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Alvarado-Torres JK, Morales-Silva R, Sanabria Ponce de Leon A, Rodriguez-Torres G, Perez-Torres J, Perez-Perez Y, Mueller D, Sepulveda-Orengo MT. Estradiol reduction through aromatase inhibition impairs cocaine seeking in male rats. Front Behav Neurosci 2024; 17:1307606. [PMID: 38292056 PMCID: PMC10824998 DOI: 10.3389/fnbeh.2023.1307606] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2023] [Accepted: 12/26/2023] [Indexed: 02/01/2024] Open
Abstract
Introduction Clinical and preclinical research on cocaine use disorder (CUD) has shown that sex differences in drug seeking are influenced by hormonal fluctuations. Estradiol (E2), a sex steroid hormone, has been linked to female drug effects, vulnerability to use/abuse, and psychosocial factors. Preclinical studies show that estradiol in females facilitates the extinction of cocaine-seeking behavior indicating a possible role in regulating extinction learning. Similar to females, males' brains contain the aromatase enzyme which converts testosterone to estradiol. However, it is unclear whether estradiol plays a role in male extinction learning as it does in females. Furthermore, how endogenously aromatized estradiol affects drug addiction in males is unknown. Therefore, this study investigated whether endogenous estradiol regulates cocaine seeking in male rats. We hypothesized that decreased aromatase enzyme activity, resulting in decreased estradiol synthesis in male brains, will impair extinction learning leading to increased cocaine-seeking behavior. Methods This hypothesis was tested using cocaine-conditioned place preference (CPP), and short access self-administration (SA), followed by extinction and reinstatement. Before each extinction session for CPP or SA, male rats received an injection of either 1 (low dose) or 2.5 mg/kg (high dose) of the aromatase inhibitor Fadrozole (FAD), or vehicle. Results FAD groups showed dose-dependent effects on cocaine-seeking behavior compared to the vehicle group during CPP extinction. Specifically, low dose FAD facilitated extinction of cocaine CPP, whereas high dose FAD impaired it. In contrast, neither dose of FAD had any effects on the extinction of cocaine SA. Interestingly, only the low dose FAD group had decreased active lever pressing during cue- and cocaine-primed reinstatement compared to the vehicle group. Neither dose of FAD had an effect on sucrose extinction or reinstatement of sucrose seeking. Discussion These results from CPP experiments suggest that estradiol may impact extinction learning, as a low dose of FAD may strengthen the formation of cocaine extinction memory. Additionally, in male rats undergoing cocaine SA, the same low dose of aromatase inhibitor effectively reduced reinstatement of cocaine-seeking behavior. Thus, estradiol impacts cocaine seeking and extinction in both males and females, and it may also influence the development of sex-specific treatment strategies for CUD.
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Affiliation(s)
- John K. Alvarado-Torres
- Basic Sciences Department, Ponce Research Institute, Ponce Health Sciences University, Ponce, Puerto Rico
| | - Roberto Morales-Silva
- Basic Sciences Department, Ponce Research Institute, Ponce Health Sciences University, Ponce, Puerto Rico
| | | | - Genesis Rodriguez-Torres
- Basic Sciences Department, Ponce Research Institute, Ponce Health Sciences University, Ponce, Puerto Rico
| | - Joshua Perez-Torres
- Basic Sciences Department, Ponce Research Institute, Ponce Health Sciences University, Ponce, Puerto Rico
| | - Yobet Perez-Perez
- Basic Sciences Department, Ponce Research Institute, Ponce Health Sciences University, Ponce, Puerto Rico
| | - Devin Mueller
- Department of Biological Sciences, Kent State University, Kent, OH, United States
| | - Marian T. Sepulveda-Orengo
- Basic Sciences Department, Ponce Research Institute, Ponce Health Sciences University, Ponce, Puerto Rico
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2
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Park H, Kwon HS, Lee KY, Kim YE, Son JW, Choi NY, Lee EJ, Han MH, Park DW, Kim S, Koh SH. GV1001 modulates neuroinflammation and improves memory and behavior through the activation of gonadotropin-releasing hormone receptors in a triple transgenic Alzheimer's disease mouse model. Brain Behav Immun 2024; 115:295-307. [PMID: 37884161 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbi.2023.10.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2023] [Revised: 09/22/2023] [Accepted: 10/22/2023] [Indexed: 10/28/2023] Open
Abstract
GV1001 protects neural cells from amyloid-β (Aβ) toxicity and other stressors in in vitro studies and demonstrates clinically beneficial effects in patients with moderate to severe Alzheimer's disease (AD). Here, we investigated the protective effects and mechanism of action of GV1001 in triple transgenic AD (3xTg-AD) mice. We found that GV1001 improved memory and cognition in middle- and old-aged 3xTg-AD mice. Additionally, it reduced Aβ oligomer and phospho-tau (Ser202 and Thr205) levels in the brain, and mitigated neuroinflammation by promoting a neuroprotective microglial and astrocyte phenotype while diminishing the neurotoxic ones. In vitro, GV1001 bound to gonadotropin releasing hormone receptors (GnRHRs) with high affinity. Levels of cyclic adenosine monophosphate, a direct downstream effector of activated GnRHRs, increased after GV1001 treatment. Furthermore, inhibition of GnRHRs blocked GV1001-induced effects. Thus, GV1001 might improve cognitive and memory functions of 3xTg-AD mice by suppressing neuroinflammation and reducing Aβ oligomers levels and phospho-tau by activating GnRHRs and their downstream signaling pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Hyunhee Park
- Department of Neurology, Hanyang University Guri Hospital, Hanyang University College of Medicine, 153, Gyeongchun-ro, Guri-si, Gyeonggi-do 11923, South Korea
| | - Hyuk Sung Kwon
- Department of Neurology, Hanyang University Guri Hospital, Hanyang University College of Medicine, 153, Gyeongchun-ro, Guri-si, Gyeonggi-do 11923, South Korea
| | - Kyu-Yong Lee
- Department of Neurology, Hanyang University Guri Hospital, Hanyang University College of Medicine, 153, Gyeongchun-ro, Guri-si, Gyeonggi-do 11923, South Korea
| | - Ye Eun Kim
- Department of Neurology, Hanyang University Guri Hospital, Hanyang University College of Medicine, 153, Gyeongchun-ro, Guri-si, Gyeonggi-do 11923, South Korea
| | - Jeong-Woo Son
- Department of Neurology, Hanyang University Guri Hospital, Hanyang University College of Medicine, 153, Gyeongchun-ro, Guri-si, Gyeonggi-do 11923, South Korea
| | - Na-Young Choi
- Department of Neurology, Hanyang University Guri Hospital, Hanyang University College of Medicine, 153, Gyeongchun-ro, Guri-si, Gyeonggi-do 11923, South Korea
| | - Eun Ji Lee
- Department of Neurology, Hanyang University Guri Hospital, Hanyang University College of Medicine, 153, Gyeongchun-ro, Guri-si, Gyeonggi-do 11923, South Korea
| | - Myung-Hoon Han
- Department of Neurosurgery, Hanyang University Guri Hospital, Hanyang University College of Medicine, 153, Gyeongchun-ro, Guri-si, Gyeonggi-do 11923, South Korea
| | - Dong Woo Park
- Department of Radiology, Hanyang University Guri Hospital, Hanyang University College of Medicine, 153, Gyeongchun-ro, Guri-si, Gyeonggi-do 11923, South Korea
| | - Sangjae Kim
- Teloid Inc., 3580 Wilshire Boulevard, Suite 900-31, Los Angeles, CA 90010, USA.
| | - Seong-Ho Koh
- Department of Neurology, Hanyang University Guri Hospital, Hanyang University College of Medicine, 153, Gyeongchun-ro, Guri-si, Gyeonggi-do 11923, South Korea; Department of Translational Medicine, Hanyang University Graduate School of Biomedical Science & Engineering, Seoul 04763, South Korea.
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3
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Velasco ER, Florido A, Perez-Caballero L, Marin I, Andero R. The Impacts of Sex Differences and Sex Hormones on Fear Extinction. Curr Top Behav Neurosci 2023; 64:105-132. [PMID: 37528309 DOI: 10.1007/7854_2023_426] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 08/03/2023]
Abstract
Fear extinction memories are strongly modulated by sex and hormonal status, but the exact mechanisms are still being discovered. In humans, there are some basal and task-related features in which male and female individuals differ in fear conditioning paradigms. However, analyses considering the effects of sex hormones demonstrate a role for estradiol in fear extinction memory consolidation. Translational studies are taking advantage of the convergent findings between species to understand the brain structures implicated. Nevertheless, the human brain is complex and the transfer of these findings into the clinics remains a challenge. The promising advances in the field together with the standardization of fear extinction methodologies in humans will benefit the design of new personalized therapies.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric Raul Velasco
- Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Antonio Florido
- Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Departament de Psicobiologia i de Metodologia de les Ciències de la Salut, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Laura Perez-Caballero
- Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
- Departament de Psicobiologia i de Metodologia de les Ciències de la Salut, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ignacio Marin
- Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Raul Andero
- Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.
- Departament de Psicobiologia i de Metodologia de les Ciències de la Salut, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Barcelona, Spain.
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain.
- Unitat de Neurociència Traslacional, Parc Taulí Hospital Universitari, Institut d'Investigació i Innovació Parc Taulí (I3PT), Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Bellaterra, Spain.
- ICREA, Pg. Lluís Companys 23, Barcelona, Spain.
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Maeng LY, Rosenfeld D, Simandl GJ, Koehler F, Senko AW, Moon J, Varnavides G, Murillo MF, Reimer AE, Wald A, Anikeeva P, Widge AS. Probing Neuro-Endocrine Interactions Through Remote Magnetothermal Adrenal Stimulation. Front Neurosci 2022; 16:901108. [PMID: 35837128 PMCID: PMC9274974 DOI: 10.3389/fnins.2022.901108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2022] [Accepted: 05/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Exposure to stressful or traumatic stimuli may alter hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and sympathoadrenal-medullary (SAM) reactivity. This altered reactivity may be a component or cause of mental illnesses. Dissecting these mechanisms requires tools to reliably probe HPA and SAM function, particularly the adrenal component, with temporal precision. We previously demonstrated magnetic nanoparticle (MNP) technology to remotely trigger adrenal hormone release by activating thermally sensitive ion channels. Here, we applied adrenal magnetothermal stimulation to probe stress-induced HPA axis and SAM changes. MNP and control nanoparticles were injected into the adrenal glands of outbred rats subjected to a tone-shock conditioning/extinction/recall paradigm. We measured MNP-triggered adrenal release before and after conditioning through physiologic (heart rate) and serum (epinephrine, corticosterone) markers. Aversive conditioning altered adrenal function, reducing corticosterone and blunting heart rate increases post-conditioning. MNP-based organ stimulation provides a novel approach to probing the function of SAM, HPA, and other neuro-endocrine axes and could help elucidate changes across stress and disease models.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lisa Y. Maeng
- Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, United States
| | - Dekel Rosenfeld
- Research Laboratory of Electronics and McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, United States
| | - Gregory J. Simandl
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, United States
| | - Florian Koehler
- Research Laboratory of Electronics and McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, United States
- Department of Electrical Engineering and Computer Science, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, United States
| | - Alexander W. Senko
- Research Laboratory of Electronics and McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, United States
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, United States
| | - Junsang Moon
- Research Laboratory of Electronics and McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, United States
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, United States
| | - Georgios Varnavides
- Research Laboratory of Electronics and McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, United States
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, United States
| | - Maria F. Murillo
- Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, United States
| | - Adriano E. Reimer
- Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, United States
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, United States
| | - Aaron Wald
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, United States
| | - Polina Anikeeva
- Research Laboratory of Electronics and McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, United States
- Department of Materials Science and Engineering, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, United States
- Department of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, Massachusetts Institute of Technology, Cambridge, MA, United States
- *Correspondence: Polina Anikeeva,
| | - Alik S. Widge
- Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Charlestown, MA, United States
- Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, United States
- Alik S. Widge,
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Daily GnRH agonist treatment effectively delayed puberty in female rats without long-term effects on sexual behavior or estrous cyclicity. Physiol Behav 2022; 254:113879. [PMID: 35705155 DOI: 10.1016/j.physbeh.2022.113879] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2022] [Revised: 04/13/2022] [Accepted: 06/09/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
The present study examined the long-term effects of suppressing puberty with a GnRH agonist on reproductive physiology and behavior in female rats. We have recently reported that administration of the GnRH agonist leuprolide acetate (25 µg/kg) daily between postnatal day (PD) 25-50 delayed puberty and disrupted the development of copulatory behavior and sexual motivation in male rats. However, pilot data from our lab suggest that this low dose of leuprolide acetate (25 µg/kg) was not high enough to significantly delay puberty in female rats. Therefore, we injected female Long-Evans rats with leuprolide acetate at a higher dose (50 µg/kg) or 0.9% sterile saline, daily , starting on PD 25 and ending on PD 50. Vaginal opening was monitored daily starting on PD 30 for signs of pubertal onset and first estrous cycle. In addition, we measured estrous cyclicity starting approximately 2 weeks after the last injection of leuprolide (∼PD 64). Immediately after monitoring estrous cyclicity, the female rats were mated on their first day in behavioral estrus using the partner-preference paradigm, with and without physical contact (PD 95-110). We found that this dose of leuprolide (50 µg/kg) significantly delayed puberty; however, neither estrous cyclicity nor sexual motivation was significantly affected by periadolescent exposure to leuprolide. Together with our findings in male rats, these results add to our understanding of the developmental effects of chemically suppressing puberty in rats.
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6
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Krinke E, Held U, Steigmiller K, Felmingham K, Kleim B. Sex hormones and cortisol during experimental trauma memory consolidation: Prospective association with intrusive memories. Eur J Psychotraumatol 2022; 13:2040818. [PMID: 35386732 PMCID: PMC8979510 DOI: 10.1080/20008198.2022.2040818] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2021] [Accepted: 01/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Trauma- and stress-related disorders, such as post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD), are more common in females than in males. Sex hormones affect learning and emotional memory formation and may be associated with the development of PTSD. Most previous studies have indexed these hormones in isolation. Objectives: To investigate associations of sex hormones and cortisol during memory consolidation on the development of intrusive memories. Methods: We employed an experimental trauma film paradigm in 61 healthy women and indexed salivary testosterone, progesterone, estradiol, and cortisol on day one and day two post experimental trauma exposure and their effects on intrusion frequency, distress, and vividness. Intrusive trauma memories were indexed by means of a diary in which participants documented intrusion frequency, distress, and vividness. Results and conclusion: Participants reported an average of 5.3 intrusions over the course of seven days (SD = 4.6, range 0-26). Progesterone, and estradiol indexed on day one predicted intrusion frequency, with higher progesterone and lower estradiol predicting more intrusive memories (p-values AUC progesterone 0.01 and estradiol 0.02). There was no evidence for associations between hormone concentration indices on day two and intrusion outcomes. Further research on the roles of gonadal and adrenal hormones in trauma memory formation is needed to advance our efforts to understand their influence on PTSD development.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eileen Krinke
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Ulrike Held
- Department of Biostatistics at Epidemiology, Biostatistics and Prevention Institute, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Klaus Steigmiller
- Department of Biostatistics at Epidemiology, Biostatistics and Prevention Institute, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
| | - Kim Felmingham
- Department of Psychology, University of Melbourne, Parkville, Melbourne, Australia
| | - Birgit Kleim
- Department of Psychiatry, Psychotherapy and Psychosomatics, Psychiatric University Hospital Zurich, University of Zurich, Zurich, Switzerland
- Department of Psychology, University of Zurich (UZH), Zurich, Switzerland
- Zurich Neuroscience Centre, ZNZ University of Zurich (UZH), Zurich, Switzerland
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Using Translational Models of Fear Conditioning to Uncover Sex-Linked Factors Related to PTSD Risk. JOURNAL OF PSYCHIATRY AND BRAIN SCIENCE 2022; 7:e220010. [PMID: 36506701 PMCID: PMC9731144 DOI: 10.20900/jpbs.20220010] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
Post-traumatic stress disorder (PTSD) is a debilitating neuropsychiatric disorder that follows exposure to a traumatic event; however, not every person who experiences trauma will develop PTSD. Women are more likely to be diagnosed with PTSD than men even when controlling for type and amount of trauma exposure. Circulating levels of gonadal hormones such as estradiol, progesterone, and testosterone may contribute to differential risk for developing PTSD. In this review, we briefly consider the influence of gonadal hormones on fear conditioning processes including fear acquisition, fear inhibition, extinction learning, and extinction recall within translational neuroscience models. We discuss findings from human studies incorporating samples from both community and traumatized clinical populations to further understand how these hormones might interact with exposure to trauma. Additionally, we propose that special attention should be paid to the specific measure used to examine fear conditioning processes as there is evidence that common psychophysiological indices such as skin conductance response and fear-potentiated startle can reveal quite different results and thus necessitate nuanced interpretations. Continued research to understand the influence of gonadal hormones in fear learning and extinction processes will provide further insight into the increased risk women have of developing PTSD and provide new targets for the treatment and prevention of this disorder.
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8
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Guarraci FA, Davis LK, Henneman EL, Toro E, Odell SE, Le N, Navarro JM, Valdivia HS, Williams I, Credeur M, Gore AC. Daily GnRH agonist treatment delays the development of reproductive physiology and behavior in male rats. Horm Behav 2021; 132:104982. [PMID: 33957341 DOI: 10.1016/j.yhbeh.2021.104982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/18/2021] [Revised: 04/09/2021] [Accepted: 04/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
The present study was designed to examine the effects of suppressing pubertal onset with leuprolide acetate, a gonadotropin releasing hormone (GnRH) agonist. Starting on postnatal day (PD) 25, male Long-Evans rats were injected daily with either leuprolide acetate (25 μg/kg dissolved in 0.9% sterile physiological saline; n = 13) or sterile physiological saline (1.0 ml/kg 0.9% NaCl; n = 14) for a total of 25 days. Males were monitored daily for signs of puberty (i.e., preputial separation). On the last day of leuprolide treatment (PD 50), half of each treatment group was injected with 10.0 μg of estradiol benzoate (EB) daily for three consecutive days (PD 50-52) and 1.0 mg of progesterone (P) on the 4th day (PD 53), whereas the other half of each treatment group received oil injections. Four hours after P injections, all subjects were given the opportunity to interact with a gonadally-intact male and a sexually receptive female rat (i.e., a partner-preference test with and without physical contact). Copulatory behavior and sexual motivation were measured. Hormone injections and mating tests were repeated weekly for a total of 3 consecutive weeks. Results showed that leuprolide delayed puberty as well as the development of copulatory behavior and the expression of sexual motivation. By the last test, the leuprolide-treated subjects showed signs of catching up, however, many continued to be delayed. Estradiol and progesterone mildly feminized male physiology (e.g., decreased testes weight and serum testosterone) and behavior (e.g., increased lordosis), but did not interact with leuprolide treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fay A Guarraci
- Department of Psychology, Southwestern University, Georgetown, TX 78626, USA.
| | - Lourdes K Davis
- Department of Psychology, Southwestern University, Georgetown, TX 78626, USA
| | | | - Erin Toro
- Department of Psychology, Southwestern University, Georgetown, TX 78626, USA
| | - Shannon E Odell
- Department of Psychology, Southwestern University, Georgetown, TX 78626, USA
| | - Nathan Le
- Department of Psychology, Southwestern University, Georgetown, TX 78626, USA
| | - Jean M Navarro
- Department of Psychology, Southwestern University, Georgetown, TX 78626, USA
| | - Hannah S Valdivia
- Department of Psychology, Southwestern University, Georgetown, TX 78626, USA
| | - Ian Williams
- Department of Psychology, Southwestern University, Georgetown, TX 78626, USA
| | - Mathew Credeur
- Department of Psychology, Southwestern University, Georgetown, TX 78626, USA
| | - Andrea C Gore
- Division of Pharmacology and Toxicology, The University of Texas, at Austin, Austin, TX 78712, USA
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Florido A, Perez-Caballero L, Velasco ER, Molina P, Marin-Blasco I, Andero R. Direct and Indirect Measurements of Sex Hormones in Rodents During Fear Conditioning. Curr Protoc 2021; 1:e102. [PMID: 33950571 DOI: 10.1002/cpz1.102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
Fear conditioning (FC) is a widely accepted tool for the assessment of learning and memory processes in rodents related to normal and dysregulated acquired fear. The study of sex differences in fear learning and memory is vast and currently increasing. Sex hormones have proven to be crucial for fear memory formation in males and females, and several methods have been developed to assess this hormonal state in rats and mice. Herein, we explain a routine FC and extinction protocol, together with the evaluation of sex hormonal state in male and female rodents. We explain three protocols for the evaluation of this hormonal state directly from blood samples extracted during the procedure or indirectly through histological verification of the estrous cycle for females or behavioral assessment of social hierarchies in males. Although females have typically been considered to present great variability in sex hormones, it is highlighted that sex hormone assessment in males is as variable as in females and equally important for fear memory formation. The readout of these protocols has had a great impact on different fields of fear learning and memory study and appears essential when studying FC. The proven interaction with drugs involved in the modulation of these processes makes sex hormone assessment during FC a valuable tool for the development of effective treatments for fear-related disorders in men and women. © 2021 Wiley Periodicals LLC. Basic Protocol 1: Fear conditioning and fear extinction Basic Protocol 2: Blood collection for direct measurement of sex hormone levels in fear conditioning Basic Protocol 3: Indirect measurement of sex hormones in females during fear conditioning Basic Protocol 4: Assessment of dominance status in males before a fear conditioning protocol Support Protocol: Construction of a confrontation tube.
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Affiliation(s)
- Antonio Florido
- Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Barcelona, Spain
- Departament de Psicobiologia i de Metodologia de les Ciències de la Salut, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Laura Perez-Caballero
- Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Barcelona, Spain
- Departament de Psicobiologia i de Metodologia de les Ciències de la Salut, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Eric Raúl Velasco
- Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Patricia Molina
- Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Barcelona, Spain
- Unitat de Fisiologia Animal (Departament de Biologia Cel·lular, Fisiologia i Immunologia), Facultat de Biociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Ignacio Marin-Blasco
- Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Raül Andero
- Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Barcelona, Spain
- Departament de Psicobiologia i de Metodologia de les Ciències de la Salut, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Barcelona, Spain
- Centro de Investigación Biomédica en Red de Salud Mental (CIBERSAM), Instituto de Salud Carlos III, Madrid, Spain
- Unitat de Neurociència Traslacional, Parc Taulí Hospital Universitari, Institut d'Investigació i Innovació Parc Taulí (I3PT), Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Cerdanyola del Vallès, Spain
- ICREA, Barcelona, Spain
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10
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Day HLL, Stevenson CW. The neurobiological basis of sex differences in learned fear and its inhibition. Eur J Neurosci 2020; 52:2466-2486. [PMID: 31631413 PMCID: PMC7496972 DOI: 10.1111/ejn.14602] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 12.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/26/2019] [Revised: 10/07/2019] [Accepted: 10/15/2019] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
Learning that certain cues or environments predict threat enhances survival by promoting appropriate fear and the resulting defensive responses. Adapting to changing stimulus contingencies by learning that such cues no longer predict threat, or distinguishing between these threat-related and other innocuous stimuli, also enhances survival by limiting fear responding in an appropriate manner to conserve resources. Importantly, a failure to inhibit fear in response to harmless stimuli is a feature of certain anxiety and trauma-related disorders, which are also associated with dysfunction of the neural circuitry underlying learned fear and its inhibition. Interestingly, these disorders are up to twice as common in women, compared to men. Despite this striking sex difference in disease prevalence, the neurobiological factors involved remain poorly understood. This is due in part to the majority of relevant preclinical studies having neglected to include female subjects alongside males, which has greatly hindered progress in this field. However, more recent studies have begun to redress this imbalance and emerging evidence indicates that there are significant sex differences in the inhibition of learned fear and associated neural circuit function. This paper provides a narrative review on sex differences in learned fear and its inhibition through extinction and discrimination, along with the key gonadal hormone and brain mechanisms involved. Understanding the endocrine and neural basis of sex differences in learned fear inhibition may lead to novel insights on the neurobiological mechanisms underlying the enhanced vulnerability to develop anxiety-related disorders that are observed in women.
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Affiliation(s)
- Harriet L. L. Day
- School of BiosciencesUniversity of NottinghamLoughboroughUK
- Present address:
RenaSci LtdBioCity, Pennyfoot StreetNottinghamNG1 1GFUK
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Assessment of conditioned fear extinction in male and female adolescent rats. Psychoneuroendocrinology 2020; 116:104670. [PMID: 32334346 DOI: 10.1016/j.psyneuen.2020.104670] [Citation(s) in RCA: 22] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/16/2020] [Revised: 03/25/2020] [Accepted: 03/29/2020] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Pavlovian fear conditioning and extinction have been widely studied across many species to understand emotional learning and memory. Importantly, it is becoming clear that these processes are affected by sex and age. In adult rodents and humans, sex differences are evident in extinction, with estradiol playing a significant role. In adolescence, an extinction deficit has been reported in rodents and humans. However, the influence of sex on extinction during adolescence is unknown. This is surprising, since adolescence coincides with the onset of hormone cycling, and therefore it might be expected that hormones fluctuations exert a more profound effect at this time. Therefore, we examined Pavlovian fear conditioning and extinction in adolescent male and female rats. In experiment 1, 35-day-old male and female rats were exposed to 6 pairings of a conditioned stimulus (CS, a tone) with an aversive unconditioned stimulus (US, a footshock). The next day they were extinguished in a contextually distinct chamber, via 60 presentations of the CS without the US. Extinction recall was tested 24 hours later in the extinction context. Estrous phase was monitored by cytology on vaginal smears taken 1 hour after each behavioral session. In experiment 2, male and female rats were given sham surgery or gonadectomy at 21 days of age. They were then trained and tested as for experiment 1. We observed that females in proestrus or met/diestrus during extinction showed delayed extinction and impaired extinction recall the next day compared to males. Ovariectomy enhanced extinction for female rats, but orchidectomy delayed extinction for males. Plasma analyses showed that met/di/proestrus phases were associated with high estradiol levels. These findings suggest that high plasma estradiol levels impair extinction for adolescent females. These results contradict what is reported in adult animals, suggesting that hormonal influences on extinction are dependent on age. Given that impaired extinction is widely used as a model to understand resistance to exposure-based therapies, our findings have important implications for understanding mental health treatments in adolescents.
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Velasco ER, Florido A, Milad MR, Andero R. Sex differences in fear extinction. Neurosci Biobehav Rev 2019; 103:81-108. [PMID: 31129235 PMCID: PMC6692252 DOI: 10.1016/j.neubiorev.2019.05.020] [Citation(s) in RCA: 70] [Impact Index Per Article: 14.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/16/2018] [Revised: 03/08/2019] [Accepted: 05/19/2019] [Indexed: 12/18/2022]
Abstract
Despite the exponential increase in fear research during the last years, few studies have included female subjects in their design. The need to include females arises from the knowledge gap of mechanistic processes underlying the behavioral and neural differences observed in fear extinction. Moreover, the exact contribution of sex and hormones in relation to learning and behavior is still largely unknown. Insights from this field could be beneficial as fear-related disorders are twice as prevalent in women compared to men. Here, we review an up-to-date summary of animal and human studies in adulthood that report sex differences in fear extinction from a structural and functional approach. Furthermore, we describe how these factors could contribute to the observed sex differences in fear extinction during normal and pathological conditions.
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Affiliation(s)
- E R Velasco
- Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain
| | - A Florido
- Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain
| | - M R Milad
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Illinois at Chicago, USA
| | - R Andero
- Institut de Neurociències, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain; CIBERSAM, Corporació Sanitaria Parc Taulí, Sabadell, Spain; Department of Psychobiology and Methodology of Health Sciences, Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Spain.
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13
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Yue J, Shi L, Lin X, Khan MZ, Shi J, Lu L. Behavioral interventions to eliminate fear responses. SCIENCE CHINA-LIFE SCIENCES 2018; 61:625-632. [PMID: 29744783 DOI: 10.1007/s11427-018-9294-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2018] [Accepted: 02/26/2018] [Indexed: 02/07/2023]
Abstract
Fear memory underlies anxiety-related disorders, including posttraumatic stress disorder (PTSD). PTSD is a fear-based disorder, characterized by difficulties in extinguishing the learned fear response and maintaining extinction. Currently, the first-line treatment for PTSD is exposure therapy, which forms an extinction memory to compete with the original fear memory. However, the extinguished fear often returns under numerous circumstances, suggesting that novel methods are needed to eliminate fear memory or facilitate extinction memory. This review discusses research that targeted extinction and reconsolidation to manipulate fear memory. Recent studies indicate that sleep is an active state that can regulate memory processes. We also discuss the influence of sleep on fear memory. For each manipulation, we briefly summarize the neural mechanisms that have been identified in human studies. Finally, we highlight potential limitations and future directions in the field to better translate existing interventions to clinical settings.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jingli Yue
- Peking University Sixth Hospital, Peking University Institute of Mental Health, Key of Mental Health, Ministry of Health (Peking University), National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders (Peking University Sixth Hospital), Beijing, 100191, China
| | - Le Shi
- Peking University Sixth Hospital, Peking University Institute of Mental Health, Key of Mental Health, Ministry of Health (Peking University), National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders (Peking University Sixth Hospital), Beijing, 100191, China.,National Institute on Drug Dependence, Peking University, Beijing, 100191, China
| | - Xiao Lin
- Peking University Sixth Hospital, Peking University Institute of Mental Health, Key of Mental Health, Ministry of Health (Peking University), National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders (Peking University Sixth Hospital), Beijing, 100191, China.,Peking-Tsinghua Center for Life Sciences and PKU-IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China
| | - Muhammad Zahid Khan
- National Institute on Drug Dependence, Peking University, Beijing, 100191, China
| | - Jie Shi
- National Institute on Drug Dependence, Peking University, Beijing, 100191, China
| | - Lin Lu
- Peking University Sixth Hospital, Peking University Institute of Mental Health, Key of Mental Health, Ministry of Health (Peking University), National Clinical Research Center for Mental Disorders (Peking University Sixth Hospital), Beijing, 100191, China. .,National Institute on Drug Dependence, Peking University, Beijing, 100191, China. .,Peking-Tsinghua Center for Life Sciences and PKU-IDG/McGovern Institute for Brain Research, Peking University, Beijing, 100871, China.
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14
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Martínez-Moreno CG, Calderón-Vallejo D, Harvey S, Arámburo C, Quintanar JL. Growth Hormone (GH) and Gonadotropin-Releasing Hormone (GnRH) in the Central Nervous System: A Potential Neurological Combinatory Therapy? Int J Mol Sci 2018; 19:E375. [PMID: 29373545 PMCID: PMC5855597 DOI: 10.3390/ijms19020375] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/30/2017] [Revised: 01/21/2018] [Accepted: 01/23/2018] [Indexed: 12/15/2022] Open
Abstract
This brief review of the neurological effects of growth hormone (GH) and gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH) in the brain, particularly in the cerebral cortex, hypothalamus, hippocampus, cerebellum, spinal cord, neural retina, and brain tumors, summarizes recent information about their therapeutic potential as treatments for different neuropathologies and neurodegenerative processes. The effect of GH and GnRH (by independent administration) has been associated with beneficial impacts in patients with brain trauma and spinal cord injuries. Both GH and GnRH have demonstrated potent neurotrophic, neuroprotective, and neuroregenerative action. Positive behavioral and cognitive effects are also associated with GH and GnRH administration. Increasing evidence suggests the possibility of a multifactorial therapy that includes both GH and GnRH.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos G Martínez-Moreno
- Departamento de Neurobiología Celular y Molecular, Instituto de Neurobiología, Campus Juriquilla, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Boulevard Juriquilla 3001, Querétaro 76230, Mexico.
| | - Denisse Calderón-Vallejo
- Departamento de Fisiología y Farmacología, Centro de Ciencias Básicas, Universidad Autónoma de Aguascalientes, Av. Universidad 940, Ciudad Universitaria, Aguascalientes 20131, Mexico.
| | - Steve Harvey
- Department of Physiology, University of Alberta, Edmonton, AB T6G 2H7, Canada.
| | - Carlos Arámburo
- Departamento de Neurobiología Celular y Molecular, Instituto de Neurobiología, Campus Juriquilla, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Boulevard Juriquilla 3001, Querétaro 76230, Mexico.
| | - José Luis Quintanar
- Departamento de Fisiología y Farmacología, Centro de Ciencias Básicas, Universidad Autónoma de Aguascalientes, Av. Universidad 940, Ciudad Universitaria, Aguascalientes 20131, Mexico.
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Reimer AE, de Oliveira AR, Diniz JB, Hoexter MQ, Miguel EC, Milad MR, Brandão ML. Fear extinction in an obsessive-compulsive disorder animal model: Influence of sex and estrous cycle. Neuropharmacology 2017; 131:104-115. [PMID: 29225044 DOI: 10.1016/j.neuropharm.2017.12.015] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2017] [Revised: 12/05/2017] [Accepted: 12/06/2017] [Indexed: 01/14/2023]
Abstract
Obsessive-compulsive disorder (OCD) is a neuropsychiatric condition that affects men and women equally, but with a sexually dimorphic pattern of development. Reproductive cycle events can influence symptom severity of OCD in females, indicating that ovarian hormones or their interaction with distinct neurotransmitter systems may play a role in OCD pathophysiology. Clinical studies and animal models have confirmed the importance of the serotonergic (5-HT) system in the neurobiology and treatment of OCD. Accordingly, the non-selective 5-HT2c agonist, meta-chlorophenylpiperazine (mCPP), exacerbates symptoms in untreated OCD patients. In rodents, it evokes repetitive behaviors that engage brain areas that are homologous with those found to be dysfunctional in OCD patients. These regions, including the medial prefrontal and anterior cingulate cortices, are also involved in fear inhibition, which is impaired in OCD. Here, we treated rats with mCPP (0.5 and 3.0 mg/kg) to evaluate its influence on self-grooming behavior and assess potential fear extinction retention deficits, taking into account sex differences and females' estrous cycle. We found that mCPP exacerbated grooming in male and female rats, irrespective of the estrous cycle phase. Fear extinction retention, however, was impaired only in females. Moreover, females undergoing fear extinction training during the metestrus/diestrus phases of the estrous cycle were more sensitive to the impairments induced by mCPP. Our results indicate that mCPP can induce OCD-like symptoms, exacerbating self-grooming and impairing fear extinction. It suggests that changes in 5-HT signaling through 5-HT2c receptors may have an important role in the OCD pathophysiology and that the influence of gonadal hormones in OCD should be further investigated.
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Affiliation(s)
- Adriano Edgar Reimer
- Department of Psychology, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil; Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, MA, USA; Institute of Neuroscience and Behavior (INeC), Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil.
| | - Amanda Ribeiro de Oliveira
- Institute of Neuroscience and Behavior (INeC), Ribeirão Preto, SP, Brazil; Department of Psychology, Federal University of São Carlos, São Carlos, SP, Brazil
| | - Juliana Belo Diniz
- Department of Psychiatry, School of Medicine, University of São Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | | | | | - Mohammed Ragib Milad
- Department of Psychiatry, Massachusetts General Hospital, Charlestown, MA, USA; Department of Psychiatry, Harvard Medical School, Cambridge, MA, USA
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