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Rathi K, Shukla M, Hassam M, Shrivastava R, Rawat V, Prakash Verma V. Recent advances in the synthesis and antimalarial activity of 1,2,4-trioxanes. Bioorg Chem 2024; 143:107043. [PMID: 38134523 DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2023.107043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/20/2023] [Revised: 11/29/2023] [Accepted: 12/15/2023] [Indexed: 12/24/2023]
Abstract
The increasing resistance of various malarial parasite strains to drugs has made the production of a new, rapid-acting, and efficient antimalarial drug more necessary, as the demand for such drugs is growing rapidly. As a major global health concern, various methods have been implemented to address the problem of drug resistance, including the hybrid drug concept, combination therapy, the development of analogues of existing medicines, and the use of drug resistance reversal agents. Artemisinin and its derivatives are currently used against multidrug- resistant P. falciparum species. However, due to its natural origin, its use has been limited by its scarcity in natural resources. As a result, finding a substitute becomes more crucial, and the peroxide group in artemisinin, responsible for the drugs biological action in the form of 1,2,4-trioxane, may hold the key to resolving this issue. The literature suggests that 1,2,4-trioxanes have the potential to become an alternative to current malaria drugs, as highlighted in this review. This is why 1,2,4-trioxanes and their derivatives have been synthesized on a large scale worldwide, as they have shown promising antimalarial activity in vivo and in vitro against Plasmodium species. Consequently, the search for a more convenient, environment friendly, sustainable, efficient, and effective synthetic pathway for the synthesis of 1,2,4-trioxanes continues. The aim of this work is to provide a comprehensive analysis of the synthesis and mechanism of action of 1,2,4-trioxanes. This systematic review highlights the most recent summaries of derivatives of 1,2,4-trioxane compounds and dimers with potential antimalarial activity from January 1988 to 2023.
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Affiliation(s)
- Komal Rathi
- Department of Chemistry, Banasthali University, Banasthali Newai 304022, Rajasthan, India
| | - Monika Shukla
- Department of Chemistry, Banasthali University, Banasthali Newai 304022, Rajasthan, India
| | | | - Rahul Shrivastava
- Department of Chemistry, Manipal University Jaipur, Jaipur (Rajasthan), VPO- Dehmi-Kalan, Off Jaipur-Ajmer Express Way, Jaipur, Rajasthan 30300, India
| | - Varun Rawat
- School of Chemistry, Tel Aviv University, Tel Aviv 6997801, Israel.
| | - Ved Prakash Verma
- Department of Chemistry, Banasthali University, Banasthali Newai 304022, Rajasthan, India.
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2
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Design, synthesis and biological evaluation of quinoline-1,2,4-triazine hybrids as antimalarial agents. J Mol Struct 2022. [DOI: 10.1016/j.molstruc.2022.133982] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/23/2022]
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3
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Oguike OE, Ugwuishiwu CH, Asogwa CN, Nnadi CO, Obonga WO, Attama AA. Systematic review on the application of machine learning to quantitative structure-activity relationship modeling against Plasmodium falciparum. Mol Divers 2022; 26:3447-3462. [PMID: 35064444 PMCID: PMC8782692 DOI: 10.1007/s11030-022-10380-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/05/2021] [Accepted: 01/07/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Malaria accounts for over two million deaths globally. To flatten this curve, there is a need to develop new and high potent drugs against Plasmodium falciparum. Some major challenges include the dearth of suitable animal models for anti-P. falciparum assays, resistance to first-line drugs, lack of vaccines and the complex life cycle of Plasmodium. Gladly, newer approaches to antimalarial drug discovery have emerged due to the release of large datasets by pharmaceutical companies. This review provides insights into these new approaches to drug discovery covering different machine learning tools, which enhance the development of new compounds. It provides a systematic review on the use and prospects of machine learning in predicting, classifying and clustering IC50 values of bioactive compounds against P. falciparum. The authors identified many machine learning tools yet to be applied for this purpose. However, Random Forest and Support Vector Machines have been extensively applied though on a limited dataset of compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Osondu Everestus Oguike
- Machine Learning Research Group, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, 410001, Enugu State, Nigeria.,Department of Computer Science, Faculty of Physical Sciences, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, 410001, Enugu State, Nigeria
| | - Chikodili Helen Ugwuishiwu
- Machine Learning Research Group, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, 410001, Enugu State, Nigeria.,Department of Computer Science, Faculty of Physical Sciences, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, 410001, Enugu State, Nigeria
| | - Caroline Ngozi Asogwa
- Machine Learning Research Group, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, 410001, Enugu State, Nigeria.,Department of Computer Science, Faculty of Physical Sciences, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, 410001, Enugu State, Nigeria
| | - Charles Okeke Nnadi
- Machine Learning Research Group, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, 410001, Enugu State, Nigeria. .,Deprtment of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, 410001, Enugu State, Nigeria.
| | - Wilfred Ofem Obonga
- Machine Learning Research Group, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, 410001, Enugu State, Nigeria.,Deprtment of Pharmaceutical and Medicinal Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, 410001, Enugu State, Nigeria
| | - Anthony Amaechi Attama
- Machine Learning Research Group, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, 410001, Enugu State, Nigeria.,Department of Pharmaceutics, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Nigeria, Nsukka, 410001, Enugu State, Nigeria
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4
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Sakpal S, Bastikar A, Kothari SL, Bastikar V. In silico analysis of the pyretic effect of drugs on antimalarial receptors. J INDIAN CHEM SOC 2021. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jics.2021.100102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 10/20/2022]
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5
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A trio of quinoline-isoniazid-phthalimide with promising antiplasmodial potential: Synthesis, in-vitro evaluation and heme-polymerization inhibition studies. Bioorg Med Chem 2021; 39:116159. [PMID: 33895706 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2021.116159] [Citation(s) in RCA: 11] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/31/2020] [Revised: 03/31/2021] [Accepted: 04/06/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Quinoline-isoniazid-phthalimide triads have been synthesised to assess their antiplasmodial efficacy and cytotoxicity against chloroquine-resistant W2 strain of P. falciparum and Vero cells, respectively. Most of the synthesized compounds displayed IC50 in lower nM range and appeared to be approximately five to twelve fold more active than chloroquine. Heme-binding studies were also carried out to delineate the mode of action. The promising compounds with IC50s in range of 11-30 nM and selectivity index >2800, may act as promising template for the design of new antiplasmodials.
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6
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Boechat N, Carvalho RCC, Ferreira MDLG, Coutinho JP, Sa PM, Seito LN, Rosas EC, Krettli AU, Bastos MM, Pinheiro LCS. Antimalarial and anti-inflammatory activities of new chloroquine and primaquine hybrids: Targeting the blockade of malaria parasite transmission. Bioorg Med Chem 2020; 28:115832. [PMID: 33166927 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2020.115832] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/02/2020] [Revised: 10/22/2020] [Accepted: 10/26/2020] [Indexed: 10/23/2022]
Abstract
Malaria is a disease that requires new drugs not only to fight Plasmodium but also to reduce symptoms of infection such as fever and inflammation. A series of 21 hybrid compounds were designed from chloroquine (CQ) and primaquine (PQ) linked to the pharmacophoric group present in phenylacetic anti-inflammatory drugs. These compounds were designed to have dual activity: namely, to be capable of killing Plasmodium and still act on the inflammatory process caused by malaria infection. The compounds were assayed with nine different biological methods. The carbonylated CQ derivative 6 (n = 3; R1 = Cl) was more potent than CQ in vitro, and 8 (n = 4; R1 = H) reduced P. berghei parasitemia up to 37% on day 7. The carbonylated PQ derivative 17 (R = Br) was slightly less potent than PQ. The gem-difluoro PQ derivative 20 (R = Cl) exhibited high transmission blockade of the malaria sporogonic cycle in mosquitoes. Compounds 6 and 20 dose-dependently reduced nitric oxide (NO) production and inhibited TNFα production by LPS-stimulated J774A.1 macrophages. Our results indicate a viable and interesting approach in planning new chemical entities that act as transmission-blocking drugs for treating malaria caused by P. falciparum and P. vivax and the anti-inflammatory process related to this disease.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nubia Boechat
- Laboratorio de Sintese de Farmacos, Instituto de Tecnologia em Farmacos, Farmanguinhos - FIOCRUZ, Fundacao Oswaldo Cruz. Rua Sizenando Nabuco 100, Manguinhos, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21041-250, Brazil.
| | - Rita C C Carvalho
- Laboratorio de Sintese de Farmacos, Instituto de Tecnologia em Farmacos, Farmanguinhos - FIOCRUZ, Fundacao Oswaldo Cruz. Rua Sizenando Nabuco 100, Manguinhos, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21041-250, Brazil
| | - Maria de Lourdes G Ferreira
- Laboratorio de Sintese de Farmacos, Instituto de Tecnologia em Farmacos, Farmanguinhos - FIOCRUZ, Fundacao Oswaldo Cruz. Rua Sizenando Nabuco 100, Manguinhos, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21041-250, Brazil
| | - Julia Penna Coutinho
- Centro de Pesquisas Rene Rachou, CPqRR - FIOCRUZ, Fundacao Oswaldo Cruz, Belo Horizonte, MG 30190-002, Brazil
| | - Paula M Sa
- Laboratorio de Sintese de Farmacos, Instituto de Tecnologia em Farmacos, Farmanguinhos - FIOCRUZ, Fundacao Oswaldo Cruz. Rua Sizenando Nabuco 100, Manguinhos, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21041-250, Brazil
| | - Leonardo N Seito
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Instituto de Tecnologia em Farmacos, Farmanguinhos - FIOCRUZ, Fundacao Oswaldo Cruz, Brazil
| | - Elaine C Rosas
- Departamento de Farmacologia, Instituto de Tecnologia em Farmacos, Farmanguinhos - FIOCRUZ, Fundacao Oswaldo Cruz, Brazil
| | - Antoniana U Krettli
- Centro de Pesquisas Rene Rachou, CPqRR - FIOCRUZ, Fundacao Oswaldo Cruz, Belo Horizonte, MG 30190-002, Brazil
| | - Monica M Bastos
- Laboratorio de Sintese de Farmacos, Instituto de Tecnologia em Farmacos, Farmanguinhos - FIOCRUZ, Fundacao Oswaldo Cruz. Rua Sizenando Nabuco 100, Manguinhos, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21041-250, Brazil
| | - Luiz C S Pinheiro
- Laboratorio de Sintese de Farmacos, Instituto de Tecnologia em Farmacos, Farmanguinhos - FIOCRUZ, Fundacao Oswaldo Cruz. Rua Sizenando Nabuco 100, Manguinhos, Rio de Janeiro, RJ 21041-250, Brazil
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7
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Akkachairin B, Rodphon W, Reamtong O, Mungthin M, Tummatorn J, Thongsornkleeb C, Ruchirawat S. Synthesis of neocryptolepines and carbocycle-fused quinolines and evaluation of their anticancer and antiplasmodial activities. Bioorg Chem 2020; 98:103732. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bioorg.2020.103732] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/24/2020] [Revised: 02/20/2020] [Accepted: 03/06/2020] [Indexed: 01/07/2023]
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8
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Tibon NS, Ng CH, Cheong SL. Current progress in antimalarial pharmacotherapy and multi-target drug discovery. Eur J Med Chem 2019; 188:111983. [PMID: 31911292 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2019.111983] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/21/2019] [Revised: 12/09/2019] [Accepted: 12/16/2019] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Discovery and development of antimalarial drugs have long been dominated by single-target therapy. Continuous effort has been made to explore and identify different targets in malaria parasite crucial for the malaria treatment. The single-target drug therapy was initially successful, but it was later supplanted by combination therapy with multiple drugs to overcome drug resistance. Emergence of resistant strains even against the combination therapy has warranted a review of current antimalarial pharmacotherapy. This has led to the development of the new concept of covalent biotherapy, in which two or more pharmacophores are chemically bound to produce hybrid antimalarial drugs with multi-target functionalities. Herein, the review initially details the current pharmacotherapy for malaria as well as the conventional and novel targets of importance identified in the malaria parasite. Then, the rationale of multi-targeted therapy for malaria, approaches taken to develop the multi-target antimalarial hybrids, and the examples of hybrid molecules are comprehensively enumerated and discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Natasha Stella Tibon
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, International Medical University, No. 126, Jalan Jalil Perkasa 19, Bukit Jalil, 57000, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia
| | - Chew Hee Ng
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, International Medical University, No. 126, Jalan Jalil Perkasa 19, Bukit Jalil, 57000, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
| | - Siew Lee Cheong
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, School of Pharmacy, International Medical University, No. 126, Jalan Jalil Perkasa 19, Bukit Jalil, 57000, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.
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9
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Lawrenson AS, Cooper DL, O'Neill PM, Berry NG. Study of the antimalarial activity of 4-aminoquinoline compounds against chloroquine-sensitive and chloroquine-resistant parasite strains. J Mol Model 2018; 24:237. [PMID: 30120591 PMCID: PMC6097041 DOI: 10.1007/s00894-018-3755-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/08/2018] [Accepted: 07/20/2018] [Indexed: 11/14/2022]
Abstract
This study is concerned with identifying features of 4-aminoquinoline scaffolds that can help pinpoint characteristics that enhance activity against chloroquine-resistant parasites. Statistically valid predictive models are reported for a series of 4-aminoquinoline analogues that are active against chloroquine-sensitive (NF54) and chloroquine-resistant (K1) strains of Plasmodium falciparum. Quantitative structure activity relationship techniques, based on statistical and machine learning methods such as multiple linear regression and partial least squares, were used with a novel pruning method for the selection of descriptors to develop robust models for both strains. Inspection of the dominant descriptors supports the hypothesis that chemical features that enable accumulation in the food vacuole of the parasite are key determinants of activity against both strains. The hydrophilic properties of the compounds were found to be crucial in predicting activity against the chloroquine-sensitive NF54 parasite strain, but not in the case of the chloroquine-resistant K1 strain, in line with previous studies. Additionally, the models suggest that ‘softer’ compounds tend to have improved activity for both strains than do ‘harder’ ones. The internally and externally validated models reported here should also prove useful in the future screening of potential antimalarial compounds for targeting chloroquine-resistant strains. Predictive models reveal linear relationships for activity of 4-aminoquinoline analogues active against chloroquine-sensitive strains of Plasmodium falciparum ![]()
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Affiliation(s)
| | - David L Cooper
- Department of Chemistry, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, L69 7ZD, UK
| | - Paul M O'Neill
- Department of Chemistry, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, L69 7ZD, UK
| | - Neil G Berry
- Department of Chemistry, University of Liverpool, Liverpool, L69 7ZD, UK.
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10
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Yogavel M, Nettleship JE, Sharma A, Harlos K, Jamwal A, Chaturvedi R, Sharma M, Jain V, Chhibber-Goel J, Sharma A. Structure of 6-hydroxymethyl-7,8-dihydropterin pyrophosphokinase-dihydropteroate synthase from Plasmodium vivax sheds light on drug resistance. J Biol Chem 2018; 293:14962-14972. [PMID: 30104413 DOI: 10.1074/jbc.ra118.004558] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/27/2018] [Revised: 08/08/2018] [Indexed: 11/06/2022] Open
Abstract
The genomes of the malaria-causing Plasmodium parasites encode a protein fused of 6-hydroxymethyl-7,8-dihydropterin pyrophosphokinase (HPPK) and dihydropteroate synthase (DHPS) domains that catalyze sequential reactions in the folate biosynthetic pathway. Whereas higher organisms derive folate from their diet and lack the enzymes for its synthesis, most eubacteria and a number of lower eukaryotes including malaria parasites synthesize tetrahydrofolate via DHPS. Plasmodium falciparum (Pf) and Plasmodium vivax (Pv) HPPK-DHPSs are currently targets of drugs like sulfadoxine (SDX). The SDX effectiveness as an antimalarial drug is increasingly diminished by the rise and spread of drug-resistant mutations. Here, we present the crystal structure of PvHPPK-DHPS in complex with four substrates/analogs, revealing the bifunctional PvHPPK-DHPS architecture in an unprecedented state of enzymatic activation. SDX's effect on HPPK-DHPS is due to 4-amino benzoic acid (pABA) mimicry, and the PvHPPK-DHPS structure sheds light on the SDX-binding cavity, as well as on mutations that effect SDX potency. We mapped five dominant drug resistance mutations in PvHPPK-DHPS: S382A, A383G, K512E/D, A553G, and V585A, most of which occur individually or in clusters proximal to the pABA-binding site. We found that these resistance mutations subtly alter the intricate enzyme/pABA/SDX interactions such that DHPS affinity for pABA is diminished only moderately, but its affinity for SDX is changed substantially. In conclusion, the PvHPPK-DHPS structure rationalizes and unravels the structural bases for SDX resistance mutations and highlights architectural features in HPPK-DHPSs from malaria parasites that can form the basis for developing next-generation anti-folate agents to combat malaria parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- Manickam Yogavel
- From the Molecular Medicine-Structural Parasitology Group, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, New Delhi 110067, India,
| | - Joanne E Nettleship
- the Division of Structural Biology, Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7BN, United Kingdom, and.,the Oxford Protein Production Facility, United Kingdom Research Complex at Harwell, Rutherford Appleton Laboratory, Oxford OX11 0FA, United Kingdom
| | - Akansha Sharma
- From the Molecular Medicine-Structural Parasitology Group, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, New Delhi 110067, India
| | - Karl Harlos
- the Division of Structural Biology, Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7BN, United Kingdom, and
| | - Abhishek Jamwal
- From the Molecular Medicine-Structural Parasitology Group, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, New Delhi 110067, India
| | - Rini Chaturvedi
- From the Molecular Medicine-Structural Parasitology Group, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, New Delhi 110067, India
| | - Manmohan Sharma
- From the Molecular Medicine-Structural Parasitology Group, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, New Delhi 110067, India
| | - Vitul Jain
- the Division of Structural Biology, Wellcome Centre for Human Genetics, University of Oxford, Oxford OX3 7BN, United Kingdom, and
| | - Jyoti Chhibber-Goel
- From the Molecular Medicine-Structural Parasitology Group, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, New Delhi 110067, India
| | - Amit Sharma
- From the Molecular Medicine-Structural Parasitology Group, International Centre for Genetic Engineering and Biotechnology, New Delhi 110067, India
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11
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Chen Y, Murillo-Solano C, Kirkpatrick MG, Antoshchenko T, Park HW, Pizarro JC. Repurposing drugs to target the malaria parasite unfolding protein response. Sci Rep 2018; 8:10333. [PMID: 29985421 PMCID: PMC6037779 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-018-28608-2] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/29/2017] [Accepted: 06/26/2018] [Indexed: 01/19/2023] Open
Abstract
Drug resistant Plasmodium falciparum parasites represent a major obstacle in our efforts to control malaria, a deadly vector borne infectious disease. This situation creates an urgent need to find and validate new drug targets to contain the spread of the disease. Several genes associated with the unfolded protein response (UPR) including Glucose-regulated Protein 78 kDa (GRP78, also known as BiP) have been deemed potential drug targets. We explored the drug target potential of GRP78, a molecular chaperone that is a regulator of the UPR, for the treatment of P. falciparum parasite infection. By screening repurposed chaperone inhibitors that are anticancer agents, we showed that GRP78 inhibition is lethal to drug-sensitive and -resistant P. falciparum parasite strains in vitro. We correlated the antiplasmodial activity of the inhibitors with their ability to bind the malaria chaperone, by characterizing their binding to recombinant parasite GRP78. Furthermore, we determined the crystal structure of the ATP binding domain of P. falciparum GRP78 with ADP and identified structural features unique to the parasite. These data suggest that P. falciparum GRP78 can be a valid drug target and that its structural differences to human GRP78 emphasize potential to generate parasite specific compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yun Chen
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, USA
| | - Claribel Murillo-Solano
- Department of Tropical Medicine, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, USA
| | - Melanie G Kirkpatrick
- Department of Tropical Medicine, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, USA
| | - Tetyana Antoshchenko
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, USA
| | - Hee-Won Park
- Department of Molecular Biology and Biochemistry, School of Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, USA.,Vector Borne Infectious Disease Research Center (VBIDRC), Tulane University, New Orleans, USA
| | - Juan C Pizarro
- Department of Tropical Medicine, School of Public Health and Tropical Medicine, Tulane University, New Orleans, USA. .,Vector Borne Infectious Disease Research Center (VBIDRC), Tulane University, New Orleans, USA.
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12
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Kumar S, Bhardwaj TR, Prasad DN, Singh RK. Drug targets for resistant malaria: Historic to future perspectives. Biomed Pharmacother 2018; 104:8-27. [PMID: 29758416 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2018.05.009] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/20/2018] [Revised: 04/22/2018] [Accepted: 05/07/2018] [Indexed: 01/05/2023] Open
Abstract
New antimalarial targets are the prime need for the discovery of potent drug candidates. In order to fulfill this objective, antimalarial drug researches are focusing on promising targets in order to develop new drug candidates. Basic metabolism and biochemical process in the malaria parasite, i.e. Plasmodium falciparum can play an indispensable role in the identification of these targets. But, the emergence of resistance to antimalarial drugs is an escalating comprehensive problem with the progress of antimalarial drug development. The development of resistance has highlighted the need for the search of novel antimalarial molecules. The pharmaceutical industries are committed to new drug development due to the global recognition of this life threatening resistance to the currently available antimalarial therapy. The recent developments in the understanding of parasite biology are exhilarating this resistance issue which is further being ignited by malaria genome project. With this background of information, this review was aimed to highlights and provides useful information on various present and promising treatment approaches for resistant malaria, new progresses, pursued by some innovative targets that have been explored till date. This review also discusses modern and futuristic multiple approaches to antimalarial drug discovery and development with pictorial presentations highlighting the various targets, that could be exploited for generating promising new drugs in the future for drug resistant malaria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sahil Kumar
- School of Pharmacy and Emerging Sciences, Baddi University of Emerging Sciences & Technology, Baddi, Dist. Solan, 173205, Himachal Pradesh, India
| | - T R Bhardwaj
- School of Pharmacy and Emerging Sciences, Baddi University of Emerging Sciences & Technology, Baddi, Dist. Solan, 173205, Himachal Pradesh, India
| | - D N Prasad
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Shivalik College of Pharmacy, Nangal, Dist. Rupnagar, 140126, Punjab, India
| | - Rajesh K Singh
- Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, Shivalik College of Pharmacy, Nangal, Dist. Rupnagar, 140126, Punjab, India.
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13
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Intravenous human serum albumin (HSA)-bound artemether nanoparticles for treatment of severe malaria. Colloids Surf A Physicochem Eng Asp 2018. [DOI: 10.1016/j.colsurfa.2017.08.016] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/01/2023]
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14
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Afanador GA, Guerra AJ, Swift RP, Rodriguez RE, Bartee D, Matthews KA, Schön A, Freire E, Freel Meyers CL, Prigge ST. A novel lipoate attachment enzyme is shared by Plasmodium and Chlamydia species. Mol Microbiol 2017; 106:439-451. [PMID: 28836704 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.13776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/22/2022]
Abstract
Lipoate is an essential cofactor for enzymes that are important for central metabolism and other processes. In malaria parasites, scavenged lipoate from the human host is required for survival. The Plasmodium falciparum mitochondrion contains two enzymes (PfLipL1 and PfLipL2) that are responsible for activating mitochondrial proteins through the covalent attachment of lipoate (lipoylation). Lipoylation occurs via a novel redox-gated mechanism that remains poorly understood. We show that PfLipL1 functions as a redox switch that determines which downstream proteins will be activated. Based on the lipoate redox state, PfLipL1 either functions as a canonical lipoate ligase or as a lipoate activating enzyme which works in conjunction with PfLipL2. We demonstrate that PfLipL2 is a lipoyltransferase and is a member of a novel clade of lipoate attachment enzymes. We show that a LipL2 enzyme from Chlamydia trachomatis has similar activity, demonstrating conservation between intracellular pathogens from different phylogenetic kingdoms and supporting the hypothesis that an early ancestor of malaria parasites once contained a chlamydial endosymbiont. Redox-dependent lipoylation may regulate processes such as central metabolism and oxidative defense pathways.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gustavo A Afanador
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Alfredo J Guerra
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Russell P Swift
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Ryan E Rodriguez
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - David Bartee
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Krista A Matthews
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Arne Schön
- Department of Biology, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Ernesto Freire
- Department of Biology, The Johns Hopkins University, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Caren L Freel Meyers
- Department of Pharmacology and Molecular Sciences, Johns Hopkins School of Medicine, Baltimore, MD, USA
| | - Sean T Prigge
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
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15
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Guerra AJ, Afanador GA, Prigge ST. Crystal structure of lipoate-bound lipoate ligase 1, LipL1, from Plasmodium falciparum. Proteins 2017; 85:1777-1783. [PMID: 28543853 DOI: 10.1002/prot.25324] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/19/2016] [Revised: 05/04/2017] [Accepted: 05/17/2017] [Indexed: 11/08/2022]
Abstract
Plasmodium falciparum lipoate protein ligase 1 (PfLipL1) is an ATP-dependent ligase that belongs to the biotin/lipoate A/B protein ligase family (PFAM PF03099). PfLipL1 is the only known canonical lipoate ligase in Pf and functions as a redox switch between two lipoylation routes in the parasite mitochondrion. Here, we report the crystal structure of a deletion construct of PfLipL1 (PfLipL1Δ243-279 ) bound to lipoate, and validate the lipoylation activity of this construct in both an in vitro lipoylation assay and a cell-based lipoylation assay. This characterization represents the first step in understanding the redox dependence of the lipoylation mechanism in malaria parasites. Proteins 2017; 85:1777-1783. © 2017 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alfredo J Guerra
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Gustavo A Afanador
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland
| | - Sean T Prigge
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins Bloomberg School of Public Health, Baltimore, Maryland
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16
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Wang J, Xu C, Lun ZR, Meshnick SR. Unpacking ‘Artemisinin Resistance’. Trends Pharmacol Sci 2017; 38:506-511. [DOI: 10.1016/j.tips.2017.03.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/30/2017] [Revised: 03/20/2017] [Accepted: 03/22/2017] [Indexed: 12/21/2022]
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17
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Carrasco MP, Machado M, Gonçalves L, Sharma M, Gut J, Lukens AK, Wirth DF, André V, Duarte MT, Guedes RC, Dos Santos DJVA, Rosenthal PJ, Mazitschek R, Prudêncio M, Moreira R. Probing the Azaaurone Scaffold against the Hepatic and Erythrocytic Stages of Malaria Parasites. ChemMedChem 2016; 11:2194-2204. [PMID: 27538856 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.201600327] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/28/2016] [Indexed: 11/09/2022]
Abstract
The potential of azaaurones as dual-stage antimalarial agents was investigated by assessing the effect of a small library of azaaurones on the inhibition of liver and intraerythrocytic lifecycle stages of the malaria parasite. The whole series was screened against the blood stage of a chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium falciparum strain and the liver stage of P. berghei, yielding compounds with dual-stage activity and sub-micromolar potency against erythrocytic parasites. Studies with genetically modified parasites, using a phenotypic assay based on the P. falciparum Dd2-ScDHODH line, which expresses yeast dihydroorotate dehydrogenase (DHODH), showed that one of the azaaurone derivatives has the potential to inhibit the parasite mitochondrial electron-transport chain. The global urgency in finding new therapies for malaria, especially against the underexplored liver stage, associated with chemical tractability of azaaurones, warrants further development of this chemotype. Overall, these results emphasize the azaaurone chemotype as a promising scaffold for dual-stage antimalarials.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta P Carrasco
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003, Lisboa, Portugal. .,Department of Chemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Gothenburg, 412 96, Göteborg, Sweden.
| | - Marta Machado
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Egas Moniz, 1649-028, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Lídia Gonçalves
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Moni Sharma
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Jiri Gut
- Department of Medicine, San Francisco General Hospital, University of California San Francisco, 1001 Potrero Avenue, San Francisco, CA, 94110, USA
| | - Amanda K Lukens
- The Broad Institute, Infectious Diseases Program, Cambridge, MA, 02142, USA.,Department of Immunology and Infectious Disease, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Dyann F Wirth
- The Broad Institute, Infectious Diseases Program, Cambridge, MA, 02142, USA.,Department of Immunology and Infectious Disease, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, 02115, USA
| | - Vânia André
- Centro de Química Estrutural, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, 1049-001, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Maria Teresa Duarte
- Centro de Química Estrutural, Instituto Superior Técnico, Universidade de Lisboa, 1049-001, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Rita C Guedes
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Daniel J V A Dos Santos
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003, Lisboa, Portugal.,LAQV@REQUIMTE, Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, Portugal
| | - Philip J Rosenthal
- Department of Medicine, San Francisco General Hospital, University of California San Francisco, 1001 Potrero Avenue, San Francisco, CA, 94110, USA
| | - Ralph Mazitschek
- The Broad Institute, Infectious Diseases Program, Cambridge, MA, 02142, USA.,Department of Immunology and Infectious Disease, Harvard T.H. Chan School of Public Health, Boston, MA, 02115, USA.,Center for System Biology, Massachusetts General Hospital and Harvard Medical School, Richard B. Simches Research Center, 185 Cambridge Street, Boston, MA, 02114, USA
| | - Miguel Prudêncio
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Egas Moniz, 1649-028, Lisboa, Portugal.
| | - Rui Moreira
- Research Institute for Medicines (iMed.ULisboa), Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003, Lisboa, Portugal
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18
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Understanding the structural basis of substrate recognition by Plasmodium falciparum plasmepsin V to aid in the design of potent inhibitors. Sci Rep 2016; 6:31420. [PMID: 27531685 PMCID: PMC4987639 DOI: 10.1038/srep31420] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/02/2015] [Accepted: 07/20/2016] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Plasmodium falciparum plasmepsin V (PfPMV) is an essential aspartic protease required for parasite survival, thus, considered as a potential drug target. This study reports the first detailed structural analysis and molecular dynamics simulation of PfPMV as an apoenzyme and its complexes with the substrate PEXEL as well as with the inhibitor saquinavir. The presence of pro-peptide in PfPMV may not structurally hinder the formation of a functionally competent catalytic active site. The structure of PfPMV-PEXEL complex shows that the unique positions of Glu179 and Gln222 are responsible for providing the specificity of PEXEL substrate with arginine at P3 position. The structural analysis also reveals that the S4 binding pocket in PfPMV is occupied by Ile94, Ala98, Phe370 and Tyr472, and therefore, does not allow binding of pepstatin, a potent inhibitor of most pepsin-like aspartic proteases. Among the screened inhibitors, the HIV-1 protease inhibitors and KNI compounds have higher binding affinities for PfPMV with saquinavir having the highest value. The presence of a flexible group at P2 and a bulky hydrophobic group at P3 position of the inhibitor is preferred in the PfPMV substrate binding pocket. Results from the present study will aid in the design of potent inhibitors of PMV.
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19
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20
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Krungkrai SR, Krungkrai J. Insights into the pyrimidine biosynthetic pathway of human malaria parasite Plasmodium falciparum as chemotherapeutic target. ASIAN PAC J TROP MED 2016; 9:525-34. [PMID: 27262062 DOI: 10.1016/j.apjtm.2016.04.012] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/15/2016] [Revised: 03/16/2016] [Accepted: 04/08/2016] [Indexed: 11/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria is a major cause of morbidity and mortality in humans. Artemisinins remain as the first-line treatment for Plasmodium falciparum (P. falciparum) malaria although drug resistance has already emerged and spread in Southeast Asia. Thus, to fight this disease, there is an urgent need to develop new antimalarial drugs for malaria chemotherapy. Unlike human host cells, P. falciparum cannot salvage preformed pyrimidine bases or nucleosides from the extracellular environment and relies solely on nucleotides synthesized through the de novo biosynthetic pathway. This review presents significant progress on understanding the de novo pyrimidine pathway and the functional enzymes in the human parasite P. falciparum. Current knowledge in genomics and metabolomics are described, particularly focusing on the parasite purine and pyrimidine nucleotide metabolism. These include gene annotation, characterization and molecular mechanism of the enzymes that are different from the human host pathway. Recent elucidation of the three-dimensional crystal structures and the catalytic reactions of three enzymes: dihydroorotate dehydrogenase, orotate phosphoribosyltransferase, and orotidine 5'-monophosphate decarboxylase, as well as their inhibitors are reviewed in the context of their therapeutic potential against malaria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sudaratana R Krungkrai
- Unit of Biochemistry, Department of Medical Science, Faculty of Science, Rangsit University, Pathumthani 12000, Thailand
| | - Jerapan Krungkrai
- Department of Biochemistry, Faculty of Medicine, Chulalongkorn University, Pathumwan, Bangkok 10330, Thailand.
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21
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Magalhães GA, Moura Neto E, Sombra VG, Richter AR, Abreu CMWS, Feitosa JPA, Paula HCB, Goycoolea FM, de Paula RCM. Chitosan/Sterculia striata polysaccharides nanocomplex as a potential chloroquine drug release device. Int J Biol Macromol 2016; 88:244-53. [PMID: 27041650 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijbiomac.2016.03.070] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/04/2016] [Revised: 03/29/2016] [Accepted: 03/31/2016] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Nanoparticles are produced by means of polyelectrolyte complexation (PEC) of oppositely charged polycationic chitosan (CH) with polyanionic polysaccharide extracted from Sterculia striata exudates (rhamnogalacturonoglycan (RG)-type polysaccharide). The nanoparticles formed with low-molar-mass CH are larger than those formed with high-molar-mass CH. This behavior is in contrast with that previously observed for other systems and may be attributed to different mechanisms related to the association of CH with RG of higher persistence length chain than that of CH. Nanoparticles harnessed with a charge ratio (n(+)/n(-)) of <1 are smaller than particles with an excess of polycations. Particles with hydrodynamic sizes smaller than 100nm are achieved using a polyelectrolyte concentration of 10(-4)gmL(-1) and charge ratio (n(+)/n(-)) of <1. The CH/RG nanoparticles are associated with chloroquine (CQ) with an efficiency of 28% and release it for up to ∼60% within ∼10h, whereas in the latter, only ∼40% of the CQ was released after 24h. The main factor that influenced drug release rate is the nanoparticle charge ratio.
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Affiliation(s)
- Guilherme A Magalhães
- Departamento de Química Orgânica e Inorgânica, Universidade Federal do Ceará, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil, CP 6021, CEP 60455-760
| | - Erico Moura Neto
- Departamento de Química Orgânica e Inorgânica, Universidade Federal do Ceará, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil, CP 6021, CEP 60455-760
| | - Venícios G Sombra
- Departamento de Química Orgânica e Inorgânica, Universidade Federal do Ceará, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil, CP 6021, CEP 60455-760
| | - Ana R Richter
- Departamento de Química Orgânica e Inorgânica, Universidade Federal do Ceará, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil, CP 6021, CEP 60455-760
| | - Clara M W S Abreu
- Departamento de Química Orgânica e Inorgânica, Universidade Federal do Ceará, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil, CP 6021, CEP 60455-760
| | - Judith P A Feitosa
- Departamento de Química Orgânica e Inorgânica, Universidade Federal do Ceará, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil, CP 6021, CEP 60455-760
| | - Haroldo C B Paula
- Departamento de Química Analitica e Fisico-Química, Universidade Federal do Ceará, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil, CP 6021,CEP 60455-760
| | | | - Regina C M de Paula
- Departamento de Química Orgânica e Inorgânica, Universidade Federal do Ceará, Fortaleza, Ceará, Brazil, CP 6021, CEP 60455-760.
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22
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Cai S, Risinger AL, Nair S, Peng J, Anderson TJC, Du L, Powell DR, Mooberry SL, Cichewicz RH. Identification of Compounds with Efficacy against Malaria Parasites from Common North American Plants. JOURNAL OF NATURAL PRODUCTS 2016; 79:490-8. [PMID: 26722868 PMCID: PMC5558429 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jnatprod.5b00874] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/05/2023]
Abstract
Some of the most valuable antimalarial compounds, including quinine and artemisinin, originated from plants. While these drugs have served important roles over many years for the treatment of malaria, drug resistance has become a widespread problem. Therefore, a critical need exists to identify new compounds that have efficacy against drug-resistant malaria strains. In the current study, extracts prepared from plants readily obtained from local sources were screened for activity against Plasmodium falciparum. Bioassay-guided fractionation was used to identify 18 compounds from five plant species. These compounds included eight lupane triterpenes (1-8), four kaempferol 3-O-rhamnosides (10-13), four kaempferol 3-O-glucosides (14-17), and the known compounds amentoflavone and knipholone. These compounds were tested for their efficacy against multi-drug-resistant malaria parasites and counterscreened against HeLa cells to measure their antimalarial selectivity. Most notably, one of the new lupane triterpenes (3) isolated from the supercritical extract of Buxus sempervirens, the common boxwood, showed activity against both drug-sensitive and -resistant malaria strains at a concentration that was 75-fold more selective for the drug-resistant malaria parasites as compared to HeLa cells. This study demonstrates that new antimalarial compounds with efficacy against drug-resistant strains can be identified from native and introduced plant species in the United States, which traditionally have received scant investigation compared to more heavily explored tropical and semitropical botanical resources from around the world.
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Affiliation(s)
- Shengxin Cai
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Stephenson Life Sciences Research Center, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma 73019, United States
- Natural Products Discovery Group, and Institute for Natural Products Applications and Research Technologies, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma 73019, United States
| | - April L. Risinger
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, Texas, 78229, United States
- Cancer Therapy and Research Center, University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, Texas, 78229, United States
| | - Shalini Nair
- Department of Genetics, Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, Texas 78227, United States
| | - Jiangnan Peng
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, Texas, 78229, United States
| | - Timothy J. C. Anderson
- Department of Genetics, Texas Biomedical Research Institute, San Antonio, Texas 78227, United States
| | - Lin Du
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Stephenson Life Sciences Research Center, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma 73019, United States
- Natural Products Discovery Group, and Institute for Natural Products Applications and Research Technologies, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma 73019, United States
| | - Douglas R. Powell
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Stephenson Life Sciences Research Center, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma 73019, United States
| | - Susan L. Mooberry
- Department of Pharmacology, University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, Texas, 78229, United States
- Cancer Therapy and Research Center, University of Texas Health Science Center, San Antonio, Texas, 78229, United States
| | - Robert H. Cichewicz
- Department of Chemistry and Biochemistry, Stephenson Life Sciences Research Center, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma 73019, United States
- Natural Products Discovery Group, and Institute for Natural Products Applications and Research Technologies, University of Oklahoma, Norman, Oklahoma 73019, United States
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23
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Fernández-Álvaro E, Hong WD, Nixon GL, O’Neill PM, Calderón F. Antimalarial Chemotherapy: Natural Product Inspired Development of Preclinical and Clinical Candidates with Diverse Mechanisms of Action. J Med Chem 2016; 59:5587-603. [DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.5b01485] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 6.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Elena Fernández-Álvaro
- Diseases of the Developing World, Tres
Cantos Medicines Development Campus, GlaxoSmithKline, c/Severo Ochoa, 2, 28760, Tres Cantos, Madrid, Spain
| | - W. David Hong
- Robert Robinson
Laboratories, Department of Chemistry, University of Liverpool, Crown Street, Liverpool L69 7ZD, U.K
| | - Gemma L. Nixon
- Robert Robinson
Laboratories, Department of Chemistry, University of Liverpool, Crown Street, Liverpool L69 7ZD, U.K
| | - Paul M. O’Neill
- Robert Robinson
Laboratories, Department of Chemistry, University of Liverpool, Crown Street, Liverpool L69 7ZD, U.K
| | - Félix Calderón
- Diseases of the Developing World, Tres
Cantos Medicines Development Campus, GlaxoSmithKline, c/Severo Ochoa, 2, 28760, Tres Cantos, Madrid, Spain
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Occurrence of pfatpase6 Single Nucleotide Polymorphisms Associated with Artemisinin Resistance among Field Isolates of Plasmodium falciparum in North-Eastern Tanzania. Malar Res Treat 2015; 2015:279028. [PMID: 25685593 PMCID: PMC4313681 DOI: 10.1155/2015/279028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2014] [Accepted: 12/12/2014] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
We aimed to determine the current prevalence of four P. falciparum candidate artemisinin resistance biomarkers L263E, E431K, A623E, and S769N in the pfatpase6 gene in a high transmission area in Tanzania in a retrospective cross sectional study using 154 archived samples collected from three previous malaria studies in 2010, 2011 and 2013. Mutations in pfatpase6 gene were detected in parasite DNA isolated from Dried Blood Spots by using PCR-RFLP. We observed overall allelic frequencies for L263E, E431K, A623E, and S769N to be 5.8% (9/154), 16.2% (25/154), 0.0% (0/154), and 3.9% (6/154). The L263E mutation was not detected in 2010 but occurred at 3.9% and 2.6% in 2011 and 2013 respectively. The L263E mutation showed a significant change of frequency between 2010 and 2011, but not between 2011 and 2013 (P < 0.05). Frequency of E431K was highest of all without any clear trend whereas S769N increased from 2.2% in 2010 to 3.6% in 2011 and 5.1% in 2013. A623E mutation was not detected. The worrisome detection and the increase in the frequency of S769N and other mutations calls for urgent assessment of temporal changes of known artemisinin biomarkers in association with in vivo ACT efficacy.
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25
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Reduced polymorphism in the Kelch propeller domain in Plasmodium vivax isolates from Cambodia. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2014; 59:730-3. [PMID: 25385109 DOI: 10.1128/aac.03908-14] [Citation(s) in RCA: 21] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Polymorphism in the ortholog gene of the Plasmodium falciparum K13 gene was investigated in Plasmodium vivax isolates collected in Cambodia. All of them were Sal-1 wild-type alleles except two (2/284, 0.7%), and P. vivax K12 polymorphism was reduced compared to that of the P. falciparum K13 gene. Both mutant allele isolates had the same nonsynonymous mutation at codon 552 (V552I) and were from Ratanak Kiri province. These preliminary data should encourage additional studies for associating artemisinin or chloroquine resistance and K12 polymorphism.
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26
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Afanador GA, Matthews KA, Bartee D, Gisselberg JE, Walters MS, Freel Meyers CL, Prigge ST. Redox-dependent lipoylation of mitochondrial proteins in Plasmodium falciparum. Mol Microbiol 2014; 94:156-71. [PMID: 25116855 PMCID: PMC4177315 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.12753] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Accepted: 08/08/2014] [Indexed: 11/26/2022]
Abstract
Lipoate scavenging from the human host is essential for malaria parasite survival. Scavenged lipoate is covalently attached to three parasite proteins: the H-protein and the E2 subunits of branched chain amino acid dehydrogenase (BCDH) and α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase (KDH). We show mitochondrial localization for the E2 subunits of BCDH and KDH, similar to previously localized H-protein, demonstrating that all three lipoylated proteins reside in the parasite mitochondrion. The lipoate ligase 1, LipL1, has been shown to reside in the mitochondrion and it catalyses the lipoylation of the H-protein; however, we show that LipL1 alone cannot lipoylate BCDH or KDH. A second mitochondrial protein with homology to lipoate ligases, LipL2, does not show ligase activity and is not capable of lipoylating any of the mitochondrial substrates. Instead, BCDH and KDH are lipoylated through a novel mechanism requiring both LipL1 and LipL2. This mechanism is sensitive to redox conditions where BCDH and KDH are exclusively lipoylated under strong reducing conditions in contrast to the H-protein which is preferentially lipoylated under less reducing conditions. Thus, malaria parasites contain two different routes of mitochondrial lipoylation, an arrangement that has not been described for any other organism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Gustavo A Afanador
- Department of Molecular Microbiology and Immunology, Johns Hopkins School of Public Health, Baltimore, MD, USA
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27
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Genetic ablation of plasmoDJ1, a multi-activity enzyme, attenuates parasite virulence and reduces oocyst production. Biochem J 2014; 461:189-203. [DOI: 10.1042/bj20140051] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022]
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28
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Carrasco MP, Newton AS, Gonçalves L, Góis A, Machado M, Gut J, Nogueira F, Hänscheid T, Guedes RC, dos Santos DJVA, Rosenthal PJ, Moreira R. Probing the aurone scaffold against Plasmodium falciparum: design, synthesis and antimalarial activity. Eur J Med Chem 2014; 80:523-34. [PMID: 24813880 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2014.04.076] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/09/2013] [Revised: 04/24/2014] [Accepted: 04/25/2014] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
Abstract
A library comprising 44 diversely substituted aurones derivatives was synthesized by straightforward aldol condensation reactions of benzofuranones and the appropriately substituted benzaldehydes. Microwave enhanced synthesis using palladium catalyzed protocols was introduced as a powerful strategy for extending the chemical space around the aurone scaffold. Additionally, Mannich-base derivatives, containing a 7-aminomethyl-6-hydroxy substitution pattern at ring A, were also prepared. Screening against the chloroquine resistant Plasmodium falciparum W2 strain identified novel aurones with IC50 values in the low micromolar range. The most potent compounds contained a basic moiety, with the ability to accumulate in acidic digestive vacuole of the malaria parasite. However, none of those aurones revealed significant activity against hemozoin formation and falcipain-2, two validated targets expressed during the blood stage of P. falciparum infection and functional in digestive vacuole of the parasite. Overall, this study highlight (i) the usefulness of aurones as platforms for synthetic procedures using palladium catalyzed protocols to rapidly deliver lead compounds for further optimization and (ii) the potential of novel aurone derivatives as promising antimalarial compounds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta P Carrasco
- Instituto de Investigação do Medicamento (iMed.ULisboa), Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Ana S Newton
- Instituto de Investigação do Medicamento (iMed.ULisboa), Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Lídia Gonçalves
- Instituto de Investigação do Medicamento (iMed.ULisboa), Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Ana Góis
- Unidade de Microbiologia Molecular e Infecção, Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Faculdade de Medicina de Lisboa, 1649-028 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Marta Machado
- Centro de Malária e outras Doenças Tropicais, Instituto de Higiene e Medicina Tropical, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, 1349-008 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Jiri Gut
- Department of Medicine, San Francisco General Hospital, University of California, San Francisco, Box 0811, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Fátima Nogueira
- Centro de Malária e outras Doenças Tropicais, Instituto de Higiene e Medicina Tropical, Universidade Nova de Lisboa, 1349-008 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Thomas Hänscheid
- Unidade de Microbiologia Molecular e Infecção, Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Faculdade de Medicina de Lisboa, 1649-028 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Rita C Guedes
- Instituto de Investigação do Medicamento (iMed.ULisboa), Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Daniel J V A dos Santos
- Instituto de Investigação do Medicamento (iMed.ULisboa), Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Philip J Rosenthal
- Department of Medicine, San Francisco General Hospital, University of California, San Francisco, Box 0811, San Francisco, CA 94143, USA
| | - Rui Moreira
- Instituto de Investigação do Medicamento (iMed.ULisboa), Faculdade de Farmácia, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal.
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29
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Morimura T, Numata Y, Nakamura S, Hirano E, Gotoh L, Goto YI, Urushitani M, Inoue K. Attenuation of endoplasmic reticulum stress in Pelizaeus-Merzbacher disease by an anti-malaria drug, chloroquine. Exp Biol Med (Maywood) 2014; 239:489-501. [PMID: 24521562 DOI: 10.1177/1535370213520108] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Pelizaeus-Merzbacher disease (PMD) is a hypomyelinating disorder caused by the duplication and missense mutations of the proteolipid protein 1 (PLP1) gene. PLP1 missense proteins accumulate in the endoplasmic reticulum (ER) of premature oligodendrocytes and induce severe ER stress followed by apoptosis of the cells. Here, we demonstrate that an anti-malaria drug, chloroquine, decreases the amount of an ER-resident mutant PLP1 containing an alanine-243 to valine (A243V) substitution, which induces severe PMD in human. By preventing mutant PLP1 translation through enhancing the phosphorylation of eukaryotic initiation factor 2 alpha, chloroquine ameliorated the ER stress induced by the mutant protein in HeLa cells. Chroloquine also attenuated ER stress in the primary oligodendrocytes obtained from myelin synthesis deficit (msd) mice, which carry the same PLP1 mutation. In the spinal cords of msd mice, chloroquine inhibited ER stress and upregulated the expression of marker genes of mature oligodendrocytes. Chloroquine-mediated attenuation of ER stress was observed in HeLa cells treated with tunicamycin, an N-glycosylation inhibitor, but not with thapsigargin, a sarco/ER Ca(2+)ATPase inhibitor, which confirms its efficacy against ER stress caused by nascent proteins. These findings indicate that chloroquine is an ER stress attenuator with potential use in treating PMD and possibly other ER stress-related diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Toshifumi Morimura
- Department of Mental Retardation and Birth Defect Research, National Institute of Neuroscience, National Center of Neurology and Psychiatry (NCNP), 4-1-1 Ogawahigashi-machi, Kodaira-shi, Tokyo 187-8502, Japan
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Pereira GR, Brandão GC, Arantes LM, de Oliveira HA, de Paula RC, do Nascimento MFA, dos Santos FM, da Rocha RK, Lopes JCD, de Oliveira AB. 7-Chloroquinolinotriazoles: Synthesis by the azide–alkyne cycloaddition click chemistry, antimalarial activity, cytotoxicity and SAR studies. Eur J Med Chem 2014; 73:295-309. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2013.11.022] [Citation(s) in RCA: 45] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2013] [Revised: 11/08/2013] [Accepted: 11/20/2013] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
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Inokuchi T, J. Egan T, Shaban E, J. Wicht K, Wang N, Mei ZW, Abdel Aleem El Gokha A, Kaiser M, El Tantawy El Sayed I, Hayashi I. Synthesis and Antimalarial Activity of Some Neocryptolepine Analogues Carrying a Multifunctional Linear and Branched Carbon-Side Chains. HETEROCYCLES 2014. [DOI: 10.3987/com-14-12948] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
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Carrasco MP, Gut J, Rodrigues T, Ribeiro MHL, Lopes F, Rosenthal PJ, Moreira R, Dos Santos DJVA. Exploring the Molecular Basis of Qo bc1 Complex Inhibitors Activity to Find Novel Antimalarials Hits. Mol Inform 2013; 32:659-70. [PMID: 27481771 DOI: 10.1002/minf.201300024] [Citation(s) in RCA: 9] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/13/2013] [Accepted: 05/11/2013] [Indexed: 02/01/2023]
Abstract
Cytochrome bc1 complex is a crucial element in the mitochondrial respiratory chain, being indispensable for the survival of several species of Plasmodia that cause malaria and, therefore, it is a promising target for antimalarial drug development. We report a molecular docking study building on the most recently obtained X-ray structure of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae bc1 complex (PDB code: 3CX5) using several reported inhibitors with experimentally determined IC50 values against the Plasmodium falciparum bc1 complex. We produced a molecular docking model that correlated the calculated binding free energy with the experimental inhibitory activity of each compound. This Qo model was used to search the drug-like database included in the MOE package for novel potential bc1 complex inhibitors. Twenty three compounds were chosen to be tested for their antimalarial activity and four of these compounds demonstrated activity against the chloroquine-resistant W2 strain of P. falciparum. The most active compounds were also active against the atovaquone-resistant P. falciparum FCR3 strain and S. cerevisiae. Our study suggests the validity of the yeast bc1 complex structure as a model for the discovery of new antimalarial hits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta P Carrasco
- Research Institute for Medicines and Pharmaceutical Sciences (iMed.UL), Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal phone/fax: +351217946477/+351217946470
| | - Jiri Gut
- Department of Medicine, San Francisco General Hospital, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143-0811, USA
| | - Tiago Rodrigues
- Departement Chemie und Angewandte Biowissenschaften, Eidgenössische Technische Hochschule (ETH), Wolfgang-Pauli-Strasse 10, 8093 Zürich, Switzerland
| | - Maria H L Ribeiro
- Research Institute for Medicines and Pharmaceutical Sciences (iMed.UL), Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal phone/fax: +351217946477/+351217946470
| | - Francisca Lopes
- Research Institute for Medicines and Pharmaceutical Sciences (iMed.UL), Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal phone/fax: +351217946477/+351217946470
| | - Philip J Rosenthal
- Department of Medicine, San Francisco General Hospital, University of California, San Francisco, CA 94143-0811, USA
| | - Rui Moreira
- Research Institute for Medicines and Pharmaceutical Sciences (iMed.UL), Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal phone/fax: +351217946477/+351217946470
| | - Daniel J V A Dos Santos
- Research Institute for Medicines and Pharmaceutical Sciences (iMed.UL), Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Lisboa, Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisboa, Portugal phone/fax: +351217946477/+351217946470. .,REQUIMTE, Department of Chemistry & Biochemistry, Faculty of Sciences, University of Porto, R. do Campo Alegre, 4169-007 Porto, Portugal.
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Cytoadherence of erythrocytes invaded by Plasmodium falciparum: quantitative contact-probing of a human malaria receptor. Acta Biomater 2013; 9:6349-59. [PMID: 23376131 DOI: 10.1016/j.actbio.2013.01.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 25] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/17/2012] [Revised: 12/16/2012] [Accepted: 01/17/2013] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Cytoadherence of red blood cells (RBCs) invaded by Plasmodium falciparum parasites is an important contributor to the sequestration of RBCs, causing reduced microcirculatory flow associated with fatal malaria syndromes. The phenomenon involves a parasite-derived variant antigen, the P. falciparum erythrocyte membrane protein 1 (PfEMP1), and several human host receptors, such as chondroitin sulfate A (CSA), which has been explicitly implicated in placental malaria. Elucidating the molecular mechanisms of cytoadherence requires quantitative evaluation, under physiologically relevant conditions, of the specific receptor-ligand interactions associated with pathological states of cell-cell adhesion. Such quantitative studies have not been reported thus far for P. falciparum malaria under conditions of febrile temperatures that accompany malarial infections. In this study, single RBCs infected with P. falciparum parasites (CSA binding phenotype) in the trophozoite stage were engaged in mechanical contact with the surface of surrogate cells specifically expressing CSA, so as to quantify cytoadherence to human syncytiotrophoblasts in a controlled manner. From these measurements, a mean rupture force of 43pN was estimated for the CSA-PfEMP1 complex at 37°C. Experiments carried out at febrile temperature showed a noticeable decrease in CSA-PfEMP1 rupture force (by about 23% at 41°C and about 20% after a 40°C heat treatment), in association with an increased binding frequency. The decrease in rupture force points to a weakened receptor-ligand complex after exposure to febrile temperature, while the rise in binding frequency suggests an additional display of nonspecific binding molecules on the RBC surface. The present work establishes a robust experimental method for the quantitative assessment of cytoadherence of diseased cells with specific molecule-mediated binding.
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Calderón F, Wilson DM, Gamo FJ. Antimalarial drug discovery: recent progress and future directions. PROGRESS IN MEDICINAL CHEMISTRY 2013; 52:97-151. [PMID: 23384667 DOI: 10.1016/b978-0-444-62652-3.00003-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 19] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Félix Calderón
- Tres Cantos Medicines Development Campus, Diseases of the Developing World, GlaxoSmithKline, Tres Cantos, Spain
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Storm J, Müller S. Lipoic acid metabolism of Plasmodium--a suitable drug target. Curr Pharm Des 2012; 18:3480-9. [PMID: 22607141 PMCID: PMC3426790 DOI: 10.2174/138161212801327266] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/27/2012] [Accepted: 03/12/2012] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
α-Lipoic acid (6,8-thioctic acid; LA) is a vital co-factor of α-ketoacid dehydrogenase complexes and the glycine cleavage system. In recent years it was shown that biosynthesis and salvage of LA in Plasmodium are necessary for the parasites to complete their complex life cycle. LA salvage requires two lipoic acid protein ligases (LplA1 and LplA2). LplA1 is confined to the mitochondrion while LplA2 is located in both the mitochondrion and the apicoplast. LplA1 exclusively uses salvaged LA and lipoylates α-ketoglutarate dehydrogenase, branched chain α-ketoacid dehydrogenase and the H-protein of the glycine cleavage system. LplA2 cannot compensate for the loss of LplA1 function during blood stage development suggesting a specific function for LplA2 that has yet to be elucidated. LA salvage is essential for the intra-erythrocytic and liver stage development of Plasmodium and thus offers great potential for future drug or vaccine development. LA biosynthesis, comprising octanoyl-acyl carrier protein (ACP) : protein N-octanoyltransferase (LipB) and lipoate synthase (LipA), is exclusively found in the apicoplast of Plasmodium where it generates LA de novo from octanoyl-ACP, provided by the type II fatty acid biosynthesis (FAS II) pathway also present in the organelle. LA is the co-factor of the acetyltransferase subunit of the apicoplast located pyruvate dehydrogenase (PDH), which generates acetyl-CoA, feeding into FAS II. LA biosynthesis is not vital for intra-erythrocytic development of Plasmodium, but the deletion of several genes encoding components of FAS II or PDH was detrimental for liver stage development of the parasites indirectly suggesting that the same applies to LA biosynthesis. These data provide strong evidence that LA salvage and biosynthesis are vital for different stages of Plasmodium development and offer potential for drug and vaccine design against malaria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Janet Storm
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity & Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, 120 University Place, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK
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Lakshmanan V, Rhee KY, Wang W, Yu Y, Khafizov K, Fiser A, Wu P, Ndir O, Mboup S, Ndiaye D, Daily JP. Metabolomic analysis of patient plasma yields evidence of plant-like α-linolenic acid metabolism in Plasmodium falciparum. J Infect Dis 2012; 206:238-48. [PMID: 22566569 DOI: 10.1093/infdis/jis339] [Citation(s) in RCA: 34] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Metabolomics offers a powerful means to investigate human malaria parasite biology and host-parasite interactions at the biochemical level, and to discover novel therapeutic targets and biomarkers of infection. Here, we used an approach based on liquid chromatography and mass spectrometry to perform an untargeted metabolomic analysis of metabolite extracts from Plasmodium falciparum-infected and uninfected patient plasma samples, and from an enriched population of in vitro cultured P. falciparum-infected and uninfected erythrocytes. Statistical modeling robustly segregated infected and uninfected samples based on metabolite species with significantly different abundances. Metabolites of the α-linolenic acid (ALA) pathway, known to exist in plants but not known to exist in P. falciparum until now, were enriched in infected plasma and erythrocyte samples. In vitro labeling with (13)C-ALA showed evidence of plant-like ALA pathway intermediates in P. falciparum. Ortholog searches using ALA pathway enzyme sequences from 8 available plant genomes identified several genes in the P. falciparum genome that were predicted to potentially encode the corresponding enzymes in the hitherto unannotated P. falciparum pathway. These data suggest that our approach can be used to discover novel facets of host/malaria parasite biology in a high-throughput manner.
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Affiliation(s)
- Viswanathan Lakshmanan
- Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Yeshiva University, Bronx, New York, USA.
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Sharma R, Lawrenson AS, Fisher NE, Warman AJ, Shone AE, Hill A, Mbekeani A, Pidathala C, Amewu RK, Leung S, Gibbons P, Hong DW, Stocks P, Nixon GL, Chadwick J, Shearer J, Gowers I, Cronk D, Parel SP, O'Neill PM, Ward SA, Biagini GA, Berry NG. Identification of novel antimalarial chemotypes via chemoinformatic compound selection methods for a high-throughput screening program against the novel malarial target, PfNDH2: increasing hit rate via virtual screening methods. J Med Chem 2012; 55:3144-54. [PMID: 22380711 PMCID: PMC3324984 DOI: 10.1021/jm3001482] [Citation(s) in RCA: 20] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
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Malaria is responsible for approximately 1 million deaths
annually; thus, continued efforts to discover new antimalarials are
required. A HTS screen was established to identify novel inhibitors
of the parasite's mitochondrial enzyme NADH:quinone oxidoreductase
(PfNDH2). On the basis of only one known inhibitor of this enzyme,
the challenge was to discover novel inhibitors of PfNDH2 with diverse
chemical scaffolds. To this end, using a range of ligand-based chemoinformatics
methods, ∼17000 compounds were selected from a commercial library
of ∼750000 compounds. Forty-eight compounds were identified
with PfNDH2 enzyme inhibition IC50 values ranging from
100 nM to 40 μM and also displayed exciting whole cell antimalarial
activity. These novel inhibitors were identified through sampling
16% of the available chemical space, while only screening 2% of the
library. This study confirms the added value of using multiple ligand-based
chemoinformatic approaches and has successfully identified novel distinct
chemotypes primed for development as new agents against malaria.
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Affiliation(s)
- Raman Sharma
- Robert Robinson Laboratories, Department of Chemistry, University of Liverpool, Liverpool L69 7ZD, United Kingdom
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Poreba M, McGowan S, Skinner-Adams TS, Trenholme KR, Gardiner DL, Whisstock JC, To J, Salvesen GS, Dalton JP, Drag M. Fingerprinting the substrate specificity of M1 and M17 aminopeptidases of human malaria, Plasmodium falciparum. PLoS One 2012; 7:e31938. [PMID: 22359643 PMCID: PMC3281095 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0031938] [Citation(s) in RCA: 56] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2011] [Accepted: 01/18/2012] [Indexed: 11/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Plasmodium falciparum, the causative agent of human malaria, expresses two aminopeptidases, PfM1AAP and PfM17LAP, critical to generating a free amino acid pool used by the intraerythrocytic stage of the parasite for proteins synthesis, growth and development. These exopeptidases are potential targets for the development of a new class of anti-malaria drugs. Methodology/Principal Findings To define the substrate specificity of recombinant forms of these two malaria aminopeptidases we used a new library consisting of 61 fluorogenic substrates derived both from natural and unnatural amino acids. We obtained a detailed substrate fingerprint for recombinant forms of the enzymes revealing that PfM1AAP exhibits a very broad substrate tolerance, capable of efficiently hydrolyzing neutral and basic amino acids, while PfM17LAP has narrower substrate specificity and preferentially cleaves bulky, hydrophobic amino acids. The substrate library was also exploited to profile the activity of the native aminopeptidases in soluble cell lysates of P. falciparum malaria. Conclusions/Significance This data showed that PfM1AAP and PfM17LAP are responsible for majority of the aminopeptidase activity in these extracts. These studies provide specific substrate and mechanistic information important for understanding the function of these aminopeptidases and could be exploited in the design of new inhibitors to specifically target these for anti-malaria treatment.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marcin Poreba
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry and Microbiology, Faculty of Chemistry, Wroclaw University of Technology, Wroclaw, Poland
| | - Sheena McGowan
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Structural and Functional Microbial Genomics, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Tina S. Skinner-Adams
- Malaria Biology Laboratory, Queensland Institute of Medical Research, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- Griffith Medical Research College, Joint Program of Griffith University and the Queensland Institute of Medical Research, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- School of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Royal Brisbane Hospital, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Katharine R. Trenholme
- Malaria Biology Laboratory, Queensland Institute of Medical Research, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- Griffith Medical Research College, Joint Program of Griffith University and the Queensland Institute of Medical Research, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- School of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Royal Brisbane Hospital, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - Donald L. Gardiner
- Malaria Biology Laboratory, Queensland Institute of Medical Research, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- Griffith Medical Research College, Joint Program of Griffith University and the Queensland Institute of Medical Research, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
- School of Medicine, The University of Queensland, Royal Brisbane Hospital, Brisbane, Queensland, Australia
| | - James C. Whisstock
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology and Australian Research Council Centre of Excellence in Structural and Functional Microbial Genomics, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Monash University, Clayton, Victoria, Australia
| | - Joyce To
- Institute of Parasitology, McGill University, Sainte Anne de Bellevue, Quebec, Canada
| | - Guy S. Salvesen
- Program in Apoptosis and Cell Death Research, Sanford Burnham Medical Research Institute, La Jolla, California, United States of America
| | - John P. Dalton
- Institute of Parasitology, McGill University, Sainte Anne de Bellevue, Quebec, Canada
- * E-mail: (JD); (MD)
| | - Marcin Drag
- Division of Medicinal Chemistry and Microbiology, Faculty of Chemistry, Wroclaw University of Technology, Wroclaw, Poland
- Program in Apoptosis and Cell Death Research, Sanford Burnham Medical Research Institute, La Jolla, California, United States of America
- * E-mail: (JD); (MD)
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Abstract
Antimalarial chemotherapy is an important component of all malaria control programmes throughout the world. This is especially so in light of the fact that there are no antimalarial vaccines which are available for clinical use at present. Emergence and spread of malaria parasites which are resistant to many of the available antimalarials today is, therefore, a major cause for concern. Till date, resistance to all groups of antimalarials excluding artemisinin has been reported. In recent years, in vitro resistance to even artemisinin has been described. While resistance to antibacterial agents has come to prominence as a clinical problem in recent years, antiparasitic resistance in general and antimalarial resistance in particular has not received much attention, especially in the Indian scenario. The present review deals with commonly used antimalarial drugs and the mechanisms of resistance to them. Various methods of detecting antimalarial resistance and avoiding the same have also been dealt with. Newer parasite targets which can be used in developing newer antimalarial agents and antimalarials obtained from plants have also been mentioned.
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Affiliation(s)
- S C Parija
- Department of Microbiology, Jawaharlal Institute of Postgraduate Medical Education and Research, Pondicherry, India.
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Rojas-Aguirre Y, Hernández-Luis F, Mendoza-Martínez C, Sotomayor CP, Aguilar LF, Villena F, Castillo I, Hernández DJ, Suwalsky M. Effects of an antimalarial quinazoline derivative on human erythrocytes and on cell membrane molecular models. BIOCHIMICA ET BIOPHYSICA ACTA-BIOMEMBRANES 2011; 1818:738-46. [PMID: 22155684 DOI: 10.1016/j.bbamem.2011.11.026] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/15/2011] [Revised: 11/21/2011] [Accepted: 11/22/2011] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Plasmodium, the parasite which causes malaria in humans multiplies in the liver and then infects circulating erythrocytes. Thus, the role of the erythrocyte cell membrane in antimalarial drug activity and resistance has key importance. The effects of the antiplasmodial N(6)-(4-methoxybenzyl)quinazoline-2,4,6-triamine (M4), and its inclusion complex (M4/HPβCD) with 2-hydroxypropyl-β-cyclodextrin (HPβCD) on human erythrocytes and on cell membrane molecular models are herein reported. This work evidences that M4/HPβCD interacts with red cells as follows: a) in scanning electron microscopy (SEM) studies on human erythrocytes induced shape changes at a 10μM concentration; b) in isolated unsealed human erythrocyte membranes (IUM) a concentration as low as 1μM induced sharp DPH fluorescence anisotropy decrease whereas increasing concentrations produced a monotonically decrease of DPH fluorescence lifetime at 37°C; c) X-ray diffraction studies showed that 200μM induced a complete structural perturbation of dimyristoylphosphatidylcholine (DMPC) bilayers whereas no significant effects were detected in dimyristoylphosphatidylethanolamine (DMPE) bilayers, classes of lipids present in the outer and inner monolayers of the human erythrocyte membrane, respectively; d) fluorescence spectroscopy data showed that increasing concentrations of the complex interacted with the deep hydrophobic core of DMPC large unilamellar vesicles (LUV) at 18°C. All these experiments are consistent with the insertion of M4/HPβCD in the outer monolayer of the human erythrocyte membrane; thus, it can be considered a promising and novel antimalarial agent.
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de Souza NB, Carmo AML, Lagatta DC, Alves MJM, Fontes APS, Coimbra ES, da Silva AD, Abramo C. 4-aminoquinoline analogues and its platinum (II) complexes as antimalarial agents. Biomed Pharmacother 2011; 65:313-6. [PMID: 21704476 DOI: 10.1016/j.biopha.2011.03.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2011] [Accepted: 03/01/2011] [Indexed: 02/09/2023] Open
Abstract
The high incidence of malaria and drug-resistant strains of Plasmodium have turned this disease into a problem of major health importance. One of the approaches used to control it is to search for new antimalarial agents, such as quinoline derivates. This class of compounds composes a broad group of antimalarial agents, which are largely employed, and inhibits the formation of β-haematin (malaria pigment), which is lethal to the parasite. More specifically, 4-aminoquinoline derivates represent potential sources of antimalarials, as the example of chloroquine, the most used antimalarial worldwide. In order to assess antimalarial activity, 12 4-aminoquinoline derived drugs were obtained and some of these derivatives were used to obtain platinum complexes platinum (II). These compounds were tested in vivo in a murine model and revealed remarkable inhibition of parasite multiplication values, whose majority ranged from 50 to 80%. In addition they were not cytotoxic. Thus, they may be object of further research for new antimalarial agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Nicolli Bellotti de Souza
- Departamento de Parasitologia, Microbiologia e Imunologia, ICB, Universidade Federal de Juiz de Fora, Campus Universitário, Rua José Lourenço Kelmer, 36036-900 Juiz de Fora, Minas Gerais, Brazil
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Zhang B, Watts KM, Hodge D, Kemp LM, Hunstad DA, Hicks LM, Odom AR. A second target of the antimalarial and antibacterial agent fosmidomycin revealed by cellular metabolic profiling. Biochemistry 2011; 50:3570-7. [PMID: 21438569 DOI: 10.1021/bi200113y] [Citation(s) in RCA: 110] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/12/2022]
Abstract
Antimicrobial drug resistance is an urgent problem in the control and treatment of many of the world's most serious infections, including Plasmodium falciparum malaria, tuberculosis, and healthcare-associated infections with Gram-negative bacteria. Because the non-mevalonate pathway of isoprenoid biosynthesis is essential in eubacteria and P. falciparum and this pathway is not present in humans, there is great interest in targeting the enzymes of non-mevalonate metabolism for antibacterial and antiparasitic drug development. Fosmidomycin is a broad-spectrum antimicrobial agent currently in clinical trials of combination therapies for the treatment of malaria. In vitro, fosmidomycin is known to inhibit the deoxyxylulose phosphate reductoisomerase (DXR) enzyme of isoprenoid biosynthesis from multiple pathogenic organisms. To define the in vivo metabolic response to fosmidomycin, we developed a novel mass spectrometry method to quantitate six metabolites of non-mevalonate isoprenoid metabolism from complex biological samples. Using this technique, we validate that the biological effects of fosmidomycin are mediated through blockade of de novo isoprenoid biosynthesis in both P. falciparum malaria parasites and Escherichia coli bacteria: in both organisms, metabolic profiling demonstrated a block of isoprenoid metabolism following fosmidomycin treatment, and growth inhibition due to fosmidomycin was rescued by media supplemented with isoprenoid metabolites. Isoprenoid metabolism proceeded through DXR even in the presence of fosmidomycin but was inhibited at the level of the downstream enzyme, methylerythritol phosphate cytidyltransferase (IspD). Overexpression of IspD in E. coli conferred fosmidomycin resistance, and fosmidomycin was found to inhibit IspD in vitro. This work has validated fosmidomycin as a biological reagent for blocking non-mevalonate isoprenoid metabolism and suggests a second in vivo target for fosmidomycin within isoprenoid biosynthesis, in two evolutionarily diverse pathogens.
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Affiliation(s)
- Baichen Zhang
- Proteomics and Mass Spectrometry Facility, Donald Danforth Plant Science Center, St. Louis, Missouri 63132, United States
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Design, synthesis and evaluation of 3-methylene-substituted indolinones as antimalarials. Eur J Med Chem 2011; 46:927-33. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2011.01.008] [Citation(s) in RCA: 26] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/06/2010] [Revised: 11/04/2010] [Accepted: 01/09/2011] [Indexed: 12/11/2022]
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Lavrado J, Cabal GG, Prudêncio M, Mota MM, Gut J, Rosenthal PJ, Díaz C, Guedes RC, dos Santos DJVA, Bichenkova E, Douglas KT, Moreira R, Paulo A. Incorporation of basic side chains into cryptolepine scaffold: structure-antimalarial activity relationships and mechanistic studies. J Med Chem 2011; 54:734-50. [PMID: 21207937 DOI: 10.1021/jm101383f] [Citation(s) in RCA: 50] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
The synthesis of cryptolepine derivatives containing basic side-chains at the C-11 position and their evaluations for antiplasmodial and cytotoxicity properties are reported. Propyl, butyl, and cycloalkyl diamine side chains significantly increased activity against chloroquine-resistant Plasmodium falciparum strains while reducing cytotoxicity when compared with the parent compound. Localization studies inside parasite blood stages by fluorescence microscopy showed that these derivatives accumulate inside the nucleus, indicating that the incorporation of a basic side chain is not sufficient enough to promote selective accumulation in the acidic digestive vacuole of the parasite. Most of the compounds within this series showed the ability to bind to a double-stranded DNA duplex as well to monomeric hematin, suggesting that these are possible targets associated with the observed antimalarial activity. Overall, these novel cryptolepine analogues with substantially improved antiplasmodial activity and selectivity index provide a promising starting point for development of potent and highly selective agents against drug-resistant malaria parasites.
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Affiliation(s)
- João Lavrado
- Research Institute for Medicines and Pharmaceutical Sciences (iMed.UL), Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Lisbon. Av. Prof. Gama Pinto, 1649-003 Lisbon, Portugal
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Valderramos SG, Scanfeld D, Uhlemann AC, Fidock DA, Krishna S. Investigations into the role of the Plasmodium falciparum SERCA (PfATP6) L263E mutation in artemisinin action and resistance. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2010; 54:3842-52. [PMID: 20566762 PMCID: PMC2935017 DOI: 10.1128/aac.00121-10] [Citation(s) in RCA: 49] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/27/2010] [Revised: 02/17/2010] [Accepted: 06/07/2010] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACTs) are highly effective for the treatment of Plasmodium falciparum malaria, yet their sustained efficacy is threatened by the potential spread of parasite resistance. Recent studies have provided evidence that artemisinins can inhibit the function of PfATP6, the P. falciparum ortholog of the ER calcium pump SERCA, when expressed in Xenopus laevis oocytes. Inhibition was significantly reduced in an L263E variant, which introduced the mammalian residue into a putative drug-binding pocket. To test the hypothesis that this single mutation could decrease P. falciparum susceptibility to artemisinins, we implemented an allelic-exchange strategy to replace the wild-type pfatp6 allele by a variant allele encoding L263E. Transfected P. falciparum clones were screened by PCR analysis for disruption of the endogenous locus and introduction of the mutant L263E allele under the transcriptional control of a calmodulin promoter. Expression of the mutant allele was demonstrated by reverse transcriptase (RT) PCR and verified by sequence analysis. Parasite clones expressing wild-type or L263E variant PfATP6 showed no significant difference in 50% inhibitory concentrations (IC(50)s) for artemisinin or its derivatives dihydroartemisinin and artesunate. Nonetheless, hierarchical clustering analysis revealed a trend toward reduced susceptibility that neared significance (artemisinin, P approximately = 0.1; dihydroartemisinin, P = 0.053 and P = 0.085; and artesunate, P = 0.082 and P = 0.162 for the D10 and 7G8 lines, respectively). Notable differences in the distribution of normalized IC(50)s provided evidence of decreased responsiveness to artemisinin and dihydroartemisinin (P = 0.02 for the D10 and 7G8 lines), but not to artesunate in parasites expressing mutant PfATP6.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stephanie Gaw Valderramos
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York 10032, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York 10461, Division of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Centre for Infection, St. George's University of London, London, SW17 ORE, United Kingdom, Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York 10032, New York Presbyterian Hospital, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York 10032
| | - Daniel Scanfeld
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York 10032, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York 10461, Division of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Centre for Infection, St. George's University of London, London, SW17 ORE, United Kingdom, Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York 10032, New York Presbyterian Hospital, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York 10032
| | - Anne-Catrin Uhlemann
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York 10032, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York 10461, Division of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Centre for Infection, St. George's University of London, London, SW17 ORE, United Kingdom, Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York 10032, New York Presbyterian Hospital, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York 10032
| | - David A. Fidock
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York 10032, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York 10461, Division of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Centre for Infection, St. George's University of London, London, SW17 ORE, United Kingdom, Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York 10032, New York Presbyterian Hospital, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York 10032
| | - Sanjeev Krishna
- Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York 10032, Department of Microbiology and Immunology, Albert Einstein College of Medicine, Bronx, New York 10461, Division of Cellular and Molecular Medicine, Centre for Infection, St. George's University of London, London, SW17 ORE, United Kingdom, Division of Infectious Diseases, Department of Medicine, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York 10032, New York Presbyterian Hospital, Columbia University Medical Center, New York, New York 10032
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Anderson TJC, Williams JT, Nair S, Sudimack D, Barends M, Jaidee A, Price RN, Nosten F. Inferred relatedness and heritability in malaria parasites. Proc Biol Sci 2010; 277:2531-40. [PMID: 20392725 PMCID: PMC2894920 DOI: 10.1098/rspb.2010.0196] [Citation(s) in RCA: 37] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/29/2010] [Accepted: 03/22/2010] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Malaria parasites vary in phenotypic traits of biomedical or biological interest such as growth rate, virulence, sex ratio and drug resistance, and there is considerable interest in identifying the genes that underlie this variation. An important first step is to determine trait heritability (H(2)). We evaluate two approaches to measuring H(2) in natural parasite populations using relatedness inferred from genetic marker data. We collected single-clone Plasmodium falciparum infections from 185 patients from the Thailand-Burma border, monitored parasite clearance following treatment with artemisinin combination therapy (ACT), measured resistance to six antimalarial drugs and genotyped parasites using 335 microsatellites. We found strong relatedness structure. There were 27 groups of two to eight clonally identical (CI) parasites, and 74 per cent of parasites showed significant relatedness to one or more other parasites. Initially, we used matrices of allele sharing and variance components (VC) methods to estimate H(2). Inhibitory concentrations (IC(50)) for six drugs showed significant H(2) (0.24 to 0.79, p = 0.06 to 2.85 x 10(-9)), demonstrating that this study design has adequate power. However, a phenotype of current interest--parasite clearance following ACT--showed no detectable heritability (H(2) = 0-0.09, ns) in this population. The existence of CI parasites allows the use of a simple ANOVA approach for quantifying H(2), analogous to that used in human twin studies. This gave similar results to the VC method and requires considerably less genotyping information. We conclude (i) that H(2) can be effectively measured in malaria parasite populations using minimal genotype data, allowing rational design of genome-wide association studies; and (ii) while drug response (IC(50)) shows significant H(2), parasite clearance following ACT was not heritable in the population studied.
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Affiliation(s)
- Tim J C Anderson
- Southwest Foundation for Biomedical Research, San Antonio, TX, USA.
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Synthesis and biological evaluation of arylidene analogues of Meldrum’s acid as a new class of antimalarial and antioxidant agents. Bioorg Med Chem 2010; 18:5626-33. [DOI: 10.1016/j.bmc.2010.06.033] [Citation(s) in RCA: 27] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2010] [Revised: 06/10/2010] [Accepted: 06/11/2010] [Indexed: 01/29/2023]
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Plasmodium falciparum ATP6 not under selection during introduction of artemisinin combination therapy in Peru. Antimicrob Agents Chemother 2010; 54:2280; author reply 2280-1. [PMID: 20404129 DOI: 10.1128/aac.01341-09] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
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Abstract
This chapter summarizes recent developments in the design, synthesis, and structure–activity relationship studies of organometallic antimalarials. It begins with a general introduction to malaria and the biology of the parasite Plasmodium falciparum, with a focus on the heme detoxification system. Then, a number of metal complexes from the literature are reported for their antiplasmodial activity. The second half of the chapter deals with the serendipitous discovery of ferroquine, its mechanism(s) of action, and the failure to induce a resistance. Last, but not least, we suggest that the bioorganometallic approach offers the potential for the design of novel therapeutic agents.
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