1
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Ungogo MA, de Koning HP. Drug resistance in animal trypanosomiases: Epidemiology, mechanisms and control strategies. Int J Parasitol Drugs Drug Resist 2024; 25:100533. [PMID: 38555795 PMCID: PMC10990905 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpddr.2024.100533] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/18/2023] [Revised: 03/13/2024] [Accepted: 03/15/2024] [Indexed: 04/02/2024]
Abstract
Animal trypanosomiasis (AT) is a complex of veterinary diseases known under various names such as nagana, surra, dourine and mal de caderas, depending on the country, the infecting trypanosome species and the host. AT is caused by parasites of the genus Trypanosoma, and the main species infecting domesticated animals are T. brucei brucei, T. b. rhodesiense, T. congolense, T. simiae, T. vivax, T. evansi and T. equiperdum. AT transmission, again depending on species, is through tsetse flies or common Stomoxys and tabanid flies or through copulation. Therefore, the geographical spread of all forms of AT together is not restricted to the habitat of a single vector like the tsetse fly and currently includes almost all of Africa, and most of South America and Asia. The disease is a threat to millions of companion and farm animals in these regions, creating a financial burden in the billions of dollars to developing economies as well as serious impacts on livestock rearing and food production. Despite the scale of these impacts, control of AT is neglected and under-resourced, with diagnosis and treatments being woefully inadequate and not improving for decades. As a result, neither the incidence of the disease, nor the effectiveness of treatment is documented in most endemic countries, although it is clear that there are serious issues of resistance to the few old drugs that are available. In this review we particularly look at the drugs, their application to the various forms of AT, and their mechanisms of action and resistance. We also discuss the spread of veterinary trypanocide resistance and its drivers, and highlight current and future strategies to combat it.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marzuq A Ungogo
- The Roslin Institute, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom; School of Infection and Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Harry P de Koning
- School of Infection and Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom.
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2
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Fytas G, Zoidis G, Drakopoulos A, Taylor MC, Kelly JM, Tsatsaroni A, Tsotinis A. New Lipophilic Hydroxamates as Promising Trypanocidal Agents: Design, Synthesis, SAR, and Conformational Behavior Studies. ACS Med Chem Lett 2024; 15:1041-1048. [PMID: 39015276 PMCID: PMC11247629 DOI: 10.1021/acsmedchemlett.4c00111] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/06/2024] [Revised: 05/24/2024] [Accepted: 05/28/2024] [Indexed: 07/18/2024] Open
Abstract
A series of novel hydroxamic acid derivatives was designed and synthesized, and their growth inhibitory activity against bloodstream form Trypanosoma brucei was evaluated. These compounds are based on conformationally constrained, lipophilic, spiro carbocyclic 2,6-diketopiperazine (2,6-DKP) scaffolds and bear a side pharmacophoric functionality that contains an acetohydroxamic acid moiety (CH2CONHOH) linked with the imidic nitrogen atom of the 2,6-DKP ring via an acetamido portion [CH2CON(R), R = H, CH3]. Most of these analogues were active in the midnanomolar to low micromolar range against T. brucei. (S)-Isobutyl- or (S)-benzyl-substitution on the methylene carbon located between the amine nitrogen atom and carbonyl of the 2,6-DKP ring was studied. The effect of the methyl-substitution on the nitrogen atom of the acetamido portion in the side pharmacophoric functionality was also examined. Compounds 22 and 23, bearing an isobutyl- or benzyl-substituent, respectively, and concurrently a methyl-substituent, were found to be the most potent hydroxamates of this series (IC50 = 34 and 53 nM, respectively). Both had promising selectivity over the parasite compared to mammalian cells (SI = 940 and 470, respectively). Moreover, an E/Z conformational behavior study on hydroxamic acid 18 and its methyl-substituted counterpart 21 was undertaken using NMR spectroscopy and theoretical calculations.
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Affiliation(s)
- George Fytas
- Faculty
of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Athens, Panepistimiopolis-Zografou, GR-15771 Athens, Greece
| | - Grigoris Zoidis
- Faculty
of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Athens, Panepistimiopolis-Zografou, GR-15771 Athens, Greece
| | - Antonios Drakopoulos
- Department
of Chemistry and Molecular Biology, University
of Gothenburg, Göteborg SE-412 96, Sweden
| | - Martin C. Taylor
- Department
of Infection Biology, London School of Hygiene
and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London WC1E 7HT, U.K.
| | - John M. Kelly
- Department
of Infection Biology, London School of Hygiene
and Tropical Medicine, Keppel Street, London WC1E 7HT, U.K.
| | - Alexandra Tsatsaroni
- Faculty
of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Athens, Panepistimiopolis-Zografou, GR-15771 Athens, Greece
| | - Andrew Tsotinis
- Faculty
of Pharmacy, Department of Pharmaceutical Chemistry, University of Athens, Panepistimiopolis-Zografou, GR-15771 Athens, Greece
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3
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Feix AS, Tabaie EZ, Singh AN, Wittenberg NJ, Wilson EH, Joachim A. An in-depth exploration of the multifaceted roles of EVs in the context of pathogenic single-cell microorganisms. Microbiol Mol Biol Rev 2024:e0003724. [PMID: 38869292 DOI: 10.1128/mmbr.00037-24] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 06/14/2024] Open
Abstract
SUMMARYExtracellular vesicles (EVs) have been recognized throughout scientific communities as potential vehicles of intercellular communication in both eukaryotes and prokaryotes, thereby influencing various physiological and pathological functions of both parent and recipient cells. This review provides an in-depth exploration of the multifaceted roles of EVs in the context of bacteria and protozoan parasite EVs, shedding light on their contributions to physiological processes and disease pathogenesis. These studies highlight EVs as a conserved mechanism of cellular communication, which may lead us to important breakthroughs in our understanding of infection, mechanisms of pathogenesis, and as indicators of disease. Furthermore, EVs are involved in host-microbe interactions, offering insights into the strategies employed by bacteria and protozoan parasites to modulate host responses, evade the immune system, and establish infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Anna Sophia Feix
- Institute of Parasitology, Department of Pathobiology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria
| | - Emily Z Tabaie
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, University of California, Riverside, California, USA
| | - Aarshi N Singh
- Department of Chemistry, Lehigh University, Bethlehem, Pennsylvania, USA
| | | | - Emma H Wilson
- Division of Biomedical Sciences, University of California, Riverside, California, USA
| | - Anja Joachim
- Institute of Parasitology, Department of Pathobiology, University of Veterinary Medicine Vienna, Vienna, Austria
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4
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Chen W, Zou R, Mei Y, Li J, Xuan Y, Cui B, Zou J, Wang J, Lin S, Zhang Z, Wang C. Structural insights into drug transport by an aquaglyceroporin. Nat Commun 2024; 15:3985. [PMID: 38734677 PMCID: PMC11088622 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-48445-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2023] [Accepted: 04/29/2024] [Indexed: 05/13/2024] Open
Abstract
Pentamidine and melarsoprol are primary drugs used to treat the lethal human sleeping sickness caused by the parasite Trypanosoma brucei. Cross-resistance to these two drugs has recently been linked to aquaglyceroporin 2 of the trypanosome (TbAQP2). TbAQP2 is the first member of the aquaporin family described as capable of drug transport; however, the underlying mechanism remains unclear. Here, we present cryo-electron microscopy structures of TbAQP2 bound to pentamidine or melarsoprol. Our structural studies, together with the molecular dynamic simulations, reveal the mechanisms shaping substrate specificity and drug permeation. Multiple amino acids in TbAQP2, near the extracellular entrance and inside the pore, create an expanded conducting tunnel, sterically and energetically allowing the permeation of pentamidine and melarsoprol. Our study elucidates the mechanism of drug transport by TbAQP2, providing valuable insights to inform the design of drugs against trypanosomiasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Wanbiao Chen
- Center for Human Tissues and Organs Degeneration, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, 581055, China
| | - Rongfeng Zou
- Shenzhen Jingtai Technology Co., Ltd. (XtalPi), Shenzhen, 518000, China
| | - Yi Mei
- Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory of Anesthesiology, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu Province, 221004, China
- Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory of Anesthesia and Analgesia Application Technology, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu Province, 221004, China
- NMPA Key Laboratory for Research and Evaluation of Narcotic and Psychotropic Drugs, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu Province, 221004, China
| | - Jiawei Li
- Center for Human Tissues and Organs Degeneration, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, 581055, China
- Department of Geriatric Medicine, Shenzhen Longhua District Central Hospital, Shenzhen, 518110, China
| | - Yumi Xuan
- Center for Human Tissues and Organs Degeneration, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, 581055, China
| | - Bing Cui
- Center for Human Tissues and Organs Degeneration, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, 581055, China
- School of Basic Medicine and Clinical Pharmacy, and State Key Laboratory of Natural Medicines, China Pharmaceutical University, Nanjing, 210009, China
| | - Junjie Zou
- Shenzhen Jingtai Technology Co., Ltd. (XtalPi), Shenzhen, 518000, China
| | - Juncheng Wang
- Advanced Medical Research Institute, Shandong University, Jinan, China
| | - Shaoquan Lin
- Centre for Polymers in Medicine, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Science, Shenzhen, 581055, China
| | - Zhe Zhang
- Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory of Anesthesiology, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu Province, 221004, China.
- Jiangsu Province Key Laboratory of Anesthesia and Analgesia Application Technology, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu Province, 221004, China.
- NMPA Key Laboratory for Research and Evaluation of Narcotic and Psychotropic Drugs, Xuzhou Medical University, Xuzhou, Jiangsu Province, 221004, China.
| | - Chongyuan Wang
- Center for Human Tissues and Organs Degeneration, Faculty of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Shenzhen Institute of Advanced Technology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Shenzhen, 581055, China.
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5
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Varghese S, Srivastava A, Wong SW, Le T, Pitcher N, Mesnard M, Lallemand C, Rahmani R, Moawad SR, Huang F, He T, Sleebs BE, Barrett MP, Sykes ML, Avery VM, Creek DJ, Baell JB. Novel aroyl guanidine anti-trypanosomal compounds that exert opposing effects on parasite energy metabolism. Eur J Med Chem 2024; 268:116162. [PMID: 38394930 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2024.116162] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2023] [Revised: 01/05/2024] [Accepted: 01/16/2024] [Indexed: 02/25/2024]
Abstract
Human African trypanosomiasis (HAT), or sleeping sickness, is a neglected tropical disease with current treatments marred by severe side effects or delivery issues. To identify novel classes of compounds for the treatment of HAT, high throughput screening (HTS) had previously been conducted on bloodstream forms of T. b. brucei, a model organism closely related to the human pathogens T. b. gambiense and T. b. rhodesiense. This HTS had identified a number of structural classes with potent bioactivity against T. b. brucei (IC50 ≤ 10 μM) with selectivity over mammalian cell-lines (selectivity index of ≥10). One of the confirmed hits was an aroyl guanidine derivative. Deemed to be chemically tractable with attractive physicochemical properties, here we explore this class further to develop the SAR landscape. We also report the influence of the elucidated SAR on parasite metabolism, to gain insight into possible modes of action of this class. Of note, two sub-classes of analogues were identified that generated opposing metabolic responses involving disrupted energy metabolism. This knowledge may guide the future design of more potent inhibitors, while retaining the desirable physicochemical properties and an excellent selectivity profile of the current compound class.
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Affiliation(s)
- Swapna Varghese
- Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria, 3052, Australia
| | - Anubhav Srivastava
- Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria, 3052, Australia
| | - Siu Wai Wong
- Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria, 3052, Australia
| | - Thuy Le
- Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria, 3052, Australia
| | - Noel Pitcher
- Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria, 3052, Australia
| | - Mathilda Mesnard
- Ensemble Scientifique des Cézeaux, 24 avenue des Landais, 63170, Aubière, France
| | - Camille Lallemand
- Ensemble Scientifique des Cézeaux, 24 avenue des Landais, 63170, Aubière, France
| | - Raphael Rahmani
- Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria, 3052, Australia
| | - Sarah R Moawad
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, 1G Royal Parade, Parkville, 3052, Victoria, Australia
| | - Fei Huang
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nanjing Tech University, No. 30 South Puzhu Road, Nanjing, 211816, China
| | - Tiantong He
- School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nanjing Tech University, No. 30 South Puzhu Road, Nanjing, 211816, China
| | - Brad E Sleebs
- The Walter and Eliza Hall Institute of Medical Research, 1G Royal Parade, Parkville, 3052, Victoria, Australia; Department of Medical Biology, The University of Melbourne, Parkville, 3010, Australia
| | - Michael P Barrett
- Wellcome Trust Centre for Molecular Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Melissa L Sykes
- Discovery Biology, Centre for Cellular Phenomics, Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland, 4111, Australia
| | - Vicky M Avery
- Discovery Biology, Centre for Cellular Phenomics, Griffith University, Nathan, Queensland, 4111, Australia; School of Environment and Science, Griffith University, Nathan, QLD, 4111, Australia
| | - Darren J Creek
- Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria, 3052, Australia.
| | - Jonathan B Baell
- Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University, Parkville, Victoria, 3052, Australia; School of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Nanjing Tech University, No. 30 South Puzhu Road, Nanjing, 211816, China.
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6
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Zheng Y, van den Kerkhof M, Ibrahim M, De Esch IJP, Maes L, Sterk GJ, Caljon G, Leurs R. Lead Optimization of the 5-Phenylpyrazolopyrimidinone NPD-2975 toward Compounds with Improved Antitrypanosomal Efficacy. J Med Chem 2024; 67:2849-2863. [PMID: 38330051 PMCID: PMC10895668 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.3c01976] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/23/2023] [Revised: 01/05/2024] [Accepted: 01/30/2024] [Indexed: 02/10/2024]
Abstract
Human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) still faces few therapeutic options and emerging drug resistance, stressing an urgency for novel antitrypanosomal drug discovery. Here, we describe lead optimization efforts aiming at improving antitrypanosomal efficacy and better physicochemical properties based on our previously reported optimized hit NPD-2975 (pIC50 7.2). Systematic modification of the 5-phenylpyrazolopyrimidinone NPD-2975 led to the discovery of a R4-substituted analogue 31c (NPD-3519), showing higher in vitro potency (pIC50 7.8) against Trypanosoma brucei and significantly better metabolic stability. Further, in vivo pharmacokinetic evaluation of 31c and experiments in an acute T. brucei mouse model confirmed improved oral bioavailability and antitrypanosomal efficacy at 50 mg/kg with no apparent toxicity. With good physicochemical properties, low toxicity, improved pharmacokinetic features, and in vivo efficacy, 31c may serve as a promising candidate for future drug development for HAT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Yang Zheng
- Amsterdam
Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences, Division of Medicinal Chemistry,
Faculty of Science, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1108, Amsterdam 1081 HZ, The Netherlands
| | - Magali van den Kerkhof
- Laboratory
of Microbiology, Parasitology and Hygiene (LMPH), University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, Wilrijk 2610, Belgium
| | - Mohamed Ibrahim
- Amsterdam
Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences, Division of Medicinal Chemistry,
Faculty of Science, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1108, Amsterdam 1081 HZ, The Netherlands
| | - Iwan J. P. De Esch
- Amsterdam
Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences, Division of Medicinal Chemistry,
Faculty of Science, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1108, Amsterdam 1081 HZ, The Netherlands
| | - Louis Maes
- Laboratory
of Microbiology, Parasitology and Hygiene (LMPH), University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, Wilrijk 2610, Belgium
| | - Geert Jan Sterk
- Amsterdam
Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences, Division of Medicinal Chemistry,
Faculty of Science, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1108, Amsterdam 1081 HZ, The Netherlands
| | - Guy Caljon
- Laboratory
of Microbiology, Parasitology and Hygiene (LMPH), University of Antwerp, Universiteitsplein 1, Wilrijk 2610, Belgium
| | - Rob Leurs
- Amsterdam
Institute of Molecular and Life Sciences, Division of Medicinal Chemistry,
Faculty of Science, Vrije Universiteit Amsterdam, De Boelelaan 1108, Amsterdam 1081 HZ, The Netherlands
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7
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Sulik M, Fontinha D, Steverding D, Sobczak S, Antoszczak M, Prudêncio M, Huczyński A. Unexpected rearrangement of ivermectin in the synthesis of new derivatives with trypanocidal and antiplasmodial activities. Eur J Med Chem 2024; 263:115951. [PMID: 37988797 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2023.115951] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/06/2023] [Revised: 11/08/2023] [Accepted: 11/09/2023] [Indexed: 11/23/2023]
Abstract
Ivermectin is a sixteen-membered macrolactone "wonder drug" of Nobel prize-honored distinction that exhibits a wide range of antiparasitic activities. It has been used for almost four decades in the treatment of various parasitic diseases in humans and animals. In this paper, we describe the synthesis of the first-in-class ivermectin derivatives obtained via derivatization of the C13 position, along with the unexpected rearrangement of the oxahydrindene (hexahydrobenzofuran) unit of the macrolide ring. The structural investigation of the rearrangement has been performed using the single-crystal X-ray diffraction method. The antiparasitic and cytotoxic activities of the newly synthesized derivatives were determined in vitro with the bloodstream form of Trypanosoma brucei brucei, the hepatic stage of Plasmodium berghei, and human leukemia HL-60 cells. The compounds with the highest trypanocidal activity were the C13-epi-2-chloroacetamide analogs of native (6h) or rearranged (7h) ivermectin. Both 6h and 7h displayed trypanocidal activities within a similar mid-nanomolar concentration range as the commercially used trypanocides suramin and ethidium bromide. Furthermore, 6h and 7h exhibited a comparable cytotoxic to trypanocidal ratio as the reference drug ethidium bromide. The double-modified compound 7a (C13-epi-acetamide of rearranged ivermectin) exhibited the highest activity against P. berghei grown in human hepatoma cells, which was 2.5 times higher than that of ivermectin. The findings of this study suggest that C13-epi-amide derivatives of ivermectin are suitable leads in the rational development of new antiparasitic agents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Michał Sulik
- Department of Medical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Adam Mickiewicz University, Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego 8, 61‒614 Poznań, Poland
| | - Diana Fontinha
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Egas Moniz, 1649-028, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Dietmar Steverding
- Bob Champion Research & Education Building, Norwich Medical School, University of East Anglia, Norwich, UK
| | - Szymon Sobczak
- Department of Materials Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Adam Mickiewicz University, Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego 8, 61‒614 Poznań, Poland
| | - Michał Antoszczak
- Department of Medical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Adam Mickiewicz University, Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego 8, 61‒614 Poznań, Poland
| | - Miguel Prudêncio
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa, Av. Prof. Egas Moniz, 1649-028, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Adam Huczyński
- Department of Medical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Adam Mickiewicz University, Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego 8, 61‒614 Poznań, Poland.
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8
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Alunda JM. Antileishmanial and Antitrypanosomes Drugs for the Current Century. Microorganisms 2023; 12:43. [PMID: 38257870 PMCID: PMC10818473 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms12010043] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/14/2023] [Revised: 11/30/2023] [Accepted: 12/20/2023] [Indexed: 01/24/2024] Open
Abstract
Human infections by trypanosomatids are widely distributed and prevalent in the tropical and subtropical regions. Diseases caused by Trypanosoma and Leishmania have variable clinical outcomes, ranging from self-healing to fatality, and are considered Neglected Tropical Diseases (NTD). In addition, animal trypanosomiases have a significant impact on animal health and production, apart from their potential role as reservoirs in zoonotic species. Control of these infections is progressing and, in some cases (such as human African trypanomiasis (HAT)), significant reductions have been achieved. In the absence of effective vaccination, chemotherapy is the most used control method. Unfortunately, the therapeutic arsenal is scarce, old, and of variable efficacy, and reports of resistance to most antiparasitic agents have been published. New drugs, formulations, or combinations are needed to successfully limit the spread and severity of these diseases within a One Health framework. In this Special Issue, contributions regarding the identification and validation of drug targets, underlying mechanisms of action and resistance, and potential new molecules are presented. These research contributions are complemented by an update revision of the current chemotherapy against African Trypanosoma species, and a critical review of the shortcomings of the prevailing model of drug discovery and development.
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Affiliation(s)
- José María Alunda
- Department of Animal Health, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain; ; Tel.: +34-913-943-701
- Institute of Industrial Pharmacy, Faculty of Pharmacy, Universidad Complutense de Madrid, 28040 Madrid, Spain
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9
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Oluwafemi KA, Oyeneyin OE, Babatunde DD, Agbaffa EB, Aigbogun JA, Odeja OO, Emmanuel AV. Parasitic Protozoans: Exploring the Potential of N,N'-Bis[2-(5-bromo-7-azabenzimidazol-1-yl)-2-oxoethyl]ethylene-1,3-Diamine and Its Cyclohexyl-1,2-diamine Analogue as TryR and Pf-DHODH Inhibitors. Acta Parasitol 2023; 68:807-819. [PMID: 37821729 DOI: 10.1007/s11686-023-00719-5] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/17/2022] [Accepted: 08/26/2023] [Indexed: 10/13/2023]
Abstract
PURPOSE Major human parasitic protozoans, such as Plasmodium falciparum and Trypanosoma brucei, cause malaria and trypanosomiasis also known as sleeping sickness. In anti-parasitic drug discovery research, trypanothione reductase (TryR) and P. falciparum dihydroorotate dehydrogenase (Pf-DHODH) enzymes are key drug targets in T. brucei and P. falciparum, respectively. The possibility of co-infection of single host by T. brucei and P. falciparum is because both parasites exist in sub-Saharan Africa and the problem of parasite drug resistance necessitates the discovery of new scaffolds, which are strange to the organisms causing these infectious diseases-new scaffolds may help overcome established resistance mechanisms of the organisms. METHOD In this study, N,N'-bis[2-(5-bromo-7-azabenzimidazol-1-yl)-2-oxoethyl]ethylene-1,3-diamine and its cyclohexyl-1,2-diamine analogue were explored for their inhibitory potential against TryR and Pf-DHODH by engaging density functional study, molecular dynamic simulations, drug-likeness, in silico and in vitro studies RESULTS/CONCLUSION: Results obtained indicated excellent binding potential of the ligands to the receptors and good ADMET (adsorption, desorption, metabolism, excretion, and toxicity) properties.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kola A Oluwafemi
- Department of Chemical Sciences, Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba-Akoko, Nigeria.
| | - Oluwatoba E Oyeneyin
- Department of Chemical Sciences, Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba-Akoko, Nigeria.
- Theoretical and Computational Chemistry Unit, Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba-Akoko, Nigeria.
| | | | - Eric B Agbaffa
- Department of Chemistry, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria
- Department of Physical Sciences, Wesley University, Ondo, Nigeria
| | - Jane A Aigbogun
- Department of Chemistry, Federal University of Technology, Akure, Nigeria
| | - Oluwakayode O Odeja
- Department of Chemistry, Federal University of Petroleum Recourses, Effurun, Nigeria
| | - Abiodun V Emmanuel
- Department of Chemical Sciences, Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba-Akoko, Nigeria
- Theoretical and Computational Chemistry Unit, Adekunle Ajasin University, Akungba-Akoko, Nigeria
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10
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Linciano P, Quotadamo A, Luciani R, Santucci M, Zorn KM, Foil DH, Lane TR, Cordeiro da Silva A, Santarem N, B Moraes C, Freitas-Junior L, Wittig U, Mueller W, Tonelli M, Ferrari S, Venturelli A, Gul S, Kuzikov M, Ellinger B, Reinshagen J, Ekins S, Costi MP. High-Throughput Phenotypic Screening and Machine Learning Methods Enabled the Selection of Broad-Spectrum Low-Toxicity Antitrypanosomatidic Agents. J Med Chem 2023; 66:15230-15255. [PMID: 37921561 PMCID: PMC10683024 DOI: 10.1021/acs.jmedchem.3c01322] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/21/2023] [Revised: 10/14/2023] [Accepted: 10/18/2023] [Indexed: 11/04/2023]
Abstract
Broad-spectrum anti-infective chemotherapy agents with activity against Trypanosomes, Leishmania, and Mycobacterium tuberculosis species were identified from a high-throughput phenotypic screening program of the 456 compounds belonging to the Ty-Box, an in-house industry database. Compound characterization using machine learning approaches enabled the identification and synthesis of 44 compounds with broad-spectrum antiparasitic activity and minimal toxicity against Trypanosoma brucei, Leishmania Infantum, and Trypanosoma cruzi. In vitro studies confirmed the predictive models identified in compound 40 which emerged as a new lead, featured by an innovative N-(5-pyrimidinyl)benzenesulfonamide scaffold and promising low micromolar activity against two parasites and low toxicity. Given the volume and complexity of data generated by the diverse high-throughput screening assays performed on the compounds of the Ty-Box library, the chemoinformatic and machine learning tools enabled the selection of compounds eligible for further evaluation of their biological and toxicological activities and aided in the decision-making process toward the design and optimization of the identified lead.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pasquale Linciano
- Department
of Life Sciences, University of Modena and
Reggio Emilia, Via Campi 103, 41125 Modena, Italy
| | - Antonio Quotadamo
- Department
of Life Sciences, University of Modena and
Reggio Emilia, Via Campi 103, 41125 Modena, Italy
| | - Rosaria Luciani
- Department
of Life Sciences, University of Modena and
Reggio Emilia, Via Campi 103, 41125 Modena, Italy
| | - Matteo Santucci
- Department
of Life Sciences, University of Modena and
Reggio Emilia, Via Campi 103, 41125 Modena, Italy
| | - Kimberley M. Zorn
- Collaborations
Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 840 Main Campus Drive, Lab 3510, Raleigh, North Carolina 27606, United States
| | - Daniel H. Foil
- Collaborations
Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 840 Main Campus Drive, Lab 3510, Raleigh, North Carolina 27606, United States
| | - Thomas R. Lane
- Collaborations
Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 840 Main Campus Drive, Lab 3510, Raleigh, North Carolina 27606, United States
| | - Anabela Cordeiro da Silva
- Institute
for Molecular and Cell Biology, 4150-180 Porto, Portugal
- Instituto
de Investigaçao e Inovaçao em Saúde, Universidade do Porto and Institute for Molecular
and Cell Biology, 4150-180 Porto, Portugal
| | - Nuno Santarem
- Institute
for Molecular and Cell Biology, 4150-180 Porto, Portugal
- Instituto
de Investigaçao e Inovaçao em Saúde, Universidade do Porto and Institute for Molecular
and Cell Biology, 4150-180 Porto, Portugal
| | - Carolina B Moraes
- Brazilian
Biosciences National Laboratory (LNBio), Brazilian Center for Research in Energy and Materials (CNPEM), 13083-970 Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Lucio Freitas-Junior
- Brazilian
Biosciences National Laboratory (LNBio), Brazilian Center for Research in Energy and Materials (CNPEM), 13083-970 Campinas, São Paulo, Brazil
| | - Ulrike Wittig
- Scientific
Databases and Visualization Group and Molecular and Cellular Modelling
Group, Heidelberg Institute for Theoretical
Studies (HITS), D-69118 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Wolfgang Mueller
- Scientific
Databases and Visualization Group and Molecular and Cellular Modelling
Group, Heidelberg Institute for Theoretical
Studies (HITS), D-69118 Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Michele Tonelli
- Department
of Pharmacy, University of Genoa, Viale Benedetto XV n.3, 16132 Genoa, Italy
| | - Stefania Ferrari
- Department
of Life Sciences, University of Modena and
Reggio Emilia, Via Campi 103, 41125 Modena, Italy
| | - Alberto Venturelli
- Department
of Life Sciences, University of Modena and
Reggio Emilia, Via Campi 103, 41125 Modena, Italy
- TYDOCK
PHARMA S.r.l., Strada
Gherbella 294/b, 41126 Modena, Italy
| | - Sheraz Gul
- Fraunhofer
Translational Medicine and Pharmacology, Schnackenburgallee 114, D-22525 Hamburg, Germany
- Fraunhofer Cluster of Excellence Immune-Mediated Diseases
CIMD, Schnackenburgallee
114, D-22525 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Maria Kuzikov
- Fraunhofer
Translational Medicine and Pharmacology, Schnackenburgallee 114, D-22525 Hamburg, Germany
- Fraunhofer Cluster of Excellence Immune-Mediated Diseases
CIMD, Schnackenburgallee
114, D-22525 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Bernhard Ellinger
- Fraunhofer
Translational Medicine and Pharmacology, Schnackenburgallee 114, D-22525 Hamburg, Germany
- Fraunhofer Cluster of Excellence Immune-Mediated Diseases
CIMD, Schnackenburgallee
114, D-22525 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Jeanette Reinshagen
- Fraunhofer
Translational Medicine and Pharmacology, Schnackenburgallee 114, D-22525 Hamburg, Germany
- Fraunhofer Cluster of Excellence Immune-Mediated Diseases
CIMD, Schnackenburgallee
114, D-22525 Hamburg, Germany
| | - Sean Ekins
- Collaborations
Pharmaceuticals, Inc., 840 Main Campus Drive, Lab 3510, Raleigh, North Carolina 27606, United States
| | - Maria Paola Costi
- Department
of Life Sciences, University of Modena and
Reggio Emilia, Via Campi 103, 41125 Modena, Italy
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11
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Periferakis AT, Periferakis A, Periferakis K, Caruntu A, Badarau IA, Savulescu-Fiedler I, Scheau C, Caruntu C. Antimicrobial Properties of Capsaicin: Available Data and Future Research Perspectives. Nutrients 2023; 15:4097. [PMID: 37836381 PMCID: PMC10574431 DOI: 10.3390/nu15194097] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/26/2023] [Revised: 09/13/2023] [Accepted: 09/20/2023] [Indexed: 10/15/2023] Open
Abstract
Capsaicin is a phytochemical derived from plants of the genus Capsicum and subject of intensive phytochemical research due to its numerous physiological and therapeutical effects, including its important antimicrobial properties. Depending on the concentration and the strain of the bacterium, capsaicin can exert either bacteriostatic or even bactericidal effects against a wide range of both Gram-positive and Gram-negative bacteria, while in certain cases it can reduce their pathogenicity by a variety of mechanisms such as mitigating the release of toxins or inhibiting biofilm formation. Likewise, capsaicin has been shown to be effective against fungal pathogens, particularly Candida spp., where it once again interferes with biofilm formation. The parasites Toxoplasma gondi and Trypanosoma cruzi have been found to be susceptible to the action of this compound too while there are also viruses whose invasiveness is significantly dampened by it. Among the most encouraging findings are the prospects for future development, especially using new formulations and drug delivery mechanisms. Finally, the influence of capsaicin in somatostatin and substance P secretion and action, offers an interesting array of possibilities given that these physiologically secreted compounds modulate inflammation and immune response to a significant extent.
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Affiliation(s)
- Aristodemos-Theodoros Periferakis
- Department of Physiology, The “Carol Davila” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 050474 Bucharest, Romania
- Elkyda, Research & Education Centre of Charismatheia, 17675 Athens, Greece
| | - Argyrios Periferakis
- Department of Physiology, The “Carol Davila” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 050474 Bucharest, Romania
- Elkyda, Research & Education Centre of Charismatheia, 17675 Athens, Greece
- Akadimia of Ancient Greek and Traditional Chinese Medicine, 16675 Athens, Greece
| | - Konstantinos Periferakis
- Akadimia of Ancient Greek and Traditional Chinese Medicine, 16675 Athens, Greece
- Pan-Hellenic Organization of Educational Programs (P.O.E.P), 17236 Athens, Greece
| | - Ana Caruntu
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, “Carol Davila” Central Military Emergency Hospital, 010825 Bucharest, Romania
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Faculty of Dental Medicine, “Titu Maiorescu” University, 031593 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Ioana Anca Badarau
- Department of Physiology, The “Carol Davila” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 050474 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Ilinca Savulescu-Fiedler
- Department of Internal Medicine and Cardiology, Coltea Clinical Hospital, 030167 Bucharest, Romania
- Department of Internal Medicine, The “Carol Davila” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 050474 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Cristian Scheau
- Department of Physiology, The “Carol Davila” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 050474 Bucharest, Romania
- Department of Radiology and Medical Imaging, “Foisor” Clinical Hospital of Orthopaedics, Traumatology and Osteoarticular TB, 021382 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Constantin Caruntu
- Department of Physiology, The “Carol Davila” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 050474 Bucharest, Romania
- Department of Dermatology, ‘Prof. N.C. Paulescu’ National Institute of Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases, 011233 Bucharest, Romania
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12
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Lemos JM, Brito da Silva MF, Dos Santos Carvalho AM, Vicente Gil HP, Fiaia Costa VA, Andrade CH, Braga RC, Grellier P, Muratov EN, Charneau S, Moreira-Filho JT, Dourado Bastos IM, Neves BJ. Multitask learning-driven identification of novel antitrypanosomal compounds. Future Med Chem 2023; 15:1449-1467. [PMID: 37701989 DOI: 10.4155/fmc-2023-0074] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 09/14/2023] Open
Abstract
Background: Chagas disease and human African trypanosomiasis cause substantial death and morbidity, particularly in low- and middle-income countries, making the need for novel drugs urgent. Methodology & results: Therefore, an explainable multitask pipeline to profile the activity of compounds against three trypanosomes (Trypanosoma brucei brucei, Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense and Trypanosoma cruzi) were created. These models successfully discovered four new experimental hits (LC-3, LC-4, LC-6 and LC-15). Among them, LC-6 showed promising results, with IC50 values ranging 0.01-0.072 μM and selectivity indices >10,000. Conclusion: These results demonstrate that the multitask protocol offers predictivity and interpretability in the virtual screening of new antitrypanosomal compounds and has the potential to improve hit rates in Chagas and human African trypanosomiasis projects.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jade Milhomem Lemos
- LabChem - Laboratory of Cheminformatics, Faculty of Pharmacy, Federal University of Goiás, Goiânia,74605-170, GO, Brazil
| | - Meryck Felipe Brito da Silva
- LabChem - Laboratory of Cheminformatics, Faculty of Pharmacy, Federal University of Goiás, Goiânia,74605-170, GO, Brazil
| | - Alexandra Maria Dos Santos Carvalho
- Pathogen-Host Interface Laboratory, Department of Cell Biology, Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Brasilia, Brasilia, 70910-900, DF, Brazil
| | - Henric Pietro Vicente Gil
- LabChem - Laboratory of Cheminformatics, Faculty of Pharmacy, Federal University of Goiás, Goiânia,74605-170, GO, Brazil
| | - Vinícius Alexandre Fiaia Costa
- LabChem - Laboratory of Cheminformatics, Faculty of Pharmacy, Federal University of Goiás, Goiânia,74605-170, GO, Brazil
| | - Carolina Horta Andrade
- LabMol - Laboratory for Molecular Modeling & Drug Design, Faculty of Pharmacy, Federal University of Goiás, Goiânia, 74605-170, GO, Brazil
| | - Rodolpho Campos Braga
- InsilicAll Ltda, Av. Eng. Luis Carlos Berrini,1748 - Itaim Bibi, 04571-010, Sao Paulo, SP, Brazil
| | - Philippe Grellier
- UMR 7245 Molécules de Communication et Adaptation des Micro-organismes, Muséum National d'Histoire Naturelle, Équipe Parasites et Protistes Libres, Paris, 0575231, France
| | - Eugene N Muratov
- Laboratory for Molecular Modeling, UNC Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, 27599, NC, USA
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Federal University of Paraiba, Joao Pessoa, 58059-900, PB, Brazil
| | - Sébastien Charneau
- Department of Cell Biology, Laboratory of Biochemistry & Protein Chemistry, Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Brasilia, Brasilia, 70910-900, DF, Brazil
| | - José Teófilo Moreira-Filho
- LabMol - Laboratory for Molecular Modeling & Drug Design, Faculty of Pharmacy, Federal University of Goiás, Goiânia, 74605-170, GO, Brazil
| | - Izabela Marques Dourado Bastos
- Pathogen-Host Interface Laboratory, Department of Cell Biology, Institute of Biological Sciences, University of Brasilia, Brasilia, 70910-900, DF, Brazil
| | - Bruno Junior Neves
- LabChem - Laboratory of Cheminformatics, Faculty of Pharmacy, Federal University of Goiás, Goiânia,74605-170, GO, Brazil
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13
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Acquah FA, Mooers BHM. Targeting RNA Structure to Inhibit Editing in Trypanosomes. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:10110. [PMID: 37373258 PMCID: PMC10298474 DOI: 10.3390/ijms241210110] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2023] [Revised: 06/01/2023] [Accepted: 06/06/2023] [Indexed: 06/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Mitochondrial RNA editing in trypanosomes represents an attractive target for developing safer and more efficient drugs for treating infections with trypanosomes because this RNA editing pathway is not found in humans. Other workers have targeted several enzymes in this editing system, but not the RNA. Here, we target a universal domain of the RNA editing substrate, which is the U-helix formed between the oligo-U tail of the guide RNA and the target mRNA. We selected a part of the U-helix that is rich in G-U wobble base pairs as the target site for the virtual screening of 262,000 compounds. After chemoinformatic filtering of the top 5000 leads, we subjected 50 representative complexes to 50 nanoseconds of molecular dynamics simulations. We identified 15 compounds that retained stable interactions in the deep groove of the U-helix. The microscale thermophoresis binding experiments on these five compounds show low-micromolar to nanomolar binding affinities. The UV melting studies show an increase in the melting temperatures of the U-helix upon binding by each compound. These five compounds can serve as leads for drug development and as research tools to probe the role of the RNA structure in trypanosomal RNA editing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francis A. Acquah
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA;
| | - Blaine H. M. Mooers
- Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA;
- Stephenson Cancer Center, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA
- Laboratory of Biomolecular Structure and Function, University of Oklahoma Health Sciences Center, Oklahoma City, OK 73104, USA
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14
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Dowling J, Doig CL. Roles of ADP-Ribosylation during Infection Establishment by Trypanosomatidae Parasites. Pathogens 2023; 12:pathogens12050708. [PMID: 37242378 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens12050708] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/31/2023] [Revised: 05/08/2023] [Accepted: 05/09/2023] [Indexed: 05/28/2023] Open
Abstract
ADP-ribosylation is a reversible post-translational protein modification, which is evolutionarily conserved in prokaryotic and eukaryotic organisms. It governs critical cellular functions, including, but not limited to cellular proliferation, differentiation, RNA translation, and genomic repair. The addition of one or multiple ADP-ribose moieties can be catalysed by poly(ADP-ribose) polymerase (PARP) enzymes, while in eukaryotic organisms, ADP-ribosylation can be reversed through the action of specific enzymes capable of ADP-ribose signalling regulation. In several lower eukaryotic organisms, including Trypanosomatidae parasites, ADP-ribosylation is thought to be important for infection establishment. Trypanosomatidae encompasses several human disease-causing pathogens, including Trypanosoma cruzi, T. brucei, and the Leishmania genus. These parasites are the etiological agents of Chagas disease, African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness), and leishmaniasis, respectively. Currently, licenced medications for these infections are outdated and often result in harmful side effects, and can be inaccessible to those carrying infections, due to them being classified as neglected tropical diseases (NTDs), meaning that many infected individuals will belong to already marginalised communities in countries already facing socioeconomic challenges. Consequently, funding to develop novel therapeutics for these infections is overlooked. As such, understanding the molecular mechanisms of infection, and how ADP-ribosylation facilitates infection establishment by these organisms may allow the identification of potential molecular interventions that would disrupt infection. In contrast to the complex ADP-ribosylation pathways in eukaryotes, the process of Trypanosomatidae is more linear, with the parasites only expressing one PARP enzyme, compared to the, at least, 17 genes that encode human PARP enzymes. If this simplified pathway can be understood and exploited, it may reveal new avenues for combatting Trypanosomatidae infection. This review will focus on the current state of knowledge on the importance of ADP-ribosylation in Trypanosomatidae during infection establishment in human hosts, and the potential therapeutic options that disrupting ADP-ribosylation may offer to combat Trypanosomatidae.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua Dowling
- School of Science & Technology, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham NG11 8NS, UK
| | - Craig L Doig
- School of Science & Technology, Nottingham Trent University, Nottingham NG11 8NS, UK
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15
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Gaona-López C, Vazquez-Jimenez LK, Gonzalez-Gonzalez A, Delgado-Maldonado T, Ortiz-Pérez E, Nogueda-Torres B, Moreno-Rodríguez A, Vázquez K, Saavedra E, Rivera G. Advances in Protozoan Epigenetic Targets and Their Inhibitors for the Development of New Potential Drugs. Pharmaceuticals (Basel) 2023; 16:ph16040543. [PMID: 37111300 PMCID: PMC10143871 DOI: 10.3390/ph16040543] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/22/2023] [Revised: 03/29/2023] [Accepted: 03/31/2023] [Indexed: 04/29/2023] Open
Abstract
Protozoan parasite diseases cause significant mortality and morbidity worldwide. Factors such as climate change, extreme poverty, migration, and a lack of life opportunities lead to the propagation of diseases classified as tropical or non-endemic. Although there are several drugs to combat parasitic diseases, strains resistant to routinely used drugs have been reported. In addition, many first-line drugs have adverse effects ranging from mild to severe, including potential carcinogenic effects. Therefore, new lead compounds are needed to combat these parasites. Although little has been studied regarding the epigenetic mechanisms in lower eukaryotes, it is believed that epigenetics plays an essential role in vital aspects of the organism, from controlling the life cycle to the expression of genes involved in pathogenicity. Therefore, using epigenetic targets to combat these parasites is foreseen as an area with great potential for development. This review summarizes the main known epigenetic mechanisms and their potential as therapeutics for a group of medically important protozoal parasites. Different epigenetic mechanisms are discussed, highlighting those that can be used for drug repositioning, such as histone post-translational modifications (HPTMs). Exclusive parasite targets are also emphasized, including the base J and DNA 6 mA. These two categories have the greatest potential for developing drugs to treat or eradicate these diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Carlos Gaona-López
- Laboratorio de Biotecnología Farmacéutica, Centro de Biotecnología Genómica, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Reynosa 88710, Mexico
| | - Lenci K Vazquez-Jimenez
- Laboratorio de Biotecnología Farmacéutica, Centro de Biotecnología Genómica, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Reynosa 88710, Mexico
| | - Alonzo Gonzalez-Gonzalez
- Laboratorio de Biotecnología Farmacéutica, Centro de Biotecnología Genómica, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Reynosa 88710, Mexico
| | - Timoteo Delgado-Maldonado
- Laboratorio de Biotecnología Farmacéutica, Centro de Biotecnología Genómica, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Reynosa 88710, Mexico
| | - Eyrá Ortiz-Pérez
- Laboratorio de Biotecnología Farmacéutica, Centro de Biotecnología Genómica, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Reynosa 88710, Mexico
| | - Benjamín Nogueda-Torres
- Departamento de Parasitología, Escuela Nacional de Ciencias Biológicas, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Mexico City 11340, Mexico
| | - Adriana Moreno-Rodríguez
- Laboratorio de Estudios Epidemiológicos, Clínicos, Diseños Experimentales e Investigación, Facultad de Ciencias Químicas, Universidad Autónoma "Benito Juárez" de Oaxaca, Avenida Universidad S/N, Ex Hacienda Cinco Señores, Oaxaca 68120, Mexico
| | - Karina Vázquez
- Facultad de Medicina Veterinaria y Zootecnia, Universidad Autónoma de Nuevo León, Francisco Villa 20, General Escobedo 66054, Mexico
| | - Emma Saavedra
- Departamento de Bioquímica, Instituto Nacional de Cardiología Ignacio Chávez, Mexico City 14080, Mexico
| | - Gildardo Rivera
- Laboratorio de Biotecnología Farmacéutica, Centro de Biotecnología Genómica, Instituto Politécnico Nacional, Reynosa 88710, Mexico
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16
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Farahat AA, Kumar A, Wenzler T, Brun R, Paul A, Guo P, Wilson WD, Boykin DW. Investigation of the effect of structure modification of furamidine on the DNA minor groove binding and antiprotozoal activity. Eur J Med Chem 2023; 252:115287. [PMID: 36958267 PMCID: PMC10127280 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2023.115287] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2023] [Revised: 03/05/2023] [Accepted: 03/14/2023] [Indexed: 03/25/2023]
Abstract
New analogs of the antiprotozoal agent Furamidine were prepared utilizing Stille coupling reactions and amidation of the bisnitrile intermediate using lithium bis-trimethylsilylamide. Both the phenyl groups and the furan moiety of furamidine were replaced by heterocycles including thiophene, selenophene, indole or benzimidazole. Based upon the ΔTm and the CD results, the new compounds showed strong binding to the DNA minor groove. The new analogues are also more active both in vitro and in vivo than furamidine. Compounds 7a, 7b, and 7f showed the highest activity in vivo by curing 75% of animals, and this merits further evaluation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Abdelbasset A Farahat
- Masters of Pharmaceutical Sciences Program, California Northstate University, Elk Grove, CA, 95757, USA; Department of Pharmaceutical Organic Chemistry, Faculty of Pharmacy, Mansoura University, Mansoura, 35516, Egypt.
| | - Arvind Kumar
- Department of Chemistry, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, 30303, USA
| | - Tanja Wenzler
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, 4002, Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, 4003, Switzerland
| | - Reto Brun
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, Basel, 4002, Switzerland; University of Basel, Basel, 4003, Switzerland
| | - Ananya Paul
- Department of Chemistry, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, 30303, USA
| | - Pu Guo
- Department of Chemistry, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, 30303, USA
| | - W David Wilson
- Department of Chemistry, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, 30303, USA
| | - David W Boykin
- Department of Chemistry, Georgia State University, Atlanta, GA, 30303, USA
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17
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Weinmann J, Kirchner L, Engstler M, Meinel L, Holzgrabe U. Design, synthesis and biological evaluations of quinolone amides against African trypanosomiasis with improved solubility. Eur J Med Chem 2023; 250:115176. [PMID: 36805945 DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2023.115176] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/14/2022] [Revised: 01/23/2023] [Accepted: 01/31/2023] [Indexed: 02/08/2023]
Abstract
The human African trypanosomiasis is a devastating parasitic infection, which is caused by the protozoan Trypanosoma brucei and transmitted by the bite of the tsetse fly. An untreated infection usually results in death and only few drugs with significant drawbacks are currently available for treatment. Previous investigations revealed the quinolone amide MB007 as a lead compound with an excellent selectivity for T. b. brucei. Here, new quinolone amides were synthesized for deeper insights into the structure-activity relationship. Furthermore, the aqueous solubility of the compounds was analyzed, as the poor solubility of previous quinolone amides impeded in vivo studies for target identification. The biological evaluation led to the new lead structure 9f, which exhibits a promising in vitro activity against T. b. brucei (IC50 = 22 nM) and showed no cytotoxicity against macrophages. Moreover, compounds 10b and 10c were discovered, which possessed an improved solubility combined with a decent selectivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joshua Weinmann
- Institute of Pharmacy and Food Chemistry, University of Würzburg, Am Hubland, 97074, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Lukas Kirchner
- Institute of Pharmacy and Food Chemistry, University of Würzburg, Am Hubland, 97074, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Markus Engstler
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Würzburg, Am Hubland, 97074, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Lorenz Meinel
- Institute of Pharmacy and Food Chemistry, University of Würzburg, Am Hubland, 97074, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Ulrike Holzgrabe
- Institute of Pharmacy and Food Chemistry, University of Würzburg, Am Hubland, 97074, Würzburg, Germany.
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18
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Ungogo MA, Aldfer MM, Natto MJ, Zhuang H, Chisholm R, Walsh K, McGee M, Ilbeigi K, Asseri JI, Burchmore RJS, Caljon G, Van Calenbergh S, De Koning HP. Cloning and Characterization of Trypanosoma congolense and T. vivax Nucleoside Transporters Reveal the Potential of P1-Type Carriers for the Discovery of Broad-Spectrum Nucleoside-Based Therapeutics against Animal African Trypanosomiasis. Int J Mol Sci 2023; 24:ijms24043144. [PMID: 36834557 PMCID: PMC9960827 DOI: 10.3390/ijms24043144] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/10/2023] [Revised: 02/01/2023] [Accepted: 02/02/2023] [Indexed: 02/09/2023] Open
Abstract
African Animal Trypanosomiasis (AAT), caused predominantly by Trypanosoma brucei brucei, T. vivax and T. congolense, is a fatal livestock disease throughout Sub-Saharan Africa. Treatment options are very limited and threatened by resistance. Tubercidin (7-deazaadenosine) analogs have shown activity against individual parasites but viable chemotherapy must be active against all three species. Divergence in sensitivity to nucleoside antimetabolites could be caused by differences in nucleoside transporters. Having previously characterized the T. brucei nucleoside carriers, we here report the functional expression and characterization of the main adenosine transporters of T. vivax (TvxNT3) and T. congolense (TcoAT1/NT10), in a Leishmania mexicana cell line ('SUPKO') lacking adenosine uptake. Both carriers were similar to the T. brucei P1-type transporters and bind adenosine mostly through interactions with N3, N7 and 3'-OH. Expression of TvxNT3 and TcoAT1 sensitized SUPKO cells to various 7-substituted tubercidins and other nucleoside analogs although tubercidin itself is a poor substrate for P1-type transporters. Individual nucleoside EC50s were similar for T. b. brucei, T. congolense, T. evansi and T. equiperdum but correlated less well with T. vivax. However, multiple nucleosides including 7-halogentubercidines displayed pEC50>7 for all species and, based on transporter and anti-parasite SAR analyses, we conclude that nucleoside chemotherapy for AAT is viable.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marzuq A. Ungogo
- School of Infection and Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK
- Department of Veterinary Pharmacology and Toxicology, Ahmadu Bello University, Zaria 810107, Kaduna State, Nigeria
- Roslin Institute, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Midlothian EH25 9RG, UK
| | - Mustafa M. Aldfer
- School of Infection and Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK
| | - Manal J. Natto
- School of Infection and Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK
| | - Hainan Zhuang
- School of Infection and Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK
| | - Robyn Chisholm
- School of Infection and Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK
| | - Katy Walsh
- School of Infection and Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK
| | - MarieClaire McGee
- School of Infection and Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK
| | - Kayhan Ilbeigi
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Parasitology and Hygiene (LMPH), University of Antwerp, B-2610 Wilrijk, Belgium
| | - Jamal Ibrahim Asseri
- School of Infection and Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK
| | - Richard J. S. Burchmore
- School of Infection and Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK
| | - Guy Caljon
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Parasitology and Hygiene (LMPH), University of Antwerp, B-2610 Wilrijk, Belgium
| | - Serge Van Calenbergh
- Laboratory for Medicinal Chemistry (Campus Heymans), Ghent University, B-9000 Gent, Belgium
| | - Harry P. De Koning
- School of Infection and Immunity, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow G12 8TA, UK
- Correspondence:
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Francisco KR, Monti L, Yang W, Park H, Liu LJ, Watkins K, Amarasinghe DK, Nalli M, Roberto Polaquini C, Regasini LO, Eduardo Miller Crotti A, Silvestri R, Guidi Magalhães L, Caffrey CR. Structure-activity relationship of dibenzylideneacetone analogs against the neglected disease pathogen, Trypanosoma brucei. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2023; 81:129123. [PMID: 36608774 PMCID: PMC10072319 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2023.129123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/08/2022] [Revised: 12/20/2022] [Accepted: 01/02/2023] [Indexed: 01/05/2023]
Abstract
Trypanosoma brucei is a protozoan parasite that causes Human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT), a neglected tropical disease (NTD) that is endemic in 36 countries in sub-Saharan Africa. Only a handful drugs are available for treatment, and these have limitations, including toxicity and drug resistance. Using the natural product, curcumin, as a starting point, several curcuminoids and related analogs were evaluated against bloodstream forms of T. b. brucei. A particular subset of dibenzylideneacetone (DBA) compounds exhibited potent in vitro antitrypanosomal activity with sub-micromolar EC50 values. A structure-activity relationship study including 26 DBA analogs was initiated, and several compounds exhibited EC50 values as low as 200 nM. Cytotoxicity counter screens in HEK293 cells identified several compounds having selectivity indices above 10. These data suggest that DBAs offer starting points for a new small molecule therapy of HAT.
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Affiliation(s)
- Karol R Francisco
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA.
| | - Ludovica Monti
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Wenqian Yang
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Hayoung Park
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Lawrence J Liu
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Kaitlyn Watkins
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Dilini K Amarasinghe
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
| | - Marianna Nalli
- Laboratory Affiliated with the Institute Pasteur Italy - Cenci Bolognetti Foundation, Department of Drug Chemistry and Technologies, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Carlos Roberto Polaquini
- Institute of Biosciences, Humanities and Exact Sciences, São Paulo State University, São José do Rio Preto, SP 15054-000, Brazil
| | - Luis O Regasini
- Institute of Biosciences, Humanities and Exact Sciences, São Paulo State University, São José do Rio Preto, SP 15054-000, Brazil
| | - Antônio Eduardo Miller Crotti
- Faculty of Philosophy, Sciences, and Letters of Ribeirão Preto, University of São Paulo, Ribeirão Preto, SP 14040-900, Brazil
| | - Romano Silvestri
- Laboratory Affiliated with the Institute Pasteur Italy - Cenci Bolognetti Foundation, Department of Drug Chemistry and Technologies, Sapienza University of Rome, 00185 Rome, Italy
| | - Lizandra Guidi Magalhães
- Research Group on Natural Products, Center for Research in Sciences and Technology, University of Franca, Franca, SP 14404-600, Brazil
| | - Conor R Caffrey
- Center for Discovery and Innovation in Parasitic Diseases, Skaggs School of Pharmacy and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of California, San Diego, La Jolla, CA 92093, USA
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20
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Mlozen MM, Van Marwijk J, Wilhelmi BS, Whiteley C. Comparative Analysis of the Interaction of Silver Nanoparticles with Hexokinase from Trypanosoma brucei and Humans. Int J Nanomedicine 2023; 18:1399-1411. [PMID: 36992823 PMCID: PMC10041994 DOI: 10.2147/ijn.s401319] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/19/2023] [Accepted: 03/14/2023] [Indexed: 03/31/2023] Open
Abstract
Background Regardless of the efforts to ease cases of human African trypanosomiasis (HAT), an increased number of cases get reported annually. This is because of drug resistant Trypanosoma brucei (Tb), the causative agent of the illness. This has renewed the need for creative methods to find new anti-trypanosomal drugs. The blood stream form (BSF) of the parasite depends exclusively on the glycolytic pathway for energy production while it is in the human host. Interruptions in this pathway efficiently kills the parasite. Trypanosoma brucei hexokinase (TbHK) is the first enzyme in glycolysis, and any effectors or inhibitors of TbHK would have potential as anti-trypanosomal agents. Methods TbHK and human glucokinase (hGCK) were over-expressed with a 6 histidine-tag in E. coli BL21(DE3) cells having the pRARE2 plasmid. Results TbHK had thermal and pH stability between 30°C and 55°C and 7.5 and 8.5, respectively, while hGCK exhibited thermal and pH stability between 30°C and 40°C and 7.0 and 8.0, respectively. Kinetically, TbHK had a Km of 39.3 µM, Vmax of 0.066 µmol.min-1.mL-1, kcat of 2.05 min-1 and kcat/Km of 0.0526 min-1.µmol-1. hGCK exhibited a Km of 4.5 µM, Vmax of 0.032 µnmol.min-1.mL-1, kcat of 11.25 min-1, and kcat/Km of 2.5 min-1.µmol-1. Interaction kinetic studies of silver nanoparticles (AgNPs) (0.1 µM) of average size of 6 nm with TbHK and hGCK were conducted. AgNPs selectively inhibited TbHK over hGCK. TbHK showed a non-competitive inhibition with a 50% and 28% decrease in Vmax, and kcat/km, respectively. HsGCK showed a 33% increase in affinity, 9% decrease in Vmax, and a 50% increase in enzyme efficiency. Conclusion The observed pattern of hGCK and AgNPs falls under the uncompetitive inhibition. The observed highly selective inhibitory effects of AgNPs between TbHK and hGCK may be used in development of new anti-trypanosomal drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Madalitso M Mlozen
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Rhodes University, Makhanda (Grahamstown), South Africa
- Malawi Adventist University, Malamulo Campus, Department of Biomedical Sciences, Makwasa, Malawi
- Correspondence: Madalitso M Mlozen, Malawi Adventist University, Malamulo campus, Department of Biomedical Sciences, P.O.Box 55, Makwasa, Tel +265 884628334, Email
| | - Jacqueline Van Marwijk
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Rhodes University, Makhanda (Grahamstown), South Africa
| | - Brendan Shane Wilhelmi
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Rhodes University, Makhanda (Grahamstown), South Africa
| | - Chris Whiteley
- Department of Biochemistry and Microbiology, Rhodes University, Makhanda (Grahamstown), South Africa
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Periferakis A, Periferakis K, Badarau IA, Petran EM, Popa DC, Caruntu A, Costache RS, Scheau C, Caruntu C, Costache DO. Kaempferol: Antimicrobial Properties, Sources, Clinical, and Traditional Applications. Int J Mol Sci 2022; 23:ijms232315054. [PMID: 36499380 PMCID: PMC9740324 DOI: 10.3390/ijms232315054] [Citation(s) in RCA: 51] [Impact Index Per Article: 25.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/31/2022] [Revised: 11/23/2022] [Accepted: 11/26/2022] [Indexed: 12/03/2022] Open
Abstract
Flavonoids are a category of plant-derived compounds which exhibit a large number of health-related effects. One of the most well-known and studied flavonoids is kaempferol, which can be found in a wide variety of herbs and plant families. Apart from their anticarcinogenic and anti-inflammatory effects, kaempferol and its associated compounds also exhibit antibacterial, antifungal, and antiprotozoal activities. The development of drugs and treatment schemes based on these compounds is becoming increasingly important in the face of emerging resistance of numerous pathogens as well as complex molecular interactions between various drug therapies. In addition, many of the kaempferol-containing plants are used in traditional systems all over the world for centuries to treat numerous conditions. Due to its variety of sources and associated compounds, some molecular mechanisms of kaempferol antimicrobial activity are well known while others are still under analysis. This paper thoroughly documents the vegetal and food sources of kaempferol as well as the most recent and significant studies regarding its antimicrobial applications.
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Affiliation(s)
- Argyrios Periferakis
- Department of Physiology, The “Carol Davila” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 050474 Bucharest, Romania
- Akadimia of Ancient Greek and Traditional Chinese Medicine, 16675 Athens, Greece
| | - Konstantinos Periferakis
- Akadimia of Ancient Greek and Traditional Chinese Medicine, 16675 Athens, Greece
- Pan-Hellenic Organization of Educational Programs (P.O.E.P), 17236 Athens, Greece
- Orasis Acupuncture Institute, 11526 Athens, Greece
| | - Ioana Anca Badarau
- Department of Physiology, The “Carol Davila” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 050474 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Elena Madalina Petran
- Department of Biochemistry, The “Carol Davila” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 050474 Bucharest, Romania
- Department of Toxicology, Grigore Alexandrescu Emergency Children’s Hospital, 011743 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Delia Codruta Popa
- Department of Biochemistry, The “Carol Davila” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 050474 Bucharest, Romania
- Department of Hematology, Fundeni Clinical Institute, 022328 Bucharest, Romania
- Correspondence: (D.C.P.); (C.S.)
| | - Ana Caruntu
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, ‘Dr. Carol Davila’ Central Military Emergency Hospital, 010825 Bucharest, Romania
- Department of Oral and Maxillofacial Surgery, Faculty of Dental Medicine, ‘Titu Maiorescu’ University, 031593 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Raluca Simona Costache
- Department of Gastroenterology, Gastroenterology and Internal Medicine Clinic, ‘Dr. Carol Davila’ Central Military Emergency Hospital, 010825 Bucharest, Romania
- Department of Internal Medicine and Gastroenterology, ‘Carol Davila’ University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 050474 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Cristian Scheau
- Department of Physiology, The “Carol Davila” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 050474 Bucharest, Romania
- Correspondence: (D.C.P.); (C.S.)
| | - Constantin Caruntu
- Department of Physiology, The “Carol Davila” University of Medicine and Pharmacy, 050474 Bucharest, Romania
- Department of Dermatology, ‘Prof. N.C. Paulescu’ National Institute of Diabetes, Nutrition and Metabolic Diseases, 011233 Bucharest, Romania
| | - Daniel Octavian Costache
- Department of Dermatology, ‘Dr. Carol Davila’ Central Military Emergency Hospital, 010825 Bucharest, Romania
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22
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Bernhard S, Kaiser M, Burri C, Mäser P. Fexinidazole for Human African Trypanosomiasis, the Fruit of a Successful Public-Private Partnership. Diseases 2022; 10:90. [PMID: 36278589 PMCID: PMC9589988 DOI: 10.3390/diseases10040090] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 7.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/25/2022] [Revised: 10/04/2022] [Accepted: 10/07/2022] [Indexed: 08/14/2023] Open
Abstract
After 100 years of chemotherapy with impractical and toxic drugs, an oral cure for human African trypanosomiasis (HAT) is available: Fexinidazole. In this case, we review the history of drug discovery for HAT with special emphasis on the discovery, pre-clinical development, and operational challenges of the clinical trials of fexinidazole. The screening of the Drugs for Neglected Diseases initiative (DNDi) HAT-library by the Swiss TPH had singled out fexinidazole, originally developed by Hoechst (now Sanofi), as the most promising of a series of over 800 nitroimidazoles and related molecules. In cell culture, fexinidazole has an IC50 of around 1 µM against Trypanosoma brucei and is more than 100-fold less toxic to mammalian cells. In the mouse model, fexinidazole cures both the first, haemolymphatic, and the second, meningoencephalitic stage of the infection, the latter at 100 mg/kg twice daily for 5 days. In patients, the clinical trials managed by DNDi and supported by Swiss TPH mainly conducted in the Democratic Republic of the Congo demonstrated that oral fexinidazole is safe and effective for use against first- and early second-stage sleeping sickness. Based on the positive opinion issued by the European Medicines Agency in 2018, the WHO has released new interim guidelines for the treatment of HAT including fexinidazole as the new therapy for first-stage and non-severe second-stage sleeping sickness caused by Trypanosoma brucei gambiense (gHAT). This greatly facilitates the diagnosis and treatment algorithm for gHAT, increasing the attainable coverage and paving the way towards the envisaged goal of zero transmission by 2030.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sonja Bernhard
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, 4123 Allschwil, Switzerland
- University of Basel, 4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Marcel Kaiser
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, 4123 Allschwil, Switzerland
- University of Basel, 4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Christian Burri
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, 4123 Allschwil, Switzerland
- University of Basel, 4002 Basel, Switzerland
| | - Pascal Mäser
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute, 4123 Allschwil, Switzerland
- University of Basel, 4002 Basel, Switzerland
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23
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From rational design to serendipity: Discovery of novel thiosemicarbazones as potent trypanocidal compounds. Eur J Med Chem 2022; 244:114876. [DOI: 10.1016/j.ejmech.2022.114876] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/30/2022] [Revised: 10/04/2022] [Accepted: 10/20/2022] [Indexed: 11/24/2022]
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Panecka-Hofman J, Poehner I, Wade R. Anti-trypanosomatid structure-based drug design - lessons learned from targeting the folate pathway. Expert Opin Drug Discov 2022; 17:1029-1045. [PMID: 36073204 DOI: 10.1080/17460441.2022.2113776] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/04/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Trypanosomatidic parasitic infections of humans and animals caused by Trypanosoma brucei, Trypanosoma cruzi, and Leishmania species pose a significant health and economic burden in developing countries. There are few effective and accessible treatments for these diseases, and the existing therapies suffer from problems such as parasite resistance and side effects. Structure-based drug design (SBDD) is one of the strategies that has been applied to discover new compounds targeting trypanosomatid-borne diseases. AREAS COVERED We review the current literature (mostly over the last 5 years, searched in PubMed database on Nov 11th 2021) on the application of structure-based drug design approaches to identify new anti-trypanosomatidic compounds that interfere with a validated target biochemical pathway, the trypanosomatid folate pathway. EXPERT OPINION The application of structure-based drug design approaches to perturb the trypanosomatid folate pathway has successfully provided many new inhibitors with good selectivity profiles, most of which are natural products or their derivatives or have scaffolds of known drugs. However, the inhibitory effect against the target protein(s) often does not translate to anti-parasitic activity. Further progress is hampered by our incomplete understanding of parasite biology and biochemistry, which is necessary to complement SBDD in a multiparameter optimization approach to discovering selective anti-parasitic drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Joanna Panecka-Hofman
- Division of Biophysics, Institute of Experimental Physics, Faculty of Physics, University of Warsaw, Pasteura 5a, 02-097 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Ina Poehner
- School of Pharmacy, University of Eastern Finland, Kuopio, Yliopistonranta 1C, PO Box 1627, FI-70211 Kuopio, Finland
| | - Rebecca Wade
- Center for Molecular Biology (ZMBH), Heidelberg University, Im Neuenheimer Feld 282, Heidelberg 69120, Germany.,Heidelberg Institute for Theoretical Studies (HITS), Schloß-Wolfsbrunnenweg 35, Heidelberg 69118, Germany.,DKFZ-ZMBH Alliance and Interdisciplinary Center for Scientific Computing (IWR), Heidelberg University, Im Neuenheimer Feld 205, Heidelberg 69120, Germany
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25
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Kushwaha V, Capalash N. Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetase (AARS) as an attractive drug target in neglected tropical trypanosomatid diseases-Leishmaniasis, Human African Trypanosomiasis and Chagas disease. Mol Biochem Parasitol 2022; 251:111510. [PMID: 35988745 DOI: 10.1016/j.molbiopara.2022.111510] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/06/2022] [Revised: 08/09/2022] [Accepted: 08/16/2022] [Indexed: 10/15/2022]
Abstract
TriTryp diseases (Leishmaniasis, Human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT), and Chagas disease) are devastating parasitic neglected tropical diseases (NTDs) that affect billions of people in developing countries, cause high mortality in humans, and impose a large socio-economic burden. The current treatment options against tritryp diseases are suboptimal and challenging due to the emergence of resistance against available tritryp drugs. Hence, designing and developing effective anti-tritryp drugs with novel targets are required. Aminoacyl-tRNA synthetases (AARSs) involved in specific aminoacylation of transfer RNAs (tRNAs), interrupt protein synthesis through inhibitors, and retard the parasite growth. AaRSs have long been studied as therapeutic targets in bacteria, and three aaRS inhibitors, mupirocin (against IleRS), tavaborole AN2690 (against LeuRS), and halofuginone (against ProRS), are already in clinical practice. The structural differences between tritryp and human aaRSs and the presence of unique sequences (N-terminal domain/C-terminal domain/catalytic domain) make them potential target for developing selective inhibitors. Drugs based on a single aaRS target developed by high-throughput screening (HTS) are less effective due to the emergence of resistance. However, designing multi-targeted drugs may be a better strategy for resistance development. In this perspective, we discuss the characteristics of tritryp aaRSs, sequence conservation in their orthologs and their peculiarities, recent advancements towards the single-target and multi-target aaRS inhibitors developed through rational design.
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Affiliation(s)
- Vikas Kushwaha
- Department of Biotechnology, Panjab University, Sector-25, South Campus, Chandigarh 160025, India.
| | - Neena Capalash
- Department of Biotechnology, Panjab University, Sector-25, South Campus, Chandigarh 160025, India.
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26
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Mabille D, Ilbeigi K, Hendrickx S, Ungogo MA, Hulpia F, Lin C, Maes L, de Koning HP, Van Calenbergh S, Caljon G. Nucleoside analogues for the treatment of animal trypanosomiasis. Int J Parasitol Drugs Drug Resist 2022; 19:21-30. [PMID: 35567803 PMCID: PMC9111543 DOI: 10.1016/j.ijpddr.2022.05.001] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2021] [Revised: 04/30/2022] [Accepted: 05/03/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022]
Abstract
Animal trypanosomiasis (AT) is a parasitic disease with high socio-economic impact. Given the limited therapeutic options and problems of toxicity and drug resistance, this study assessed redirecting our previously identified antitrypanosomal nucleosides for the treatment of AT. Promising hits were identified with excellent in vitro activity across all important animal trypanosome species. Compound 7, an inosine analogue, and our previously described lead compound, 3'-deoxytubercidin (8), showed broad spectrum anti-AT activity, metabolic stability in the target host species and absence of toxicity, but with variable efficacy ranging from limited activity to full cure in mouse models of Trypanosoma congolense and T. vivax infection. Several compounds show promise against T. evansi (surra) and T. equiperdum (dourine). Given the preferred target product profile for a broad-spectrum compound against AT, this study emphasizes the need to include T. vivax in the screening cascade given its divergent susceptibility profile and provides a basis for lead optimization towards such broad spectrum anti-AT compound.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorien Mabille
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Parasitology and Hygiene (LMPH), Infla-Med Centre of Excellence, University of Antwerp, Wilrijk, Belgium.
| | - Kayhan Ilbeigi
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Parasitology and Hygiene (LMPH), Infla-Med Centre of Excellence, University of Antwerp, Wilrijk, Belgium.
| | - Sarah Hendrickx
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Parasitology and Hygiene (LMPH), Infla-Med Centre of Excellence, University of Antwerp, Wilrijk, Belgium.
| | - Marzuq A Ungogo
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, United Kingdom.
| | - Fabian Hulpia
- Laboratory for Medicinal Chemistry, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Cai Lin
- Laboratory for Medicinal Chemistry, Ghent University, Ghent, Belgium.
| | - Louis Maes
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Parasitology and Hygiene (LMPH), Infla-Med Centre of Excellence, University of Antwerp, Wilrijk, Belgium.
| | - Harry P de Koning
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, United Kingdom.
| | | | - Guy Caljon
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Parasitology and Hygiene (LMPH), Infla-Med Centre of Excellence, University of Antwerp, Wilrijk, Belgium.
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27
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Venturelli A, Tagliazucchi L, Lima C, Venuti F, Malpezzi G, Magoulas GE, Santarem N, Calogeropoulou T, Cordeiro-da-Silva A, Costi MP. Current Treatments to Control African Trypanosomiasis and One Health Perspective. Microorganisms 2022; 10:microorganisms10071298. [PMID: 35889018 PMCID: PMC9321528 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms10071298] [Citation(s) in RCA: 16] [Impact Index Per Article: 8.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/19/2022] [Revised: 06/10/2022] [Accepted: 06/20/2022] [Indexed: 02/01/2023] Open
Abstract
Human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT, sleeping sickness) and Animal African Trypanosomiasis (AAT) are neglected tropical diseases generally caused by the same etiological agent, Trypanosoma brucei. Despite important advances in the reduction or disappearance of HAT cases, AAT represents a risky reservoir of the infections. There is a strong need to control AAT, as is claimed by the European Commission in a recent document on the reservation of antimicrobials for human use. Control of AAT is considered part of the One Health approach established by the FAO program against African Trypanosomiasis. Under the umbrella of the One Health concepts, in this work, by analyzing the pharmacological properties of the therapeutic options against Trypanosoma brucei spp., we underline the need for clearer and more defined guidelines in the employment of drugs designed for HAT and AAT. Essential requirements are addressed to meet the challenge of drug use and drug resistance development. This approach shall avoid inter-species cross-resistance phenomena and retain drugs therapeutic activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alberto Venturelli
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy; (A.V.); (L.T.); (F.V.); (G.M.)
| | - Lorenzo Tagliazucchi
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy; (A.V.); (L.T.); (F.V.); (G.M.)
- Doctorate School in Clinical and Experimental Medicine (CEM), University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy
| | - Clara Lima
- Host-Parasite Interactions Group, Institute of Research and Innovation in Health, University of Porto, 4099-002 Porto, Portugal; (C.L.); (N.S.); (A.C.-d.-S.)
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4099-002 Porto, Portugal
| | - Federica Venuti
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy; (A.V.); (L.T.); (F.V.); (G.M.)
| | - Giulia Malpezzi
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy; (A.V.); (L.T.); (F.V.); (G.M.)
| | - George E. Magoulas
- Institute of Chemical Biology, National Hellenic Research Foundation, 11635 Athens, Greece; (G.E.M.); (T.C.)
| | - Nuno Santarem
- Host-Parasite Interactions Group, Institute of Research and Innovation in Health, University of Porto, 4099-002 Porto, Portugal; (C.L.); (N.S.); (A.C.-d.-S.)
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4099-002 Porto, Portugal
| | - Theodora Calogeropoulou
- Institute of Chemical Biology, National Hellenic Research Foundation, 11635 Athens, Greece; (G.E.M.); (T.C.)
| | - Anabela Cordeiro-da-Silva
- Host-Parasite Interactions Group, Institute of Research and Innovation in Health, University of Porto, 4099-002 Porto, Portugal; (C.L.); (N.S.); (A.C.-d.-S.)
- Department of Biological Sciences, Faculty of Pharmacy, University of Porto, 4099-002 Porto, Portugal
| | - Maria Paola Costi
- Department of Life Sciences, University of Modena and Reggio Emilia, 41125 Modena, Italy; (A.V.); (L.T.); (F.V.); (G.M.)
- Correspondence:
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Antitrypanosomal and Anthelminthic Properties of Ethanol Extracts of Carica papaya Linn. and Ceiba pentandra (L) Gaertn. J CHEM-NY 2022. [DOI: 10.1155/2022/5251930] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/17/2022] Open
Abstract
The most common diseases that affect low-income countries are helminthosis and trypanosomosis. In Ghana, and in many other African countries, herbal treatment of various diseases is still common. In the present study, we sought to determine the antitrypanosomal and anthelminthic activities of Carica papaya and Ceiba pentandra. The ethanol extracts of Carica papaya stem bark (PPSe) and leaves (PPLe) and ethanol extracts of Ceiba pentandra stem bark (CPSe) and leaves (CPLe) were screened against Trypanosoma brucei brucei and Pheretima posthuma worms in vitro. CPSe exhibited strong antitrypanosomal activity, while the other extracts exhibited moderate activity against T. b. brucei. All the extracts showed weak selective indices (SI) when tested on Jurkat cell lines, which is indicative of a potential toxic effect. When the extracts were screened against P. posthuma worms, only PPSe and CPSe were able to kill the worms after the exposure time at concentrations of 2.5, 5, and 10 mg/mL. PPSe was again the only extract that potentiated the anthelminthic activity of albendazole against P. posthuma worms. Preliminary phytochemical screening and GC-MS analysis revealed the presence of compounds with antitrypanosomal and anthelminthic properties. The results confirmed the potential of C. papaya and C. pentandra as remedies for trypanosomosis and helminthosis and also gives credence to their folkloric use.
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Qureshi IA, Saini M, Are S. Pyridoxal Kinase of Disease-causing Human Parasites: Structural and
Functional Insights to Understand its Role in Drug Discovery. Curr Protein Pept Sci 2022; 23:271-289. [DOI: 10.2174/1389203723666220519155025] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/10/2022] [Revised: 03/14/2022] [Accepted: 04/06/2022] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Abstract:
Human parasites cause several diseased conditions with high morbidity and mortality in a
large section of the population residing in various geographical areas. Nearly three billion people suffer
from either one or many parasitic infections globally, with almost one million deaths annually. In spite
of extensive research and advancement in the medical field, no effective vaccine is available against
prominent human parasitic diseases that necessitate identification of novel targets for designing specific
inhibitors. Vitamin B6 is an important ubiquitous co-enzyme that participates in several biological processes
and plays an important role in scavenging ROS (reactive oxygen species) along with providing
resistance to oxidative stress. Moreover, the absence of the de novo vitamin B6 biosynthetic pathway in
human parasites makes this pathway indispensable for the survival of these pathogens. Pyridoxal kinase
(PdxK) is a crucial enzyme for vitamin B6 salvage pathway and participates in the process of vitamers
B6 phosphorylation. Since the parasites are dependent on pyridoxal kinase for their survival and infectivity
to the respective hosts, it is considered a promising candidate for drug discovery. The detailed
structural analysis of PdxK from disease-causing parasites has provided insights into the catalytic
mechanism of this enzyme as well as significant differences from their human counterpart. Simultaneously,
structure-based studies have identified small lead molecules that can be exploited for drug discovery
against protozoan parasites. The present review provides structural and functional highlights of
pyridoxal kinase for its implication in developing novel and potent therapeutics to combat fatal parasitic
diseases.
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Affiliation(s)
- Insaf Ahmed Qureshi
- Department of Biotechnology & Bioinformatics, School of Life Sciences, University of Hyderabad, Prof. C.R. Rao
Road, Hyderabad 500046, India
| | - Mayank Saini
- Department of Biotechnology & Bioinformatics, School of Life Sciences, University of Hyderabad, Prof. C.R. Rao
Road, Hyderabad 500046, India
| | - Sayanna Are
- Department of Biotechnology & Bioinformatics, School of Life Sciences, University of Hyderabad, Prof. C.R. Rao
Road, Hyderabad 500046, India
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Fall F, Mamede L, Schioppa L, Ledoux A, De Tullio P, Michels P, Frédérich M, Quetin-Leclercq J. Trypanosoma brucei: Metabolomics for analysis of cellular metabolism and drug discovery. Metabolomics 2022; 18:20. [PMID: 35305174 DOI: 10.1007/s11306-022-01880-0] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/22/2021] [Accepted: 03/12/2022] [Indexed: 11/28/2022]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Trypanosoma brucei is the causative agent of Human African Trypanosomiasis (also known as sleeping sickness), a disease causing serious neurological disorders and fatal if left untreated. Due to its lethal pathogenicity, a variety of treatments have been developed over the years, but which have some important limitations such as acute toxicity and parasite resistance. Metabolomics is an innovative tool used to better understand the parasite's cellular metabolism, and identify new potential targets, modes of action and resistance mechanisms. The metabolomic approach is mainly associated with robust analytical techniques, such as NMR and Mass Spectrometry. Applying these tools to the trypanosome parasite is, thus, useful for providing new insights into the sleeping sickness pathology and guidance towards innovative treatments. AIM OF REVIEW The present review aims to comprehensively describe the T. brucei biology and identify targets for new or commercialized antitrypanosomal drugs. Recent metabolomic applications to provide a deeper knowledge about the mechanisms of action of drugs or potential drugs against T. brucei are highlighted. Additionally, the advantages of metabolomics, alone or combined with other methods, are discussed. KEY SCIENTIFIC CONCEPTS OF REVIEW Compared to other parasites, only few studies employing metabolomics have to date been reported on Trypanosoma brucei. Published metabolic studies, treatments and modes of action are discussed. The main interest is to evaluate the metabolomics contribution to the understanding of T. brucei's metabolism.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fanta Fall
- Pharmacognosy Research Group, Louvain Drug Research Institute (LDRI), UCLouvain, Avenue E. Mounier B1 72.03, B-1200, Brussels, Belgium.
| | - Lucia Mamede
- Laboratory of Pharmacognosy, Center of Interdisciplinary Research On Medicines (CIRM), University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Laura Schioppa
- Pharmacognosy Research Group, Louvain Drug Research Institute (LDRI), UCLouvain, Avenue E. Mounier B1 72.03, B-1200, Brussels, Belgium
| | - Allison Ledoux
- Laboratory of Pharmacognosy, Center of Interdisciplinary Research On Medicines (CIRM), University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Pascal De Tullio
- Metabolomics Group, Center of Interdisciplinary Research On Medicines (CIRM), University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Paul Michels
- Centre for Immunity, Infection and Evolution (CIIE) and Centre for Translational and Chemical Biology (CTCB), School of Biological Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, Scotland
| | - Michel Frédérich
- Laboratory of Pharmacognosy, Center of Interdisciplinary Research On Medicines (CIRM), University of Liège, Liège, Belgium
| | - Joëlle Quetin-Leclercq
- Pharmacognosy Research Group, Louvain Drug Research Institute (LDRI), UCLouvain, Avenue E. Mounier B1 72.03, B-1200, Brussels, Belgium
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Umarao P, Rath PP, Gourinath S. Cdc42/Rac Interactive Binding Containing Effector Proteins in Unicellular Protozoans With Reference to Human Host: Locks of the Rho Signaling. Front Genet 2022; 13:781885. [PMID: 35186026 PMCID: PMC8847673 DOI: 10.3389/fgene.2022.781885] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/23/2021] [Accepted: 01/14/2022] [Indexed: 11/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Small GTPases are the key to actin cytoskeleton signaling, which opens the lock of effector proteins to forward the signal downstream in several cellular pathways. Actin cytoskeleton assembly is associated with cell polarity, adhesion, movement and other functions in eukaryotic cells. Rho proteins, specifically Cdc42 and Rac, are the primary regulators of actin cytoskeleton dynamics in higher and lower eukaryotes. Effector proteins, present in an inactive state gets activated after binding to the GTP bound Cdc42/Rac to relay a signal downstream. Cdc42/Rac interactive binding (CRIB) motif is an essential conserved sequence found in effector proteins to interact with Cdc42 or Rac. A diverse range of Cdc42/Rac and their effector proteins have evolved from lower to higher eukaryotes. The present study has identified and further classified CRIB containing effector proteins in lower eukaryotes, focusing on parasitic protozoans causing neglected tropical diseases and taking human proteins as a reference point to the highest evolved organism in the evolutionary trait. Lower eukaryotes’ CRIB containing proteins fall into conventional effector molecules, PAKs (p21 activated kinase), Wiskoit-Aldrich Syndrome proteins family, and some have unique domain combinations unlike any known proteins. We also highlight the correlation between the effector protein isoforms and their selective specificity for Cdc42 or Rac proteins during evolution. Here, we report CRIB containing effector proteins; ten in Dictyostelium and Entamoeba, fourteen in Acanthamoeba, one in Trypanosoma and Giardia. CRIB containing effector proteins that have been studied so far in humans are potential candidates for drug targets in cancer, neurological disorders, and others. Conventional CRIB containing proteins from protozoan parasites remain largely elusive and our data provides their identification and classification for further in-depth functional validations. The tropical diseases caused by protozoan parasites lack combinatorial drug targets as effective paradigms. Targeting signaling mechanisms operative in these pathogens can provide greater molecules in combatting their infections.
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Affiliation(s)
- Preeti Umarao
- Structural Biology Lab, School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
| | - Pragyan Parimita Rath
- Structural Biology Lab, School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
| | - Samudrala Gourinath
- Structural Biology Lab, School of Life Sciences, Jawaharlal Nehru University, New Delhi, India
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Antimicrobials and Resistance Part II: Antifungals, Antivirals, and Antiparasitics. J Am Acad Dermatol 2022; 86:1207-1226. [DOI: 10.1016/j.jaad.2021.11.065] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/07/2021] [Revised: 11/27/2021] [Accepted: 11/29/2021] [Indexed: 11/18/2022]
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Jędrzejczyk M, Stępczyńska N, Klejborowska G, Podsiad M, Stefańska J, Steverding D, Huczyński A. Synthesis and evaluation of antibacterial and trypanocidal activity of derivatives of monensin A. Bioorg Med Chem Lett 2021; 58:128521. [PMID: 34968675 DOI: 10.1016/j.bmcl.2021.128521] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/04/2021] [Revised: 12/20/2021] [Accepted: 12/23/2021] [Indexed: 12/01/2022]
Abstract
The synthesis and biological evaluation of eleven derivatives of the natural polyether ionophore monensin A (MON), modified at the C-26 position, is presented. Eight urethane and three ester derivatives were tested for their antimicrobial activity against different strains of Staphylococcus aureus, Staphylococcus epidermidis, Escherichia coli and Pseudomonas aeruginosa. In addition, their antiparasitic activity was also evaluated with bloodstream forms of Trypanosoma brucei. The majority of the modified ionophores were active against a variety of Gram-positive bacterial strains, including methicillin-resistant S. epidermidis, and showed better antibacterial activity than the unmodified MON. The phenyl urethane derivative of MON exhibited the most promising antibacterial activity of all tested compounds, with minimal inhibitory concentration values of 0.25-0.50 μg/ml. In contrast, none of the MON derivatives displayed higher antitrypanosomal activity than the unmodified ionophore.
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Affiliation(s)
- Marta Jędrzejczyk
- Department of Medical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Adam Mickiewicz University, Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego 8, 61-614 Poznań, Poland
| | - Natalia Stępczyńska
- Department of Medical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Adam Mickiewicz University, Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego 8, 61-614 Poznań, Poland
| | - Greta Klejborowska
- Department of Medical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Adam Mickiewicz University, Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego 8, 61-614 Poznań, Poland
| | - Małgorzata Podsiad
- Chair and Department of Biochemistry, Medical University of Warsaw, Banacha 1, 02-097 Warsaw, Poland
| | - Joanna Stefańska
- Department of Pharmaceutical Microbiology, Centre for Preclinical Research, Medical University of Warsaw, Banacha 1b, 02-097, Warsaw, Poland
| | - Dietmar Steverding
- Bob Champion Research and Education Centre, Norwich Medical School, University of East Anglia, Norwich, United Kingdom
| | - Adam Huczyński
- Department of Medical Chemistry, Faculty of Chemistry, Adam Mickiewicz University, Uniwersytetu Poznańskiego 8, 61-614 Poznań, Poland.
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Cockram PE, Turner C, Slawin AMZ, Smith T. Convenient Synthesis of Alternatively Bridged Tryptophan Ketopiperazines and their Activities Against Trypanosomatid Parasites. ChemMedChem 2021; 17:e202100664. [PMID: 34927802 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.202100664] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/14/2021] [Revised: 12/14/2021] [Indexed: 11/10/2022]
Abstract
There is an urgent need for the development of new treatments against trypanosomatid parasites; the causative agents of some of the most debilitating diseases in the developing world. This work targets an interesting 6-5-6-6 fused carboline scaffold, accessing a range of substituted derivatives through stereospecific intramolecular Pictet-Spengler condensation. Modification of the cyclisation conditions allowed retention of the carbamate protecting group and gave insight into the reaction mechanism. Compounds' bioactivities were measured against T. brucei, T. cruzi, L. majorand HeLa cells. We have identified promising pan-trypanocidal lead compounds based on the core scaffold, and highlight key SAR trends which will be useful for the future development of these compounds as potent trypanocidal agents.
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Affiliation(s)
| | | | | | - Terry Smith
- University of St Andrews, Chemistry, the north Haugh, KY16 9ST, St Andrews, UNITED KINGDOM
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35
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Quintana JF, Field MC. Evolution, function and roles in drug sensitivity of trypanosome aquaglyceroporins. Parasitology 2021; 148:1137-1142. [PMID: 33602349 PMCID: PMC8311954 DOI: 10.1017/s0031182021000354] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/21/2020] [Revised: 02/10/2021] [Accepted: 02/15/2021] [Indexed: 12/13/2022]
Abstract
Aquaglyceroporins (AQPs) are membrane proteins that function in osmoregulation and the uptake of low molecular weight solutes, in particular glycerol and urea. The AQP family is highly conserved, with two major subfamilies having arisen very early in prokaryote evolution and retained by eukaryotes. A complex evolutionary history indicates multiple lineage-specific expansions, losses and not uncommonly a complete loss. Consequently, the AQP family is highly evolvable and has been associated with significant events in life on Earth. In the African trypanosomes, a role for the AQP2 paralogue, in sensitivity to two chemotherapeutic agents, pentamidine and melarsoprol, is well established, albeit with the mechanisms for cell entry and resistance unclear until very recently. Here, we discuss AQP evolution, structure and mechanisms by which AQPs impact drug sensitivity, suggesting that AQP2 stability is highly sensitive to mutation while serving as the major uptake pathway for pentamidine.
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Affiliation(s)
- Juan F. Quintana
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology (WCIP), Institute of Biodiversity, Animal Health and Comparative Medicine (IBAHCM), University of Glasgow, GlasgowG61 1QH, UK
| | - Mark C. Field
- School of Life Sciences, University of Dundee, DundeeDD1 5EH, UK
- Institute of Parasitology, Biology Centre, Czech Academy of Sciences, 37005Ceske Budejovice, Czech Republic
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Robertson J, Ungogo MA, Aldfer MM, Lemgruber L, McWhinnie FS, Bode BE, Jones KL, Watson AJB, de Koning HP, Burley GA. Direct, Late-Stage Mono-N-arylation of Pentamidine: Method Development, Mechanistic Insight, and Expedient Access to Novel Antiparastitics against Diamidine-Resistant Parasites. ChemMedChem 2021; 16:3396-3401. [PMID: 34357687 PMCID: PMC9291547 DOI: 10.1002/cmdc.202100509] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2021] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
A selective mono‐N‐arylation strategy of amidines under Chan‐Lam conditions is described. During the reaction optimization phase, the isolation of a mononuclear Cu(II) complex provided unique mechanistic insight into the operation of Chan‐Lam mono‐N‐arylation. The scope of the process is demonstrated, and then applied to access the first mono‐N‐arylated analogues of pentamidine. Sub‐micromolar activity against kinetoplastid parasites was observed for several analogues with no cross‐resistance in pentamidine and diminazene‐resistant trypanosome strains and against Leishmania mexicana. A fluorescent mono‐N‐arylated pentamidine analogue revealed rapid cellular uptake, accumulating in parasite nuclei and the kinetoplasts. The DNA binding capability of the mono‐N‐arylated pentamidine series was confirmed by UV‐melt measurements using AT‐rich DNA. This work highlights the potential to use Chan‐Lam mono‐N‐arylation to develop therapeutic leads against diamidine‐resistant trypanosomiasis and leishmaniasis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jack Robertson
- Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, 295 Cathedral Street, Glasgow, G1 1XL, UK
| | - Marzuq A Ungogo
- Institute of Infection, Immunity, and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary, and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA, UK
| | - Mustafa M Aldfer
- Institute of Infection, Immunity, and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary, and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA, UK
| | - Leandro Lemgruber
- Glasgow Imaging Facility, Institute of Infection, Immunity, and Inflammation, College of Medical Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA, UK
| | - Fergus S McWhinnie
- Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, 295 Cathedral Street, Glasgow, G1 1XL, UK
| | - Bela E Bode
- EaStCHEM, School of Chemistry, University of St Andrews, North Haugh, St Andrews, Fife, KY16 9ST, UK
| | - Katherine L Jones
- GlaxoSmithKline, Medicines Research Centre, Gunnels Wood Road, Stevenage, Hertfordshire, SG1 2NY, UK
| | - Allan J B Watson
- EaStCHEM, School of Chemistry, University of St Andrews, North Haugh, St Andrews, Fife, KY16 9ST, UK
| | - Harry P de Koning
- Institute of Infection, Immunity, and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary, and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, G12 8TA, UK
| | - Glenn A Burley
- Department of Pure and Applied Chemistry, University of Strathclyde, 295 Cathedral Street, Glasgow, G1 1XL, UK
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Nanotechnological interventions for treatment of trypanosomiasis in humans and animals. Drug Deliv Transl Res 2021; 10:945-961. [PMID: 32383004 DOI: 10.1007/s13346-020-00764-x] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/17/2022]
Abstract
Trypanosomiasis is a parasitic infection caused by Trypanosoma. It is one of the major causes of deaths in underprivileged, rural areas of Africa, America and Asia. Depending on the parasite species responsible for the disease, it can take two forms namely African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness) and American trypanosomiasis (Chagas disease). The complete life-cycle stages of trypanosomes span between insect vector (tsetse fly, triatomine bug) and mammalian host (humans, animals). Only few drugs have been approved for the treatment of trypanosomiasis. Moreover, current trypanocidal therapy has major limitations of poor efficacy, serious side effects and drug resistance. Due to the lack of economic gains from tropical parasitic infection, it has always been neglected by the researchers and drug manufacturers. There is an immense need of more effective innovative strategies to decrease the deaths associated with this diseases. Nanotechnological approaches for delivery of existing drugs have shown significant improvement in efficacy with many-fold decrease in their dose. The review emphasizes on nanotechnological interventions in the treatment of trypanosomiasis in both humans and animals. Current trypanocidal therapy and their limitations have also been discussed briefly. Graphical abstract.
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Nano-Leish-IL: A novel iron oxide-based nanocomposite drug platform for effective treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis. J Control Release 2021; 335:203-215. [PMID: 34019947 DOI: 10.1016/j.jconrel.2021.05.019] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/05/2020] [Revised: 04/27/2021] [Accepted: 05/17/2021] [Indexed: 01/03/2023]
Abstract
Kinetoplastids are infamous parasites that include trypanosomes and Leishmania species. Here, we developed an anti-Leishmania nano-drug using ultra-small functional maghemite (γ-Fe2O3) nanoparticles (NPs) that were surface-doped by [CeLn]3/4+ to enable effective binding of the polycationic polyethylenebyimine (PEI) polymer by coordinative chemistry. This resulting nano-drug is cytolytic in-vitro to both Trypanosoma brucei parasites, the causative agent of sleeping sickness, as well as to three Leishmania species. The nano-drug induces the rupture of the single lysosome present in these parasites attributed to the PEI, leading to cytolysis. To evaluate the efficacy of a "cream-based" version of the nano-drug, which was termed "Nano-Leish-IL" for topical treatment of cutaneous leishmaniasis (CL), we developed a rapid screening method utilizing T. brucei parasites involved in social motility and demonstrated that functional NPs arrested the migration of the parasites. This assay presents a surrogate system to rapidly examine the efficacy of "cream-based" drugs in topical preparations against leishmaniasis, and possibly other dermal infectious diseases. The resulting Nano-Leish-IL topical preparation eliminated L. major infection in mice. Thus, this study presents a novel efficient nano-drug targeting the single lysosome of kinetoplastid parasites.
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Carruthers LV, Munday JC, Ebiloma GU, Steketee P, Jayaraman S, Campagnaro GD, Ungogo MA, Lemgruber L, Donachie AM, Rowan TG, Peter R, Morrison LJ, Barrett MP, De Koning HP. Diminazene resistance in Trypanosoma congolense is not caused by reduced transport capacity but associated with reduced mitochondrial membrane potential. Mol Microbiol 2021; 116:564-588. [PMID: 33932053 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.14733] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2020] [Revised: 04/14/2021] [Accepted: 04/27/2021] [Indexed: 01/27/2023]
Abstract
Trypanosoma congolense is a principal agent causing livestock trypanosomiasis in Africa, costing developing economies billions of dollars and undermining food security. Only the diamidine diminazene and the phenanthridine isometamidium are regularly used, and resistance is widespread but poorly understood. We induced stable diminazene resistance in T. congolense strain IL3000 in vitro. There was no cross-resistance with the phenanthridine drugs, melaminophenyl arsenicals, oxaborole trypanocides, or with diamidine trypanocides, except the close analogs DB829 and DB75. Fluorescence microscopy showed that accumulation of DB75 was inhibited by folate. Uptake of [3 H]-diminazene was slow with low affinity and partly but reciprocally inhibited by folate and by competing diamidines. Expression of T. congolense folate transporters in diminazene-resistant Trypanosoma brucei brucei significantly sensitized the cells to diminazene and DB829, but not to oxaborole AN7973. However, [3 H]-diminazene transport studies, whole-genome sequencing, and RNA-seq found no major changes in diminazene uptake, folate transporter sequence, or expression. Instead, all resistant clones displayed a moderate reduction in the mitochondrial membrane potential Ψm. We conclude that diminazene uptake in T. congolense proceed via multiple low affinity mechanisms including folate transporters; while resistance is associated with a reduction in Ψm it is unclear whether this is the primary cause of the resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lauren V Carruthers
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Jane C Munday
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Godwin U Ebiloma
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK.,School of Health and Life Sciences, Teesside University, Middlesbrough, UK
| | - Pieter Steketee
- Roslin Institute, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Siddharth Jayaraman
- Roslin Institute, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Gustavo D Campagnaro
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Marzuq A Ungogo
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Leandro Lemgruber
- Glasgow Imaging Facility, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Anne-Marie Donachie
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Tim G Rowan
- Global Alliance for Livestock Veterinary Medicine, Pentlands Science Park, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Rose Peter
- Global Alliance for Livestock Veterinary Medicine, Pentlands Science Park, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Liam J Morrison
- Roslin Institute, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Michael P Barrett
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK.,Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
| | - Harry P De Koning
- Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, UK
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Mabille D, Cardoso Santos C, Hendrickx R, Claes M, Takac P, Clayton C, Hendrickx S, Hulpia F, Maes L, Van Calenbergh S, Caljon G. 4E Interacting Protein as a Potential Novel Drug Target for Nucleoside Analogues in Trypanosoma brucei. Microorganisms 2021; 9:microorganisms9040826. [PMID: 33924674 PMCID: PMC8069773 DOI: 10.3390/microorganisms9040826] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/03/2021] [Revised: 04/06/2021] [Accepted: 04/08/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
Human African trypanosomiasis is a neglected parasitic disease for which the current treatment options are quite limited. Trypanosomes are not able to synthesize purines de novo and thus solely depend on purine salvage from the host environment. This characteristic makes players of the purine salvage pathway putative drug targets. The activity of known nucleoside analogues such as tubercidin and cordycepin led to the development of a series of C7-substituted nucleoside analogues. Here, we use RNA interference (RNAi) libraries to gain insight into the mode-of-action of these novel nucleoside analogues. Whole-genome RNAi screening revealed the involvement of adenosine kinase and 4E interacting protein into the mode-of-action of certain antitrypanosomal nucleoside analogues. Using RNAi lines and gene-deficient parasites, 4E interacting protein was found to be essential for parasite growth and infectivity in the vertebrate host. The essential nature of this gene product and involvement in the activity of certain nucleoside analogues indicates that it represents a potential novel drug target.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dorien Mabille
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Parasitology and Hygiene (LMPH), University of Antwerp, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium; (D.M.); (C.C.S.); (R.H.); (M.C.); (S.H.); (L.M.)
| | - Camila Cardoso Santos
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Parasitology and Hygiene (LMPH), University of Antwerp, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium; (D.M.); (C.C.S.); (R.H.); (M.C.); (S.H.); (L.M.)
- Laboratório de Biologia Celular (LBC), Instituto Oswaldo Cruz (IOC/Fiocruz), Rio de Janeiro 21040-900, Brazil
| | - Rik Hendrickx
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Parasitology and Hygiene (LMPH), University of Antwerp, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium; (D.M.); (C.C.S.); (R.H.); (M.C.); (S.H.); (L.M.)
| | - Mathieu Claes
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Parasitology and Hygiene (LMPH), University of Antwerp, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium; (D.M.); (C.C.S.); (R.H.); (M.C.); (S.H.); (L.M.)
| | - Peter Takac
- Institute of Zoology, Slovak Academy of Sciences, 84506 Bratislava, Slovakia;
- Scientica, Ltd., 83106 Bratislava, Slovakia
| | - Christine Clayton
- DKFZ-ZMBH Alliance, Zentrum für Molekulare Biologie der Universität Heidelberg, 69120 Heidelberg, Germany;
| | - Sarah Hendrickx
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Parasitology and Hygiene (LMPH), University of Antwerp, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium; (D.M.); (C.C.S.); (R.H.); (M.C.); (S.H.); (L.M.)
| | - Fabian Hulpia
- Laboratory for Medicinal Chemistry, Campus Heymans, Ghent University, 9000 Gent, Belgium; (F.H.); (S.V.C.)
| | - Louis Maes
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Parasitology and Hygiene (LMPH), University of Antwerp, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium; (D.M.); (C.C.S.); (R.H.); (M.C.); (S.H.); (L.M.)
| | - Serge Van Calenbergh
- Laboratory for Medicinal Chemistry, Campus Heymans, Ghent University, 9000 Gent, Belgium; (F.H.); (S.V.C.)
| | - Guy Caljon
- Laboratory of Microbiology, Parasitology and Hygiene (LMPH), University of Antwerp, 2610 Wilrijk, Belgium; (D.M.); (C.C.S.); (R.H.); (M.C.); (S.H.); (L.M.)
- Correspondence:
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Kleandrova VV, Scotti L, Bezerra Mendonça Junior FJ, Muratov E, Scotti MT, Speck-Planche A. QSAR Modeling for Multi-Target Drug Discovery: Designing Simultaneous Inhibitors of Proteins in Diverse Pathogenic Parasites. Front Chem 2021; 9:634663. [PMID: 33777898 PMCID: PMC7987820 DOI: 10.3389/fchem.2021.634663] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/28/2020] [Accepted: 01/22/2021] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
Parasitic diseases remain as unresolved health issues worldwide. While for some parasites the treatments involve drug combinations with serious side effects, for others, chemical therapies are inefficient due to the emergence of drug resistance. This urges the search for novel antiparasitic agents able to act through multiple mechanisms of action. Here, we report the first multi-target model based on quantitative structure-activity relationships and a multilayer perceptron neural network (mt-QSAR-MLP) to virtually design and predict versatile inhibitors of proteins involved in the survival and/or infectivity of different pathogenic parasites. The mt-QSAR-MLP model exhibited high accuracy (>80%) in both training and test sets for the classification/prediction of protein inhibitors. Several fragments were directly extracted from the physicochemical and structural interpretations of the molecular descriptors in the mt-QSAR-MLP model. Such interpretations enabled the generation of four molecules that were predicted as multi-target inhibitors against at least three of the five parasitic proteins reported here with two of the molecules being predicted to inhibit all the proteins. Docking calculations converged with the mt-QSAR-MLP model regarding the multi-target profile of the designed molecules. The designed molecules exhibited drug-like properties, complying with Lipinski’s rule of five, as well as Ghose’s filter and Veber’s guidelines.
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Affiliation(s)
- Valeria V Kleandrova
- Laboratory of Fundamental and Applied Research of Quality and Technology of Food Production, Moscow State University of Food Production, Moscow, Russian Federation
| | - Luciana Scotti
- Postgraduate Program in Natural and Synthetic Bioactive Products, Federal University of Paraíba, João Pessoa, Brazil
| | | | - Eugene Muratov
- Laboratory for Molecular Modeling, The UNC Eshelman School of Pharmacy, University of North Carolina at Chapel Hill, Chapel Hill, NC, United States
| | - Marcus T Scotti
- Postgraduate Program in Natural and Synthetic Bioactive Products, Federal University of Paraíba, João Pessoa, Brazil
| | - Alejandro Speck-Planche
- Postgraduate Program in Natural and Synthetic Bioactive Products, Federal University of Paraíba, João Pessoa, Brazil
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Ngambia Freitas FS, Njiokou F, Tsagmo Ngoune JM, Sempere G, Berthier D, Geiger A. Modulation of trypanosome establishment in Glossina palpalis palpalis by its microbiome in the Campo sleeping sickness focus, Cameroon. INFECTION GENETICS AND EVOLUTION 2021; 90:104763. [PMID: 33571685 DOI: 10.1016/j.meegid.2021.104763] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/27/2020] [Revised: 02/03/2021] [Accepted: 02/05/2021] [Indexed: 11/30/2022]
Abstract
The purpose of this study was to investigate factors involved in vector competence by analyzing whether the diversity and relative abundance of the different bacterial genera inhabiting the fly's gut could be associated with its trypanosome infection status. This was investigated on 160 randomly selected G. p. palpalis flies - 80 trypanosome-infected, 80 uninfected - collected in 5 villages of the Campo trypanosomiasis focus in South Cameroon. Trypanosome species were identified using specific primers, and the V4 region of the 16S rRNA gene of bacteria was targeted for metabarcoding analysis in order to identify the bacteria and determine microbiome composition. A total of 261 bacterial genera were identified of which only 114 crossed two barriers: a threshold of 0.01% relative abundance and the presence at least in 5 flies. The secondary symbiont Sodalis glossinidius was identified in 50% of the flies but it was not considered since its relative abundance was much lower than the 0.01% relative abundance threshold. The primary symbiont Wigglesworthia displayed 87% relative abundance, the remaining 13% were prominently constituted by the genera Spiroplasma, Tediphilus, Acinetobacter and Pseudomonas. Despite a large diversity in bacterial genera and in their abundance observed in micobiome composition, the statistical analyzes of the 160 tsetse flies showed an association with flies' infection status and the sampling sites. Furthermore, tsetse flies harboring Trypanosoma congolense Savanah type displayed a different composition of bacterial flora compared to uninfected flies. In addition, our study revealed that 36 bacterial genera were present only in uninfected flies, which could therefore suggest a possible involvement in flies' refractoriness; with the exception of Cupriavidus, they were however of low relative abundance. Some genera, including Acinetobacter, Cutibacterium, Pseudomonas and Tepidiphilus, although present both in infected and uninfected flies, were found to be associated with uninfected status of tsetse flies. Hence their effective role deserves to be further evaluated in order to determine whether some of them could become targets for tsetse control of fly vector competence and consequently for the control of the disease. Finally, when comparing the bacterial genera identified in tsetse flies collected during 4 epidemiological surveys, 39 genera were found to be common to flies from at least 2 sampling campaigns.
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Affiliation(s)
- François Sougal Ngambia Freitas
- INTERTRYP, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement, University of Montpellier, Montpellier, France; Faculty of Science, University of Yaoundé I, P.O. Box 812, Yaoundé, Cameroon
| | - Flobert Njiokou
- Faculty of Science, University of Yaoundé I, P.O. Box 812, Yaoundé, Cameroon
| | | | - Guilhem Sempere
- CIRAD, UMR INTERTRYP, F-34398 Montpellier, France; South Green Bioinformatics Platform, Biodiversity, CIRAD, INRAE, IRD, Montpellier, France; INTERTRYP, Univ Montpellier, CIRAD, IRD, Montpellier, France
| | - David Berthier
- CIRAD, UMR INTERTRYP, F-34398 Montpellier, France; INTERTRYP, Univ Montpellier, CIRAD, IRD, Montpellier, France
| | - Anne Geiger
- INTERTRYP, Institut de Recherche pour le Développement, University of Montpellier, Montpellier, France; Faculty of Science, University of Yaoundé I, P.O. Box 812, Yaoundé, Cameroon; Center for Research on Filariasis and other Tropical Diseases (CRFilMT), P.O. Box 5797, Yaoundé, Cameroon.
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Nuryady MM, Nurcahyo RW, Hindun I, Fatmawati D. Multidrug resistance protein structure of Trypanosoma evansi isolated from buffaloes in Ngawi District, Indonesia: A bioinformatics analysis. Vet World 2021; 14:33-39. [PMID: 33642783 PMCID: PMC7896887 DOI: 10.14202/vetworld.2021.33-39] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/14/2020] [Accepted: 11/03/2020] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Background and Aim: Trypanosomiasis, also known as surra, is an infectious disease with a wide host spectrum. In Indonesia, this disease is caused by Trypanosoma evansi. Various trypanocidal drugs have been used to treat this pathogen and subsequent disease. Yet, the long-term trypanocidal administration generates drug-resistant T. evansi. Some have identified genetic alterations in T. evansi transporter protein-coding genes that may be responsible for drug resistance. The Multidrug Resistance Protein E (MRPE) gene is a likely candidate gene responsible for the individual resistance. To date, no research has focused on T. evansi MRPE (TevMRPE) in this context. Hence, this research aimed at analyzing and characterizing the TevMRPE gene and protein using a bioinformatics approach. Materials and Methods: T. evansi was isolated from buffalo suffering from surra in Ngawi Regency, Indonesia. Isolated T. evansi was inoculated and cultured in male mice. The T. evansi genome was isolated from mouse blood with a parasitemia degree as high as 105. A polymerase chain reaction procedure was conducted to amplify the putative MRPE coding gene. The amplicon was sequenced and analyzed using MEGA X, BLAST, and I-tasser softwares. Results: The putative TevMRPE coding gene showed sequence similarity as high as 99.79% against the MRPE gene from Trypanosoma brucei gambiense. The protein profile and characteristics depicted that the putative TevMRPE protein was related to a family of Adenosine Triphosphate-Binding Cassette (ABC) transporter proteins. This family of transporter proteins plays a crucial role in the resistance toward several medicines. Conclusion: The obtained gene sequence in this research was identified as the TevMRPE. This gene is homologous to the T. brucei gambiense MRPE gene and possesses ligand active sites for Adenylyl Imidodiphosphate. In addition, MRPE contains enzyme active sites similar to the cystic fibrosis transmembrane conductance regulator. These data suggest that ABC transport proteins, like MRPE, may be necessary to confer trypanocidal drug resistance in T. evansi.
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Affiliation(s)
- Moh Mirza Nuryady
- Department of Biology Education, Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Universitas Muhammadiyah Malang, Malang, Indonesia.,Master Program of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
| | - Raden Wisnu Nurcahyo
- Master Program of Veterinary Science, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia.,Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Veterinary Medicine, Universitas Gadjah Mada, Yogyakarta, Indonesia
| | - Iin Hindun
- Department of Biology Education, Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Universitas Muhammadiyah Malang, Malang, Indonesia
| | - Diani Fatmawati
- Department of Biology Education, Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Universitas Muhammadiyah Malang, Malang, Indonesia
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Utreja D, Kaur J, Kaur K, Jain P. Recent Advances in 1,3,5-Triazine Derivatives as Antibacterial Agents. MINI-REV ORG CHEM 2020. [DOI: 10.2174/1570193x17666200129094032] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/22/2022]
Abstract
Triazine, one of the nitrogen containing heterocyclic compounds has attracted the considerable
interest of researchers due to the vast array of biological properties such as anti-viral, antitumor,
anti-convulsant, analgesic, antioxidant, anti-depressant, herbicidal, insecticidal, fungicidal,
antibacterial and anti-inflammatory activities offered by it. Various antibacterial agents have been
synthesized by researchers to curb bacterial diseases but due to rapid development in drug resistance,
tolerance and side effects, there had always been a need for the synthesis of a new class of antibacterial
agents that would exhibit improved pharmacological action. Therefore, this review mainly focuses
on the various methods for the synthesis of triazine derivatives and their antibacterial activity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Divya Utreja
- Department of Chemistry, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141004, India
| | - Jagdish Kaur
- Department of Chemistry, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141004, India
| | - Komalpreet Kaur
- Department of Chemistry, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141004, India
| | - Palak Jain
- Department of Chemistry, Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana-141004, India
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Brown RW, Abdel-Megeed AM, Keller PA, Jones AJ, Sykes ML, Kaiser M, Baell JB, Avery VM, Hyland CJT. Investigation of thiazolyl-benzothiophenamides as potential agents for African sleeping sickness. RSC Med Chem 2020; 11:1413-1422. [PMID: 34095848 PMCID: PMC8126881 DOI: 10.1039/d0md00277a] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/04/2020] [Accepted: 09/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Abstract
African sleeping sickness is a potentially fatal neglected disease affecting sub-Saharan Africa. High-throughput screening identified the thiazolyl-benzothiophenamide 1 to be active against the causative parasite, Trypanosoma brucei. This work establishes structure-activity relationships of 1, guiding the design of second generation derivatives. After screening against the clinically relevant species T. b. rhodesiense, the derivative 16 was identified as a suitable candidate for further investigation.
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Affiliation(s)
- Ronald W Brown
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Bioscience, and Molecular Horizons Research Institute, University of Wollongong Wollongong 2522 NSW Australia
| | - Ashraf M Abdel-Megeed
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Bioscience, and Molecular Horizons Research Institute, University of Wollongong Wollongong 2522 NSW Australia
| | - Paul A Keller
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Bioscience, and Molecular Horizons Research Institute, University of Wollongong Wollongong 2522 NSW Australia
| | - Amy J Jones
- Discovery Biology, Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University Brisbane Innovation Park Nathan 4111 Australia
| | - Melissa L Sykes
- Discovery Biology, Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University Brisbane Innovation Park Nathan 4111 Australia
| | - Marcel Kaiser
- Swiss Tropical and Public Health Institute Basel 4051 Switzerland
- University of Basel 4003 Basel Switzerland
| | - Jonathan B Baell
- Medicinal Chemistry, Monash Institute of Pharmaceutical Sciences, Monash University Parkville 3052 Australia
| | - Vicky M Avery
- Discovery Biology, Griffith Institute for Drug Discovery, Griffith University Brisbane Innovation Park Nathan 4111 Australia
| | - Christopher J T Hyland
- School of Chemistry and Molecular Bioscience, and Molecular Horizons Research Institute, University of Wollongong Wollongong 2522 NSW Australia
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Cockram PE, Dickie EA, Barrett MP, Smith TK. Halogenated tryptophan derivatives disrupt essential transamination mechanisms in bloodstream form Trypanosoma brucei. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2020; 14:e0008928. [PMID: 33275612 PMCID: PMC7744056 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0008928] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/28/2020] [Revised: 12/16/2020] [Accepted: 10/19/2020] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Amino acid metabolism within Trypanosoma brucei, the causative agent of human African trypanosomiasis, is critical for parasite survival and virulence. Of these metabolic processes, the transamination of aromatic amino acids is one of the most important. In this study, a series of halogenated tryptophan analogues were investigated for their anti-parasitic potency. Several of these analogues showed significant trypanocidal activity. Metabolomics analysis of compound-treated parasites revealed key differences occurring within aromatic amino acid metabolism, particularly within the widely reported and essential transamination processes of this parasite.
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Affiliation(s)
- Peter E. Cockram
- Biomedical Sciences Research Complex, University of St Andrews, North Haugh, St Andrews, Scotland
| | - Emily A. Dickie
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Michael P. Barrett
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, University of Glasgow, Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Terry K. Smith
- Biomedical Sciences Research Complex, University of St Andrews, North Haugh, St Andrews, Scotland
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Juárez-López D, Schcolnik-Cabrera A. Drug Repurposing: Considerations to Surpass While Re-directing Old Compounds for New Treatments. Arch Med Res 2020; 52:243-251. [PMID: 33190955 DOI: 10.1016/j.arcmed.2020.10.021] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/25/2020] [Revised: 10/21/2020] [Accepted: 10/29/2020] [Indexed: 11/16/2022]
Abstract
Drug repurposing has increased in recent years as an attractive option for treating a number of diseases. Compared to those brought forward via traditional chemical development, drugs intended for repurposing can enter the market faster and with lower investment from pharmaceutical companies. However, a common trend is to focus on diseases that yield higher returns to the industry, such as cancer and common metabolic and inflammatory conditions, resulting in orphan illnesses and neglected tropical diseases having fewer repurposing options for affected patients. In addition, certain legal concerns, including limited patent coverage for the repurposed drugs and pharmacological challenges in performing clinical trials, reduce the likelihood of success. In this review, we discuss the most important concerns that affect the pathway of drug repurposing, with special emphasis on the economic revenues, government-industry associations, and legal considerations that together impact the pharmaceutical industry's decision-making on which compounds may be eligible for repurposing.
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Affiliation(s)
- Daniel Juárez-López
- Posgrado en Ciencias Biológicas, Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México, Ciudad de México, México
| | - Alejandro Schcolnik-Cabrera
- Département de Biochimie et Médecine Moléculaire, Université de Montréal, Succursale Centre-Ville, Montréal, QC, Canada; Maisonneuve-Rosemont Hospital Research Centre, Montréal, QC, Canada.
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Ndung’u K, Murilla GA, Thuita JK, Ngae GN, Auma JE, Gitonga PK, Thungu DK, Kurgat RK, Chemuliti JK, Mdachi RE. Differential virulence of Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense isolates does not influence the outcome of treatment with anti-trypanosomal drugs in the mouse model. PLoS One 2020; 15:e0229060. [PMID: 33151938 PMCID: PMC7643984 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0229060] [Citation(s) in RCA: 7] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.8] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/28/2020] [Accepted: 07/04/2020] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
We assessed the virulence and anti-trypanosomal drug sensitivity patterns of Trypanosoma brucei rhodesiense (Tbr) isolates in the Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization-Biotechnology Research Institute (KALRO-BioRI) cryobank. Specifically, the study focused on Tbr clones originally isolated from the western Kenya/eastern Uganda focus of human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT). Twelve (12) Tbr clones were assessed for virulence using groups(n = 10) of Swiss White Mice monitored for 60 days post infection (dpi). Based on survival time, four classes of virulence were identified: (a) very-acute: 0-15, (b) acute: 16-30, (c) sub-acute: 31-45 and (d) chronic: 46-60 dpi. Other virulence biomarkers identified included: pre-patent period (pp), parasitaemia progression, packed cell volume (PCV) and body weight changes. The test Tbr clones together with KALRO-BioRi reference drug-resistant and drug sensitive isolates were then tested for sensitivity to melarsoprol (mel B), pentamidine, diminazene aceturate and suramin, using mice groups (n = 5) treated with single doses of each drug at 24 hours post infection. Our results showed that the clones were distributed among four classes of virulence as follows: 3/12 (very-acute), 3/12 (acute), 2/12 (sub-acute) and 4/12 (chronic) isolates. Differences in survivorship, parasitaemia progression and PCV were significant (P<0.001) and correlated. The isolate considered to be drug resistant at KALRO-BioRI, KETRI 2538, was confirmed to be resistant to melarsoprol, pentamidine and diminazene aceturate but it was not resistant to suramin. A cure rate of at least 80% was achieved for all test isolates with melarsoprol (1mg/Kg and 20 mg/kg), pentamidine (5 and 20 mg/kg), diminazene aceturate (5 mg/kg) and suramin (5 mg/kg) indicating that the isolates were not resistant to any of the drugs despite the differences in virulence. This study provides evidence of variations in virulence of Tbr clones from a single HAT focus and confirms that this variations is not a significant determinant of isolate sensitivity to anti-trypanosomal drugs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kariuki Ndung’u
- Biotechnology Research Institute, Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization, Kikuyu, Kenya
- * E-mail:
| | - Grace Adira Murilla
- Biotechnology Research Institute, Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization, Kikuyu, Kenya
- KAG EAST University, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - John Kibuthu Thuita
- Biotechnology Research Institute, Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization, Kikuyu, Kenya
- Meru University of Science and Technology, Meru, Kenya
| | - Geoffrey Njuguna Ngae
- Food Crops Research Institute, Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization, Nairobi, Kenya
| | - Joanna Eseri Auma
- Biotechnology Research Institute, Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization, Kikuyu, Kenya
| | - Purity Kaari Gitonga
- Biotechnology Research Institute, Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization, Kikuyu, Kenya
| | - Daniel Kahiga Thungu
- Biotechnology Research Institute, Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization, Kikuyu, Kenya
| | - Richard Kiptum Kurgat
- Biotechnology Research Institute, Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization, Kikuyu, Kenya
| | - Judith Kusimba Chemuliti
- Biotechnology Research Institute, Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization, Kikuyu, Kenya
| | - Raymond Ellie Mdachi
- Biotechnology Research Institute, Kenya Agricultural and Livestock Research Organization, Kikuyu, Kenya
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Melamine contamination and associated health risks: Gut microbiota does make a difference. Biotechnol Appl Biochem 2020; 68:1271-1280. [DOI: 10.1002/bab.2050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/01/2020] [Accepted: 10/03/2020] [Indexed: 01/08/2023]
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50
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A Trypanosoma brucei ORFeome-Based Gain-of-Function Library Identifies Genes That Promote Survival during Melarsoprol Treatment. mSphere 2020; 5:5/5/e00769-20. [PMID: 33028684 PMCID: PMC7568655 DOI: 10.1128/msphere.00769-20] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/20/2022] Open
Abstract
Trypanosoma brucei is an early branching protozoan parasite that causes human and animal African trypanosomiasis. Forward genetics approaches are powerful tools for uncovering novel aspects of trypanosomatid biology, pathogenesis, and therapeutic approaches against trypanosomiasis. Here, we have generated a T. brucei cloned ORFeome consisting of >90% of the targeted 7,245 genes and used it to make an inducible gain-of-function parasite library broadly applicable to large-scale forward genetic screens. We conducted a proof-of-principle genetic screen to identify genes whose expression promotes survival in melarsoprol, a critical drug of last resort. The 57 genes identified as overrepresented in melarsoprol survivor populations included the gene encoding the rate-limiting enzyme for the biosynthesis of an established drug target (trypanothione), validating the tool. In addition, novel genes associated with gene expression, flagellum localization, and mitochondrion localization were identified, and a subset of those genes increased melarsoprol resistance upon overexpression in culture. These findings offer new insights into trypanosomatid basic biology, implications for drug targets, and direct or indirect drug resistance mechanisms. This study generated a T. brucei ORFeome and gain-of-function parasite library, demonstrated the library's usefulness in forward genetic screening, and identified novel aspects of melarsoprol resistance that will be the subject of future investigations. These powerful genetic tools can be used to broadly advance trypanosomatid research.IMPORTANCE Trypanosomatid parasites threaten the health of more than 1 billion people worldwide. Because their genomes are highly diverged from those of well-established eukaryotes, conservation is not always useful in assigning gene functions. However, it is precisely among the trypanosomatid-specific genes that ideal therapeutic targets might be found. Forward genetics approaches are an effective way to identify novel gene functions. We used an ORFeome approach to clone a large percentage of Trypanosoma brucei genes and generate a gain-of-function parasite library. This library was used in a genetic screen to identify genes that promote resistance to the clinically significant yet highly toxic drug melarsoprol. Hits arising from the screen demonstrated the library's usefulness in identifying known pathways and uncovered novel aspects of resistance mediated by proteins localized to the flagellum and mitochondrion. The powerful new genetic tools generated herein are expected to promote advances in trypanosomatid biology and therapeutic development in the years to come.
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