Chasing losses in online poker and casino games: characteristics and game play of Internet gamblers at risk of disordered gambling

Online Gambling: A Systematic Review of Risk and Protective Factors in the Adult Population

In recent decades, internet gambling has seen strong growth and diffusion due to intrinsic characteristics that make it particularly attractive to players (accessibility, anonymity, variety of games). This paper aims to present the current state of knowledge of the risk and protective factors of online gambling. A literature search conducted in the PubMed, PsychInfo, and Scopus databases found 42 articles, which were included in the review. Methodological aspects and risk and protective factors were analysed cross-sectionally. The results concerning risk and protective factors were distinguished by the level of analysis: individual, relational, and contextual. Two types of comparisons were considered: online vs. offline gamblers and online nonproblematic vs. problematic gamblers. The results of the two comparisons were juxtaposed to analyse their consistency and the different associations with factors. In general, the review showed that risk factors and variables at the individual level are investigated to a greater extent, while protective factors at the relational and contextual level need more in-depth study in future research. More specifically, this review found that even if online and offline gamblers shared most risk and protective factors, there are variables that they would not have in common. These factors could be important to consider in preventive interventions aimed at online gamblers and online problematic gamblers.

Exploring the Differences in Positive Play among Various Sports Wagering Behaviors

Recent technological advances and legislative changes have led to an increase of sports wagering across the United States, raising concerns about possible increases in problem gambling behaviors. This, in turn, points to an increased need to understand responsible gambling and how it relates to sports gambling behaviors. The present work utilizes the Positive Play Scale (PPS), a recent scale designed to measure the increasingly popular responsible gambling concept of Positive Play, to assess how various aspects of sports gambling relate to responsible gambling. Participants were recruited by YouGov Opinion polling and taken from two U.S. samples, and the present analyses look only at those who self-identified as sports gamblers (n = 561, Mage = 50.7). Gamblers' location of gambling, types of bets wagered on, timing of gambling, and website used to gamble were assessed. Those who bet online in any capacity, as well as participating in in-game wagering, were found to be significantly less positive in their gambling behaviors. In addition, certain types of sports wagers such as moneylines appeared to be associated with higher positive play, while other types such as parlays were associated with less positive play. Finally, certain websites, particularly offshore websites, were associated with lower positive play behavior. Collectively, these results suggest that there are various aspects of sports wagering behaviors that are associated with positive play variations in gambling.

Development of the Online Problem Gaming Behavior Index: A New Scale Based on Actual Problem Gambling Behavior Rather Than the Consequences of it

Many items in current problem gambling screens focus on negative consequences of gambling and gambling-related harms. However, few problem gambling screens comprise items that are totally based on actual gambling behavior such as gambling duration, gambling frequency, or gambling late at night. The aim of the present study was to develop and validate the 12-item Online Problem Gambling Behavior Index (OPGBI). A total of 10,000 online Croatian gamblers were administered the OPGBI alongside the nine-item Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI), as well as questions regarding types of gambling engaged in and socio-demographic factors. The 12 OPGBI items mainly concern actual gambling behavior. The correlation between OPGBI and PGSI was highly significant (r = 0.68). Three latent factors in the OPGBI were identified (gambling behavior, limit setting, communication with operator). The three factors all significantly correlated with the PGSI score (R2- = 51.8%). The fact that pure gambling behavior related items explained over 50% of the PGSI score strengthens the idea that player tracking could be an important approach in identifying problem gambling.

An Empirical Attempt to Operationalize Chasing Losses in Gambling Utilizing Account-Based Player Tracking Data

In recent years, account-based player tracking data have been utilized as a potential tool to identify problem gambling online and associated markers of harm. One established marker of harm among problem gamblers is chasing losses, and chasing losses is a key criterion for gambling disorder in the most recent edition of the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders. Given the paucity of research with respect to chasing losses among online casino players using account-based data, the present study developed five metrics that may be indicative of chasing behavior: These were (i) within-session chasing, (ii) across-session chasing, (iii) across-days chasing, (iv) regular gambling account depletion, and (v) frequent session depositing. The authors were given access by a European online casino to raw data of all players who had placed at least one bet or wagered at least once during December 2021 (N = 16,771 players from the UK, Spain, and Sweden). Results indicated that frequent session depositing reflected chasing losses better than any of the other four metric operationalizations used. While frequent session depositing appears to be more indicative of chasing losses than the other four metrics, all the metrics provide useful information which can be used to help identify problematic gambling behavior online.

Behavioural expressions of loss-chasing in gambling: A systematic scoping review

BANERJEE Nilosmita., CHEN Zhang., CLARK Luke., NOËL Xavier. Behavioural expressions of loss-chasing in gambling: A systematic scoping review NEUROSCI BIOBEHAV REV 152(1) XXX-XXX, 2023. - Loss-chasing, the tendency to continue and/or intensify gambling following losses, is a key clinical symptom in gambling disorder and a central feature endorsed by at-risk problem gamblers. Despite its centrality, loss-chasing has been often operationalised across distinct behavioural expressions. The current systematic scoping review aimed to map the heterogeneous operationalisations of loss-chasing in the literature. The reviewed studies defined loss-chasing either between-sessions (n = 39) or within-sessions (n = 38), as a long-recognised distinction. For both categories, further behavioural expressions could be distinguished. Between-session loss-chasing was captured by endorsing an item 'returning another day/time to recoup losses', or behaviourally as the interval between successive sessions, or as increasing stakes in the next session. Within-session loss-chasing was defined as continuing and/or intensifying gambling either by increased risk-taking, stake size, or speed of play. Additionally, much heterogeneity was observed in the gambling contexts examined, the exact definition of loss, and the potential delineation of win-chasing. Open questions and future directions are discussed. Overall, this paper serves as a first step towards more conceptual clarity of loss-chasing.

Gender and maladaptive personality correlates in problem gambling and over-indebtedness: Novel findings from a cross-sectional study in Sweden

Although most individuals consider gambling to be an innocent and fun activity, when it develops into problem gambling, it can have detrimental outcomes to one's life, such as over-indebtedness. This cross-sectional study explores the role of maladaptive personality traits and gender in both problem gambling and over-indebtedness, in an online sample of 1479 adult gamblers (65% males) in Sweden. Participants were administered the Problem Gambling Severity Index (PGSI), the Personality Inventory for DSM-5-Brief Form (PID-5-BF), and questions addressing subjective over-indebtedness and other risk factors. Quasi-Poisson loglinear models and logistic regression analyses demonstrated that Disinhibition (OR = 1.38, 95% CI [1.24, 1.53]), and Antagonism (OR = 1.23, 95% CI [1.14, 1.34]) showed the strongest associations to problem gambling, and that only Disinhibition (OR = 1.72, 95% CI [1.22, 1.43]) and Antagonism (OR = 2.00, 95% CI [1.52, 2.66]) were significantly related to over-indebtedness. The prevalence of problem gambling and over-indebtedness was more common among women, and gender moderated the univariate relationships of Negative Affectivity, Disinhibition and Psychoticism to problem gambling. These findings call for future research addressing maladaptive personality traits, problem gambling and over-indebtedness, and highlight the need for tailored interventions and prevention strategies, particularly for women who may be at higher risk.

Drug-Induced Gambling Disorder: Epidemiology, Neurobiology, and Management

Problematic gambling has been suggested to be a possible consequence of dopaminergic medications used mainly in neurological conditions, i.e. pramipexole and ropinirole, and possibly by one antipsychotic compound, aripiprazole. Patients with Parkinson's disease, restless legs syndrome and other conditions potentially treated with dopamine agonists, as well as patients treated for psychotic disorders, are vulnerable patient groups with theoretically increased risk of developing gambling disorder (GD), for example due to higher rates of mental ill-health in these groups. The aim of the present paper is to review the epidemiological, clinical, and neurobiological evidence of the association between dopaminergic medications and GD, and to describe risk groups and treatment options. The neurobiology of GD involves the reward and reinforcement system, based mainly on mesocorticolimbic dopamine projections, with the nucleus accumbens being a crucial area for developing addictions to substances and behaviors. The addictive properties of gambling can perhaps be explained by the reward uncertainty that activates dopamine signaling in a pathological manner. Since reward-related learning is mediated by dopamine, it can be altered by dopaminergic medications, possibly leading to increased gambling behavior and a decreased impulse control. A causal relationship between the medications and GD seems likely, but the molecular mechanisms behind this association have not been fully described yet. More research is needed in order to fully outline the clinical picture of GD developing in patient groups with dopaminergic medications, and data are needed on the differentiation of risk in different compounds. In addition, very few interventional studies are available on the management of GD induced by dopaminergic medications. While GD overall can be treated, there is need for treatment studies testing the effectiveness of tapering of the medication or other gambling-specific treatment modalities in these patient groups.

Winning and losing in online gambling: Effects on within-session chasing

The tendency to continue or intensify gambling after losing (loss-chasing) is widely regarded as a defining feature of gambling disorder. However, loss-chasing in real gambling contexts is multifaceted, and some aspects are better understood than others. Gamblers may chase losses between multiple sessions or within a single session. Furthermore, within a session, loss-chasing can be expressed in the decision of (1) when to stop, (2) how much stake to bet, and (3) the speed of play after winning and losing. Using a large player-tracking data set (>2500 players, >10 million rounds) collected from the online commercial game Mystery Arena, we examined these three behavioral expressions of within-session loss-chasing. While the first two aspects (when to stop and how much stake to bet) have been examined previously, the current research is the first large-scale study to examine the effects of wins and losses on the speed of play in real gambling. The players were additionally assigned different involvement levels by the operator based on their gambling behavior on the operator’s own platform, which further allowed us to examine group differences in loss-chasing. We found that after winning, both the high- and low-involvement groups were less likely to stop, and increased the stake amount, thus showing win-chasing instead of loss-chasing in these two facets. After losing, both groups played more quickly though, which may reflect an urge to continue gambling (as an expression of loss-chasing). Wins and losses had a smaller influence on the speed of play for the high-involvement players, suggesting that they might have reduced sensitivity to wins and/or losses. Future work can further examine chasing in different gambling products and in people with gambling problems to assess the generalizability of these findings.

Learning words in space and time: Contrasting models of the suspicious coincidence effect

In their 2007b Psychological Review paper, Xu and Tenenbaum found that early word learning follows the classic logic of the "suspicious coincidence effect:" when presented with a novel name ('fep') and three identical exemplars (three Labradors), word learners generalized novel names more narrowly than when presented with a single exemplar (one Labrador). Xu and Tenenbaum predicted the suspicious coincidence effect based on a Bayesian model of word learning and demonstrated that no other theory captured this effect. Recent empirical studies have revealed, however, that the effect is influenced by factors seemingly outside the purview of the Bayesian account. A process-based perspective correctly predicted that when exemplars are shown sequentially, the effect is eliminated or reversed (Spencer, Perone, Smith, & Samuelson, 2011). Here, we present a new, formal account of the suspicious coincidence effect using a generalization of a Dynamic Neural Field (DNF) model of word learning. The DNF model captures both the original finding and its reversal with sequential presentation. We compare the DNF model's performance with that of a more flexible version of the Bayesian model that allows both strong and weak sampling assumptions. Model comparison results show that the dynamic field account provides a better fit to the empirical data. We discuss the implications of the DNF model with respect to broader contrasts between Bayesian and process-level models.

A voxel-wise meta-analysis of task-based functional MRI studies on impaired gain and loss processing in adults with addiction

BACKGROUND

Disturbances in gain and loss processing have been extensively reported in adults with addiction, a brain disorder characterized by obsession with addictive substances or behaviours. Previous studies have provided conflicting results with respect to neural abnormalities in gain processing in addiction, and few investigations into loss processing.

METHODS

We conducted voxel-wise meta-analyses of abnormal task-evoked regional activities in adults with substance dependence and gambling addiction during the processing of gains and losses not related to their addiction (mainly monetary). We identified 24 studies, including 465 participants with substance dependence, 81 with gambling addiction and 490 healthy controls.

RESULTS

Compared with healthy controls, all participants with addictions showed hypoactivations in the prefrontal cortex, striatum and insula and hyperactivations in the default mode network during gain anticipation; hyperactivations in the prefrontal cortex and both hyper- and hypoactivations in the striatum during loss anticipation; and hyperactivations in the occipital lobe during gain outcome. In the substance dependence subgroup, activity in the occipital lobe was increased during gain anticipation but decreased during loss anticipation.

LIMITATIONS

We were unable to conduct meta-analyses in the gambling addiction subgroup because of a limited data set. We did not investigate the effects of clinical variables because of limited information.

CONCLUSION

The current study identified altered brain activity associated with higher- and lower-level function during gain and loss processing for non-addiction (mainly monetary) stimuli in adults with substance dependence and gambling addiction. Adults with addiction were more sensitive to anticipatory gains than losses at higher- and lower-level brain areas. These results may help us to better understand the pathology of gain and loss processing in addiction.

Association Between Adolescent Internet Gaming and Adult Problematic Web-Based Board Gaming

Introduction: The results of studies comparing the characteristics of Internet gaming with those of Internet gambling have been controversial. We hypothesized that problematic web-based board gaming behaviors are associated with psychological and social interaction factors. We also hypothesized that non-problematic adolescent Internet gaming is a protective factor against problematic web-based board gaming and that problematic Internet gaming is a predictive factor for problematic web-based board gaming. Methods: We recruited 104 adults who reported engaging in web-based gaming. All participants were asked to complete the Problematic Web Board Gameplay Scale, Center for Epidemiologic Studies Depression Scale (CESD), State-Trait Anxiety Inventory (STAI), Adult Attention Deficit/Hyperactivity Disorder Self-Report Scale (K-AADHD), Family Environmental Scale (FES), Social Avoidance and Distress Scale (SADS), and questionnaires on their web-based board gaming patterns and Internet gaming history. Results: Problematic web-based board gamers showed a lower history of adolescent Internet gaming but a greater rate of problematic Internet gaming compared with healthy web-based board gamers. Moreover, problematic web-based board gamers showed an increase in CES-D, STAI, K-AADHD, and SADS scores but decreased FES scores compared with healthy web-based board gamers. Joblessness; less experience as an Internet gamer; a history of problematic Internet gaming; higher CES-D, STAI, and K-AADHD scores; and lower FES scores were significant predictors of problematic web-based board gaming. Discussion: Psychological, social, and environmental factors can positively influence problematic Web-based board gaming. Healthy Internet gaming during adolescence may play a preventive role in adult problematic web-based board gaming. However, because adolescent problematic Internet gaming tends to lead to problematic web-based board gaming, measures should be taken to prevent it.

Chasing the desire: An investigation on the role of craving, time perspective, and alcohol use in adolescent gambling

Chasing, or continuing to gamble to recoup losses, is a behavioral marker and a diagnostic criterion for gambling disorder. Research on chasing has focused mainly on adults, whereas the analysis of chasing behavior among adolescents has not received empirical attention in the gambling literature. The aim of the present study was to first investigate the interplay between chasing behavior, craving, temporal perspective, alcohol use, and gambling severity among Italian adolescents. Three hundred and sixty-four adolescents took part in the study. Participants completed the South Oaks Gambling Screen Revised for Adolescents (SOGS-RA), the Gambling Craving Scale (GACS), the 14-item Consideration of Future Consequences scale (CFC-14), the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT), and performed a computerized task assessing chasing behavior. Participants were randomly assigned to the control and the loss condition of the computerized task. Results indicated that the choice to continue playing, as well as chasing frequency did not vary as a function of experimental condition. Hierarchical logistic and linear regression analyses revealed that the decision to chase depended mostly on craving, whereas chasing propensity was affected by craving and alcohol misuse. Notably, gambling severity did not predict either the decision to chase, or the chasing persistence. The present study contributes important findings to the gambling literature, highlighting the role of craving alcohol use in facilitating the inability to stop within-sessions gambling among adolescents. These findings may provide evidence that nonchasers and chasers represent two different types of gamblers, and that the difference may be useful for targeting more effective therapies.

Gender Differences in Problem Gamblers in an Online Gambling Setting

Background

Problem gambling traditionally is markedly more common in men than in women. However, recent data in online gamblers have indicated at least a comparable risk of problem gambling in women in this sub-group. The present study aimed to compare the characteristics of male and female moderate-risk and problem gamblers in online gamblers in Sweden.

Methods

In a web survey addressing online gamblers (past-year online gambling on 10 or more occasions), women and men with moderate-risk or problem gambling (n=327) were compared with respect to gambling severity, financial consequences, comorbidity, socio-demographic characteristics, and fulfilled screening items.

Results

Female gender was associated with psychological distress, over-indebtedness, higher problem gambling severity and with screening items indicating financial consequences and guilt, with no gender difference for the self-reported need to seek treatment for substance use problems. In the sub-group of problem gamblers, female gender remained associated with psychological distress.

Conclusion

In a setting displaying high rates of online gambling and novel findings of a higher risk of problem gambling in women than previously seen, psychological distress appears to separate female and male problem gamblers. Given the higher level of severity and financial consequence, these findings call for screening and early intervention in female at-risk gamblers.

Tilt in Online Poker: Loss of Control and Gambling Disorder

Online poker is a form of gambling where an element of skill may influence the outcome of the game. 'Tilt' in poker describes an episode during which the player can no longer control their game by rational decisions. It leads to a loss of control over the game, a loss of emotional regulation, higher cognitive distortion, and a loss of money. This phenomenon, experienced by most players, could be the gateway to excessive gambling. The aim of this study was to assess the links between the frequency of tilt episodes, cognitive distortion, anxiety, depression, sensation seeking and excessive online poker gambling. Our sample is composed of 291 online poker players, with a mean age of 33.8 years (SD = 10.6). Participants completed an online self-assessment questionnaire, measuring the frequency of tilt episodes, cognitive distortion, anxiety, depression and impulsivity. The findings indicated that the frequency of tilt episodes and cognitive distortion were the only significant predictors of excessive online gambling (respectively, r = 0.49 and r = 0.20). Tilt frequency and cognitive distortion were strongly correlated (GRCS, r = 0.60), moderate to low correlations were found for tilt and anxiety (HADS, r = 0.40), and positive and negative urgency (UPPS, r = 0.27). To date, tilt has seldom been studied, and could improve our understanding of online poker gamblers. It could be a new means of identifying at risk gamblers, and thus facilitating preventive measures specifically adapted to this population.

Dopaminergic signaling of uncertainty and the aetiology of gambling addiction

Although there is increasing clinical recognition of behavioral addictions, of which gambling disorder is the prototype example, there is a limited understanding of the psychological properties of (non-substance-related) behaviors that enable them to become 'addictive' in a way that is comparable to drugs of abuse. According to an influential application of reinforcement learning to substance addictions, the direct effects of drugs to release dopamine can create a perpetual escalation of incentive salience. This article focusses on reward uncertainty, which is proposed to be the core feature of gambling that creates the capacity for addiction. We describe the neuro-dynamics of the dopamine response to uncertainty that may allow a similar escalation of incentive salience, and its relevance to behavioral addictions. We review translational evidence from both preclinical animal models and human clinical research, including studies in people with gambling disorder. Further, we describe the evidence for 1) the effects of the omission of expected reward as a stressor and to promote sensitization, 2) the effect of the resolution of reward uncertainty as a source of value, 3) structural characteristics of modern Electronic Gaming Machines (EGMs) in leveraging these mechanisms, 4) analogies to the aberrant salience hypothesis of psychosis for creating and maintaining gambling-related cognitive distortions. This neurobiologically-inspired model has implications for harm profiling of other putative behavioral addictions, as well as offering avenues for enhancing neurological, pharmacological and psychological treatments for gambling disorder, and harm reduction strategies for EGM design.

Development and Verification of a Web Board Game Scale

OBJECTIVE

Our previous study suggested that monitoring online board gamers may be an efficient approach to curb illegal gambling. We aimed to invent and validate a behavioral scale for assessing the risk of problematic web-based board gaming.

METHODS

The sample included 300 Korean adults, representing a response rate of 3.1%. All participants were asked to complete a set of questionnaires, which included questions on demographic variables, patterns of online board gaming, and the web-based board game scale score. Exploratory factor analysis was performed to determine whether the items on the new behavioral scale would indicate a risk of pathologic web-based board gaming behavior.

RESULTS

The internal consistency of the 17-item scale was high (Cronbach's α=0.89). The test-retest reliability of the 17-item scale in a randomly selected sample of 100 participants in 2 weeks was r=0.77 (p<0.001). The criterion-related validity based on a comparison of the total behavioral scale scores between the high-risk group and low-risk group was relatively high. The data obtained from the 300 participants were acceptable for a factor analysis. After removing 7 items from the 17-item scale, internal consistency (Cronbach's α) of the 10-item scale increased to 0.936.

CONCLUSION

These results showed that the 10-item version of the scale appeared to be more valid than the 17-item version. We suggest that the 10-item web-based board game behavioral scale is a useful tool for assessing the risk of pathologic web-based board gaming.

To chase or not to chase: A study on the role of mentalization and alcohol consumption in chasing behavior

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Chasing is a behavioral marker and a diagnostic criterion for gambling disorder. Although chasing has been recognized to play a central role in gambling disorder, research on this topic is relatively scarce. This study investigated the association between chasing, alcohol consumption, and mentalization among habitual gamblers.

METHOD

A total of 132 adults took part in the study. Participants were administered the South Oaks Gambling Screen, the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test, the Reflective Functioning Questionnaire, and a laboratory task assessing chasing behavior. Participants were randomly assigned to three experimental conditions (Control, Loss, and Win). To deeply investigate chasing behavior, participants were requested to indicate the reasons for stopping or continuing playing at the end of the experimental session.

RESULTS

Logistic regression analysis showed that the choice to stop or continue playing depended on experimental condition and alcohol use. Hierarchical linear regression indicated that chasing propensity was affected by experimental condition, alcohol consumption, and deficit in mentalization. The results of path analysis showed that hypermentalizing predicts chasing not only directly, but also indirectly via alcohol consumption.

CONCLUSIONS

Overall, these results for the first time showed that hypermentalization plays a key role in chasing behavior over and above gambling severity. Since these findings support the idea that chasers and non-chasers are different subtypes of gamblers, clinical interventions should consider the additive role of chasing in gambling disorder.

Ability to Discriminate Online Poker Tilt Episodes: A New Way to Prevent Excessive Gambling?

Tilt is a very common term in online poker players' vocabulary, it describes a state where the player is no longer able to make rational decisions because they are overwhelmed by strong emotions. This study aims to explore the relation existing between the frequency of Tilt episodes, the player's perception of these episodes and excessive gambling in online poker. The sample is composed of 291 adult French-speaking online poker players. All participants completed an online self-assessment questionnaire. The results of the classification analysis showed that the sample could be divided into three groups. The first group, named ''players in control'' included low excessive gambling tendencies with low perceived and measured Tilt frequencies. The two other groups showed high measured tilt levels, with perceived tilt levels that were different from the measured levels. Furthermore, these two groups present a moderate usage risk of developing an excessive gambling tendency in a money-based game of chance. These results show the existence of a relation between the player's capacity to perceive tilt and the online poker player's behavior.

The interplay between chasing behavior, time perspective, and gambling severity: An experimental study

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

Chasing refers to continued gambling in an attempt to recoup previous losses and is one of the diagnostic criteria for gambling disorder. However, research on the topic is still in its infancy. This study investigated whether chasing behavior mediates the relationship between time perspective and gambling severity.

METHODS

Non-problem gamblers (N = 26) and problem gamblers (N = 66) with the same demographic features (age and gender) were compared on the Consideration of Future Consequences and a computerized task assessing chasing. The Italian South Oaks Gambling Screen was used to discriminate participants in terms of gambling severity.

RESULTS

Significant correlations were found relating to gambling severity, chasing, and time perspective. More specifically, the results showed that problem gamblers reported more chasing and a foreshortened time horizon. Chasers, compared to non-chasers, were found to be more oriented to the present. Regression analysis showed that male gender, present-oriented time perspective, and chasing were good predictors of gambling severity. Finally, to clarify if present orientation was on the path from chasing to gambling severity or if chasing was the mediator of the impact of present orientation on gambling severity, a path analysis was performed. The results indicated that present orientation had a direct effect on gambling severity and mediated the relationship between chasing and gambling involvement.

CONCLUSION

The findings support the exacerbating role of chasing in gambling disorder and for the first time show the relationship of time perspective, chasing, and gambling severity among adults.

How uncertainty begets hope: A model of adaptive and maladaptive seeking behavior

The “incentive hope” model creatively explains hoarding and fat accumulation by foragers under uncertainty and food seeking when food cues are present but food is not. The model has difficulty explaining why animals driven by cues fare better than animals driven by food reward itself, why human obesity exists when food is abundant, and why people enjoy gambling and care about winning.

Strategies to customize responsible gambling messages: a review and focus group study

BACKGROUND

Responsible gambling messages are widely used as a tool to enable informed choice and encourage appropriate gambling behavior. It is generally accepted that gamblers have different levels of risk of developing gambling problems and require various harm minimization tools and resources. Therefore, it is reasonable to expect that responsible gambling messages should be customized and target specific groups of gamblers. This project aimed to understand hypothesized differences between cohorts of gamblers and receive qualitative feedback on archetypal targeted messages used to increase use of responsible gambling tools.

METHODS

Focus groups were held to test messages for specific cohorts: young adults (18-24 years), seniors (60+ years), frequent gamblers (weekly), and gamblers of skill-based games (poker, sports betting).

RESULTS

Cohorts exhibited different preferences and responses to message archetypes. Seniors preferred messages about limit setting, whilst young adults and frequent gamblers responded to messages about their own play and expertise. Skill game gamblers were interested in the odds of winning and their own outcomes over time. However, all groups agreed that using positive, non-judgmental language in messaging is important.

CONCLUSIONS

This research makes an important contribution to the field by demonstrating that the wording of message content will likely influence the effectiveness of such messages differentially across various groups of gamblers for engaging gamblers in harm reduction tools. Guidance is provided on themes that can be used by public health marketers.

Comparing the Behavioral Patterns and Psychological Characteristics of Web Board Gamers and Gamblers

OBJECTIVE

In Korea, online board games, such as "flower cards," are played using virtual money. In contrast, Internet-based gambling (ibGambling) concerns the use of real money to gamble online. We hypothesized that online board gamers using virtual money show less risky behaviors than do gamblers who use real money, and that, in regard to psychological aspects, online board gamers are less depressed and more introverted than online gamblers are.

METHODS

For this study, 100 online board gamers, 100 ibGamblers, 100 offline gamblers (offGamblers), and 100 age- and sex-matched healthy controls were recruited by an online research company. Gambling behavior and self-efficacy were assessed using the Korean Gambling Behavior Scale-high/low factors (KGBS-H/L) and the Gambling Abstinence Self-efficacy Scale (GASS). Additionally, introversion, depression, and mania tendency were assessed.

RESULTS

Online board gamers had good intentions gaming, as evidenced by their higher KGBS-L scores than ibGamblers and offGamblers, and they showed less risky behaviors, as evidenced by their lower KGBS-H scores than offGamblers. Additionally, online board gamers were less introverted than ibGamblers and less depressed than offGamblers.

CONCLUSION

Online board gaming could be a gateway to the world of gambling (ibGambling or OffGambling). However, the higher tendency of online board gamers to engage in good intentioned gaming could help prevent online board gaming from progressing to online or offline gambling.

Tempting fate: Chasing and maladaptive personality traits in gambling behavior

Chasing, or continuing to gamble in an attempt to recoup losses, is a salient feature of problematic gambling. This study, which controlled for gambling severity and alcohol consumption, investigated the association between chasing and maladaptive personality trait domains among habitual gamblers. Participants comprised 126 adult habitual gamblers (73% males) aged between 18 and 69 years. They were administered the South Oaks Gambling Screen (SOGS), the Personality Inventory for DSM-5-Brief Form (PID-5-BF), the Alcohol Use Disorders Identification Test (AUDIT), and a computerized task developed to assess chasing behavior. Participants were randomly assigned to two chasing conditions (Control and Loss). Data were submitted to correlational analysis, univariate and mixed-model ANOVAs, logistic and linear regression analyses. Results showed that the decision to chase was strongly associated with the PID-5-BF Disinhibition domain scores, whereas chasing proneness was related to the Disinhibition, Detachment and Psychoticism domains. Interestingly, chasers scored higher than nonchasers on maladaptive personality dimensions, even after controlling for gender, age, chasing condition, alcohol consumption, and gambling severity. Since these findings support the idea that chasers and nonchasers are different subtypes of gamblers, clinical interventions should take into account the additive role of chasing in gambling disorder.

One-Year Prospective Study on Passion and Gambling Problems in Poker Players

The concept of passion is relevant to understanding gambling behaviours and gambling problems. Longitudinal studies are useful to better understand the absence and development of gambling problems; however, only one study has specifically considered poker players. Using a longitudinal design, this study aims to determine the influence, 1 year later, of two forms of passion-harmonious and obsessive-on gambling problems in poker players. A total of 116 poker players was recruited from across Quebec, Canada. The outcome variable of interest was participants' category on the Canadian Pathological Gambling Index, and the predictive variable was the Gambling Passion Scale. Multiple logistic regression analyses were conducted to identify independent risk factors of at-risk poker players 1 year later. Obsessive passion at baseline doubled the risk of gambling problems 1 year later (p < 0.01); for harmonious passion, there was no association. Number of gambling activities, drug problems, and impulsivity were also associated with at-risk gambling. This study highlights the links between obsessive passion and at-risk behaviours among poker players. It is therefore important to prevent the development of obsessive passion among poker players.

Internet Gamblers Differ on Social Variables: A Latent Class Analysis

Online gambling has gained popularity in the last decade, leading to an important shift in how consumers engage in gambling and in the factors related to problem gambling and prevention. Indebtedness and loneliness have previously been associated with problem gambling. The current study aimed to characterize online gamblers in relation to indebtedness, loneliness, and several in-game social behaviors. The data set was obtained from 584 Internet gamblers recruited online through gambling websites and forums. Of these gamblers, 372 participants completed all study assessments and were included in the analyses. Questionnaires included those on sociodemographics and social variables (indebtedness, loneliness, in-game social behaviors), as well as the Gambling Motives Questionnaire, Gambling Related Cognitions Scale, Internet Addiction Test, Problem Gambling Severity Index, Short Depression-Happiness Scale, and UPPS-P Impulsive Behavior Scale. Social variables were explored with a latent class model. The clusters obtained were compared for psychological measures and three clusters were found: lonely indebted gamblers (cluster 1: 6.5%), not lonely not indebted gamblers (cluster 2: 75.4%), and not lonely indebted gamblers (cluster 3: 18%). Participants in clusters 1 and 3 (particularly in cluster 1) were at higher risk of problem gambling than were those in cluster 2. The three groups differed on most assessed variables, including the Problem Gambling Severity Index, the Short Depression-Happiness Scale, and the UPPS-P subscales (except the sensation seeking subscore). Results highlight significant between-group differences, suggesting that Internet gamblers are not a homogeneous group. Specific intervention strategies could be implemented for groups at risk.

Self-Reported Losses Versus Actual Losses in Online Gambling: An Empirical Study

Many research findings in the gambling studies field rely on self-report data. A very small body of empirical research also suggests that when using self-report, players report their gambling losses inaccurately. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the differences between objective and subjective gambling spent data by comparing gambler’s actual behavioral tracking data with their self-report data over a 1-month period. A total of 17,742 Norwegian online gamblers were asked to participate in an online survey. Of those surveyed, 1335 gamblers answered questions relating to gambling expenditure that could be compared with their actual gambling behavior. The study found that the estimated loss self-reported by gamblers was correlated with the actual objective loss and that players with higher losses tended to have more difficulty estimating their gambling expenditure (i.e., players who spent more money gambling also appeared to have more trouble estimating their expenses accurately). Overall, the findings demonstrate that caution is warranted when using self-report data relating to amount of money spent gambling in any studies that are totally reliant on self-report data.

Alterations in the Emotional Regulation Process in Gambling Addiction: The Role of Anger and Alexithymia

This study aims at the assessment of alexithymia and anger levels in 100 treatment-seeking pathological gamblers compared with controls, who were matched for age, gender and education. Furthermore a positive correlation between alexithymia, anger and severity of gambling disorder and a relationship between gambling behaviour and anger after controlling for alexithymia, are investigated. Finally the role that gender plays in anger in pathological gamblers was also evaluated. Psychological assessment includes the South Oaks Gambling Screen, State-Trait Anger Expression Inventory-2 and the twenty-item Toronto Alexithymia Scale. Statistical analysis of the results shows a higher level of anger in pathological gamblers than in controls, together with alterations in emotional processing. Severity of gambling behaviour positively correlates with alexithymia scores, state-anger and trait-anger. Moreover, a significant contribution of anger in predicting gambling behaviour was suggested after controlling for alexithymia. In conclusion, anger and alexithymia must be regarded as relevant components of the assessment of pathological gamblers, in order to select the best therapeutical strategies to prevent self-defeating behaviours and to reduce drop-out from treatments.

Telecommunications Network Measurements of Online Gambling Behavior in Switzerland: A Feasibility Study

BACKGROUND

Methodological shortcomings of gambling studies relying on self-report or on data sets derived from gambling operators tend to result in biased conclusions. The aim of this study was to analyze online gambling behavior using a novel network database approach.

METHODS

From October 13 to October 26, 2014, telecommunications network data from a major telecommunications provider in Switzerland were analyzed. Netflows between mobile devices and a poker operator were quantified to measure the gambling duration and session number.

RESULTS

Time spent gambling during night and working hours was compared between devices with longest (red group), intermediate (orange group), and shortest gambling time (green group). Online gambling behavior differed depending on overall gambling time, F (2, 3,143). Night and working hours gambling was the highest in the red group (53%), compared to the orange (50.1%) and the green groups (41.5%). Post hoc analyses indicated significant differences between the orange and green groups (p < 0.05). No differences were observed between the red and orange groups (p = 0.850), and the red and green groups (p = 0.053).

CONCLUSIONS

On mobile devices, distinct gambling patterns were observed depending on the overall gambling time. This methodology could also be used to investigate online gaming, social media use, and online pornography.

Gambling goals predict chasing behavior during slot machine play

AIMS

The purpose of this study was to test the effect of gambling goals (i.e., gambling achievement-orientation) on chasing behavior (i.e., decision to chase, chasing spins) over and above known antecedents (e.g., problem gambling severity, winning money motivations, approach/avoidance motivation).

METHODS

Young adult gamblers (N=121) were provided $20 and invited to use those funds on a slot machine situated in an immersive virtual reality casino. Unbeknownst to participants, outcomes were manipulated such that a nominal amount of money was either won or lost (depending on experimental condition) after 30 spins. Before the 31st spin, participants were asked if they wished to continue play. If they agreed, all successive spin outcomes were a loss. This permitted an assessment of what factors influence a player's: (1) decision to chase and (2) the number of chasing spins played in the face of loss.

RESULTS

Almost all participants (n=95, 78.5%) screened positive for problem gambling symptoms. The majority of gamblers decided to chase (n=67, 55.4%). In bivariate analyses, higher gambling goal and problem gambling severity scores (but not approach/avoidance nor 'loss/win' condition) were positively related to both forms of chasing. Gamblers 'motivated to win money' were more likely to decide to chase. In multivariate analyses, higher gambling goals best accounted for both forms of chasing independent of known antecedents.

CONCLUSIONS

This study provides the first evidence that gambling goals can influence chasing. Implications for shaping responsible gambling approaches to be more consistent with motivations for play are discussed.

Psychopathology of Online Poker Players: Review of Literature

Background and aims Online Texas Hold'em poker has become a spectacular form of entertainment in our society, and the number of people who use this form of gambling is increasing. It seems that online poker activity challenges existing theoretical concepts about problem gambling behaviors. The purpose of this literature review is to provide a current overview about the population of online poker players. Methods To be selected, articles had to focus on psychopathology in a sample of online poker players, be written in English or French, and be published before November 2015. A total of 17 relevant studies were identified. Results In this population, the proportion of problematic gamblers was higher than in other forms of gambling. Several factors predicting excessive gambling were identified such as stress, internal attribution, dissociation, boredom, negative emotions, irrational beliefs, anxiety, and impulsivity. The population of online poker players is largely heterogeneous, with experimental players forming a specific group. Finally, the validity of the tools used to measure excessive or problematic gambling and irrational beliefs are not suitable for assessing online poker activity. Discussion and conclusions Future studies need to confirm previous findings in the literature of online poker games. Given that skills are important in poker playing, skill development in the frames of excessive use of online poker should be explored more in depth, particularly regarding poker experience and loss chasing. Future research should focus on skills, self-regulation, and psychopathology of online poker players.

A cross-cultural study of gambling disorder: a comparison between women from Brazil and the United States

OBJECTIVE

To perform a cross-cultural comparison of gambling disorder (GD) in women from Brazil and the United States, two countries with pronounced social and cultural differences. We hoped to produce insight into the impact of cultural influences on the presentation of GD in women, which may be useful for the development of culturally-sensitive interventions.

METHOD

We assessed 681 women with GD: 406 from a Brazilian sample and 275 from a U.S.

SAMPLE

We assessed demographic and gambling behavior variables in addition to co-occurring psychiatric disorders.

RESULTS

Fewer Brazilian participants were Caucasian (73.3 vs. 91.3%; p = 0.022). Also, Brazilian women had lower levels of education (59.9% with high school or less vs. 44.4%; p < 0.001), and were more likely to have a current partner (54.9 vs. 43.4%; p = 0.003). Brazilian gamblers also reported lower urge scores (6.6±4.3 vs. 11.6±2.4; p < 0.001) and higher chasing rates (89.1 vs. 80.0%; p = 0.002). Brazilian gamblers reported higher rates of bingo gambling (19.2 vs. 5.7%; p < 0.001), but lower rates of card game gambling (5.8 vs. 23.1%; p < 0.001). Finally, Brazilian gamblers were more likely to endorse a history of major depressive disorder (36.9 vs. 24.4%; p = 0.001).

CONCLUSIONS

This study reinforces the need for further general cross-cultural research on GD and particularly for studies investigating how gender mediates these differences. Finally, the differences noted in this analysis suggest that the findings of predominantly Anglo-Saxon cultures may not be generalizable to other world populations.

Electronic gaming machines and gambling disorder: A cross-cultural comparison between treatment-seeking subjects from Brazil and the United States

AIMS

The objective of this paper is to perform a cross-cultural comparison of gambling disorder (GD) due to electronic gaming machines (EGM), a form of gambling that may have a high addictive potential. Our goal is to investigate two treatment-seeking samples of adults collected in Brazil and the United States, countries with different socio-cultural backgrounds. This comparison may lead to a better understanding of cultural influences on GD.

METHODS

The total studied sample involved 733 treatment-seeking subjects: 353 men and 380 women (average age=45.80, standard deviation ±10.9). The Brazilian sample had 517 individuals and the American sample 216. Subjects were recruited by analogous strategies.

RESULTS

We found that the Brazilian sample was younger, predominantly male, less likely to be Caucasian, more likely to be partnered, tended to have a faster progression from recreational gambling to GD, and were more likely to endorse chasing losses.

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrated that there are significant differences between treatment-seeking samples of adults presenting GD due to EGM in Brazil and in the United States. These findings suggest that cultural aspects may have a relevant role in GD due to EGM.