M phase to the thermodynamically favored 2H phase. Density functional theory calculations indicate that the interlayer binding energy increases with the number of layers, indicating that the stronger interlayer interactions in multilayered nanocrystals may increase the energy barrier to phase-conversion. The results presented herein provide insights for directing phase-conversion in solution-phase syntheses of transition metal dichalcogenides.

Mesoporous Materials for Metal-Laden Wastewater Treatment

Rapid technological, industrial and agricultural development has resulted in the release of large volumes of pollutants, including metal ions, into the environment. Heavy metals have become of great concern due to their toxicity, persistence, and adverse effects caused to the environment and population. In this regard, municipal and industrial effluents should be thoroughly treated before being discharged into natural water or used for irrigation. The physical, chemical, and biological techniques applied for wastewater treatment adsorption have a special place in enabling effective pollutant removal. Currently, plenty of adsorbents of different origins are applied for the treatment of metal-containing aqueous solution and wastewater. The present review is focused on mesoporous materials. In particular, the recent achievements in mesoporous materials' synthesis and application in wastewater treatment are discussed. The mechanisms of metal adsorption onto mesoporous materials are highlighted and examples of their multiple uses for metal removal are presented. The information contained in the review can be used by researchers and environmental engineers involved in the development of new adsorbents and the improvement of wastewater treatment technologies.

In-situ, Ex-situ, and nano-remediation strategies to treat polluted soil, water, and air - A review

Nanotechnology, as an emerging science, has taken over all fields of life including industries, health and medicine, environmental issues, agriculture, biotechnology etc. The use of nanostructure molecules has revolutionized all sectors. Environmental pollution is a great concern now a days, in all industrial and developing as well as some developed countries. A number of remedies are in practice to overcome this problem. The application of nanotechnology in the bioremediation of environmental pollutants is a step towards revolution. The use of various types of nanoparticles (TiO₂ based NPs, dendrimers, Fe based NPs, Silica and carbon nanomaterials, Graphene based NPs, nanotubes, polymers, micelles, nanomembranes etc.) is in practice to diminish environmental hazards. For this many In-situ (bioventing, bioslurping, biosparging, phytoremediation, permeable reactive barrier etc.) and Ex-situ (biopile, windrows, bioreactors, land farming etc.) methodologies are employed. Improved properties like nanoscale size, less time utilization, high adaptability for In-situ and Ex-situ use, undeniable degree of surface-region to-volume proportion for possible reactivity, and protection from ecological elements make nanoparticles ideal for natural applications. There are distinctive nanomaterials and nanotools accessible to treat the pollutants. Each of these methods and nanotools depends on the properties of foreign substances and the pollution site. The current designed review highlights the techniques used for bioremediation of environmental pollutants as well as use of various nanoparticles along with proposed In-situ and Ex-situ bioremediation techniques.

Investigation of Metastable Low Dimensional Halometallates

The solvothermal synthesis, structure determination and optical characterization of five new metastable halometallate compounds, [1,10-phenH][Pb3.5I8] (1), [1,10-phenH2][Pb5I12]·(H2O) (2), [1,10-phen][Pb2I4] (3), [1,10-phen]2[Pb5Br10] (4) and [1,10-phenH][SbI4]·(H2O) (5), are reported. The materials exhibit rich structural diversity and exhibit structural dimensionalities that include 1D chains, 2D sheets and 3D frameworks. The optical spectra of these materials are consistent with bandgaps ranging from 2.70 to 3.44 eV. We show that the optical behavior depends on the structural dimensionality of the reported materials, which are potential candidates for semiconductor applications.

Rational Solid-State Synthesis Routes for Inorganic Materials

The rational solid-state synthesis of inorganic compounds is formulated as catalytic nucleation on crystalline reactants, where contributions of reaction and interfacial energies to the nucleation barriers are approximated from high-throughput thermochemical data and structural and interfacial features of crystals, respectively. Favorable synthesis reactions are then identified by a Pareto analysis of relative nucleation barriers and phase selectivities of reactions leading to the target. We demonstrate the application of this approach in reaction planning for the solid-state synthesis of a range of compounds, including the widely studied oxides LiCoO₂, BaTiO₃, and YBa₂Cu₃O₇, as well as other metal oxide, oxyfluoride, phosphate, and nitride targets. Pathways for enabling the retrosynthesis of inorganics are also discussed.

Observing and Modeling the Sequential Pairwise Reactions that Drive Solid-State Ceramic Synthesis

Solid-state synthesis from powder precursors is the primary processing route to advanced multicomponent ceramic materials. Designing reaction conditions and precursors for ceramic synthesis can be a laborious, trial-and-error process, as heterogeneous mixtures of precursors often evolve through a complicated series of reaction intermediates. Here, ab initio thermodynamics is used to model which pair of precursors has the most reactive interface, enabling the understanding and anticipation of which non-equilibrium intermediates form in the early stages of a solid-state reaction. In situ X-ray diffraction and in situ electron microscopy are then used to observe how these initial intermediates influence phase evolution in the synthesis of the classic high-temperature superconductor YBa₂ Cu₃ O_{6+ x}   (YBCO). The model developed herein rationalizes how the replacement of the traditional BaCO₃ precursor with BaO₂ redirects phase evolution through a low-temperature eutectic melt, facilitating the formation of YBCO in 30 min instead of 12+ h. Precursor selection plays an important role in tuning the thermodynamics of interfacial reactions and emerges as an important design parameter in planning kinetically favorable synthesis pathways to complex ceramic materials.

Unexpected Competition between Antiferromagnetic and Ferromagnetic States in Hf2MnRu5B2: Predicted and Realized

Materials "design" is increasingly gaining importance in the solid-state materials community in general and in the field of magnetic materials in particular. Density functional theory (DFT) predicted the competition between ferromagnetic (FM) and antiferromagnetic (AFM) ground states in a ruthenium-rich Ti₃Co₅B₂-type boride (Hf₂MnRu₅B₂) for the first time. Vienna ab initio simulation package (VASP) total energy calculations indicated that the FM model was marginally more stable than one of the AFM models (AFM1), indicating very weak interactions between magnetic 1D Mn chains that can be easily perturbated by external means (magnetic field or composition). The predicted phase was then synthesized by arc-melting and characterized as Hf₂Mn_1-xRu_5+xB₂ (x = 0.27). Vibrating-scanning magnetometry shows an AFM ground state with T_N ≈ 20 K under low magnetic field (0.005 T). At moderate-to-higher fields, AFM ordering vanishes while FM ordering emerges with a Curie temperature of 115 K. These experimental outcomes confirm the weak nature of the interchain interactions, as predicted by DFT calculations.

Recent progress in crystalline metal chalcogenides as efficient photocatalysts for organic pollutant degradation

Recent progress in crystalline metal chalcogenides as efficient visible-light-driven photocatalysts for aqueous organic pollutant degradation is reviewed.

Circumventing Diffusion in Kinetically Controlled Solid-State Metathesis Reactions

Solid-state diffusion is often the primary limitation in the synthesis of crystalline inorganic materials and prevents the potential discovery and isolation of new materials that may not be the most stable with respect to the reaction conditions. Synthetic approaches that circumvent diffusion in solid-state reactions are rare and often allow the formation of metastable products. To this end, we present an in situ study of the solid-state metathesis reactions MCl2 + Na2S2 → MS2 + 2 NaCl (M = Fe, Co, Ni) using synchrotron powder X-ray diffraction and differential scanning calorimetry. Depending on the preparation method of the reaction, either combining the reactants in an air-free environment or grinding homogeneously in air before annealing, the barrier to product formation, and therefore reaction pathway, can be altered. In the air-free reactions, the product formation appears to be diffusion limited, with a number of intermediate phases observed before formation of the MS2 product. However, grinding the reactants in air allows NaCl to form directly without annealing and displaces the corresponding metal and sulfide ions into an amorphous matrix, as confirmed by pair distribution function analysis. Heating this mixture yields direct nucleation of the MS2 phase and avoids all crystalline binary intermediates. Grinding in air also dissipates a large amount of lattice energy via the formation of NaCl, and the crystallization of the metal sulfide is a much less exothermic process. This approach has the potential to allow formation of a range of binary, ternary, or higher-ordered compounds to be synthesized in the bulk, while avoiding the formation of many binary intermediates that may otherwise form in a diffusion-limited reaction.

Syntheses of two vanadium oxide-fluoride materials that differ in phase matchability

The syntheses of two noncentrosymmetric (NCS) vanadium oxide-fluoride compounds that originate from the same synthetic reagent concentrations are presented. Hydrothermal and low-temperature syntheses allow the isolation of metastable products that may form new phases (or decompose) upon heating and allow creation of chemically similar but structurally different materials. NCS materials synthesis has been a long-standing goal in inorganic chemistry: in this article, we compare two chemically similar NCS inorganic materials, NaVOF(4)(H(2)O) (I) and NaVO(2-x)F(2+x) (II; x = 1/3). These materials originate from the same, identical reagent mixtures but are synthesized at different temperatures: 100 °C and 150 °C, respectively. Compound I crystallizes in Pna2(1): a = 9.9595(4) Å, b = 9.4423(3) Å, and c = 4.8186(2) Å. Compound II crystallizes in P2(1): a = 6.3742(3) Å, b = 3.5963(2) Å, c = 14.3641(7) Å, and β = 110.787(3)°. Both materials display second-harmonic-generation activity; however, compound I is type 1 non-phase-matchable, whereas compound II is type 1 phase-matchable.

[Mn(dien)2]MnSnS4, [Mn(1,2-dap)]2Sn2S6 and [Mn(en)2]MnGeS4: from 1D anionic and neutral chains to 3D neutral frameworks

Three new organic–inorganic hybrid manganese thiogermanates and thiostannates with 1D anionic or neutral chains and 3D neutral frameworks have been synthesized and feature interesting antiferromagnetic or ferromagnetic properties.

Self-cleaning antimicrobial surfaces by bio-enabled growth of SnO2 coatings on glass

Conventional vapor-deposition techniques for coatings require sophisticated equipment and/or high-temperature resistant substrates. Therefore bio-inspired techniques for the fabrication of inorganic coatings have been developed in recent years. Inspired by the biology behind the formation of the intricate skeletons of diatoms orchestrated by a class of cationic polyamines (silaffins) we have used surface-bound spermine, a naturally occurring polyamine, to promote the fast deposition of homogeneous, thin and transparent biomimetic SnO2 coatings on glass surfaces. The bio-enabled SnO2 film is highly photoactive, i.e. it generates superoxide radicals (O2˙(-)) upon sunlight exposure resulting in a strong degradation of organic contaminants and a strong antimicrobial activity. Upon illumination the biomimetic SnO2 coating exhibits a switchable amphiphilic behavior, which - in combination with its photoactivity - creates a self-cleaning surface. The intrinsic self-cleaning properties could lead to the development of new protective, antifouling coatings on various substrates.

Syntheses and structures of Sc2Nb(4–x)Sn5, YNb6Sn6, and ErNb6Sn5: exploratory studies in ternary rare-earth niobium stannides

Three new rare-earth (RE) niobium stannides, namely, Sc(2)Nb(4-x)Sn(5) (x = 0.37, 0.52), YNb(6)Sn(6), and ErNb(6)Sn(5), have been obtained by reacting the mixture of corresponding pure elements at high temperature and structurally characterized by single-crystal X-ray diffraction studies. Sc(2)Nb(4-x)Sn(5) crystallizes in the orthorhombic space group Ibam (No. 72) and belongs to the V(6)Si(5) type. Its structure features a three-dimensional (3D) network composed of two-dimensionally (2D) corrugated [Nb(2)Sn(2)] and [Nb(2)Sn(3)] layers interconnected via Nb-Sn bonds, forming one type of one-dimensional (1D) narrow tunnels along the c axis occupied by Sc atoms. YNb(6)Sn(6) crystallizes in the hexagonal space group P6/mmm (No. 191) and adopts the HfFe(6)Ge(6) type, and ErNb(6)Sn(5) crystallizes in the trigonal space group R3m (No. 166) and belongs to the LiFe(6)Ge(5) type. Their structures both feature 3D networks based on 2D [Nb(3)Sn], [Sn(2)], and [RESn(2)] layers (RE = Y, Er). In YNb(6)Sn(6), one type of [Nb(3)Sn] layer is interconnected by [Sn(2)] and [YSn(2)] layers via Nb-Sn bonds to form a 3D network. However, in ErNb(6)Sn(5), two types of [Nb(3)Sn] layers are interlinked by [Sn(2)] and [ErSn(2)] layers via Nb-Sn bonds into a 3D framework. Electronic structure calculations and magnetic property measurements for "Sc(2)Nb(4)Sn(5)" and YNb(6)Sn(6) indicate that both compounds show semimetallic and temperature-independent diamagnetic behavior.

CsAlZr2(PO4)4: an anhydrous aluminium zirconium phosphate with a novel three-dimensional framework

Caesium aluminium dizirconium tetrakis[phosphate(V)], CsAlZr(2)(PO(4))(4), has been synthesized by high-temperature reaction and studied by single-crystal X-ray diffraction at room temperature. This represents the first detailed structural analysis of an anhydrous phosphate containing both zirconium and aluminium. The structure features a complicated three-dimensional framework of [AlZr(2)(PO(4))(4)] constructed by PO(4), AlO(4) and ZrO(6) polyhedra interconnected via corner-sharing O atoms, and one-dimensional Cs chains which are located in the infinite tunnels within the [AlZr(2)(PO(4))(4)] framework, which run along the c axis. The Cs, Al, one P and two O atoms lie on a mirror plane, while a second P atom lies on a twofold axis.

Syntheses and characterization of some solid-state actinide (Th, U, Np) compounds

In this Perspective we discuss a variety of methods that are broadly applicable to the syntheses of solid-state compounds. To illustrate the application of these methods we use solid-state actinide compounds, an area of chemistry that has been the focus of this laboratory for the last decade. We have synthesized single crystals, primarily of actinide chalcogenide compounds, by a variety of techniques. The benefits and drawbacks of each will be discussed in detail. Because of their propensity towards high coordination numbers and their ability to take on a variety of formal oxidation states, actinide compounds adopt structures illustrated here that are often different from those adopted by transition-metal or even lanthanide compounds. Often, there are corresponding differences in their physical properties, and these are touched upon here.