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Serra L, Silva Pereira S, Viegas IJ, Machado H, López-Escobar L, Figueiredo LM. m 6A landscape is more pervasive when Trypanosoma brucei exits the cell cycle. Biomed J 2024:100728. [PMID: 38641210 DOI: 10.1016/j.bj.2024.100728] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/04/2024] [Revised: 04/11/2024] [Accepted: 04/11/2024] [Indexed: 04/21/2024] Open
Abstract
N6-methyladenosine (m6A) is a mRNA modification with important roles in gene expression. In African trypanosomes, this post-transcriptional modification is detected in hundreds of transcripts and it affects the stability of the variant surface glycoprotein (VSG) transcript in the proliferating blood stream form. However, how the m6A landscape varies across the life cycle remains poorly defined. Using full-length, non-fragmented RNA, we immunoprecipitated and sequenced m6A-modified transcripts across three life cycle stages of Trypanosoma brucei - slender (proliferative), stumpy (quiescent), and procyclic forms (proliferative). We found that 1037 transcripts are methylated in at least one of these three life cycle stages. While 21% of methylated transcripts are common in the three stages of the life cycle, globally each stage has a distinct methylome. Interestingly, 47% of methylated transcripts are detected in the quiescent stumpy form only, suggesting a critical role for m6A when parasites exit the cell cycle and prepare for transmission by the Tsetse fly. In this stage, we found that a significant proportion of methylated transcripts encodes for proteins involved in RNA metabolism, which is consistent with their reduced transcription and translation. Moreover, we found that not all major surface proteins are regulated by m6A, as procyclins are not methylated, and that, within the VSG repertoire, not all VSG transcripts are demethylated upon parasite differentiation to procyclic form. This study reveals that the m6A regulatory landscape is specific to each life cycle stage, becoming more pervasive as T. brucei exits the cell cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Lúcia Serra
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa
| | - Sara Silva Pereira
- Católica Biomedical Research Centre, Católica Medical School, Universidade Católica Portuguesa
| | - Idálio J Viegas
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa; Current affiliation: Institute of Inflammation and Ageing, University of Birmingham
| | - Henrique Machado
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa
| | - Lara López-Escobar
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa
| | - Luisa M Figueiredo
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular, Faculdade de Medicina, Universidade de Lisboa.
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2
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Cayla M, Spanos C, McWilliam K, Waskett E, Rappsilber J, Matthews KR. Differentiation granules, a dynamic regulator of T. brucei development. Nat Commun 2024; 15:2972. [PMID: 38582942 PMCID: PMC10998879 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-024-47309-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2023] [Accepted: 03/26/2024] [Indexed: 04/08/2024] Open
Abstract
Adaptation to a change of environment is an essential process for survival, in particular for parasitic organisms exposed to a wide range of hosts. Such adaptations include rapid control of gene expression through the formation of membraneless organelles composed of poly-A RNA and proteins. The African trypanosome Trypanosoma brucei is exquisitely sensitive to well-defined environmental stimuli that trigger cellular adaptations through differentiation events that characterise its complex life cycle. The parasite has been shown to form stress granules in vitro, and it has been proposed that such a stress response could have been repurposed to enable differentiation and facilitate parasite transmission. Therefore, we explored the composition and positional dynamics of membraneless granules formed in response to starvation stress and during differentiation in the mammalian host between the replicative slender and transmission-adapted stumpy forms. We find that T. brucei differentiation does not reflect the default response to environmental stress. Instead, the developmental response of the parasites involves a specific and programmed hierarchy of membraneless granule assembly, with distinct components and regulation by protein kinases such as TbDYRK, that are required for the parasite to successfully progress through its life cycle development and prepare for transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Mathieu Cayla
- Institute for Immunology and Infection Research, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK.
- York Biomedical Research Institute, Department of Biology, University of York, York, UK.
| | - Christos Spanos
- Wellcome Centre for Cell Biology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Kirsty McWilliam
- Institute for Immunology and Infection Research, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Eliza Waskett
- Institute for Immunology and Infection Research, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Juri Rappsilber
- Wellcome Centre for Cell Biology, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
| | - Keith R Matthews
- Institute for Immunology and Infection Research, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, UK
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3
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Iribarren PA, Di Marzio LA, Berazategui MA, Saura A, Coria L, Cassataro J, Rojas F, Navarro M, Alvarez VE. Depolymerization of SUMO chains induces slender to stumpy differentiation in T. brucei bloodstream parasites. PLoS Pathog 2024; 20:e1012166. [PMID: 38635823 PMCID: PMC11060531 DOI: 10.1371/journal.ppat.1012166] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/17/2024] [Revised: 04/30/2024] [Accepted: 04/01/2024] [Indexed: 04/20/2024] Open
Abstract
Trypanosoma brucei are protozoan parasites that cause sleeping sickness in humans and nagana in cattle. Inside the mammalian host, a quorum sensing-like mechanism coordinates its differentiation from a slender replicative form into a quiescent stumpy form, limiting growth and activating metabolic pathways that are beneficial to the parasite in the insect host. The post-translational modification of proteins with the Small Ubiquitin-like MOdifier (SUMO) enables dynamic regulation of cellular metabolism. SUMO can be conjugated to its targets as a monomer but can also form oligomeric chains. Here, we have investigated the role of SUMO chains in T. brucei by abolishing the ability of SUMO to polymerize. We have found that parasites able to conjugate only SUMO monomers are primed for differentiation. This was demonstrated for monomorphic lines that are normally unable to produce stumpy forms in response to quorum sensing signaling in mice, and also for pleomorphic cell lines in which stumpy cells were observed at unusually low parasitemia levels. SUMO chain mutants showed a stumpy compatible transcriptional profile and better competence to differentiate into procyclics. Our study indicates that SUMO depolymerization may represent a coordinated signal triggered during stumpy activation program.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paula Ana Iribarren
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas “Dr. Rodolfo Ugalde”–IIBIO (UNSAM-CONICET), San Martin, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Lucía Ayelén Di Marzio
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas “Dr. Rodolfo Ugalde”–IIBIO (UNSAM-CONICET), San Martin, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - María Agustina Berazategui
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas “Dr. Rodolfo Ugalde”–IIBIO (UNSAM-CONICET), San Martin, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Andreu Saura
- Instituto de Parasitología y Biomedicina “López-Neyra”, CSIC (IPBLN-CSIC), Granada, Spain
| | - Lorena Coria
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas “Dr. Rodolfo Ugalde”–IIBIO (UNSAM-CONICET), San Martin, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Juliana Cassataro
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas “Dr. Rodolfo Ugalde”–IIBIO (UNSAM-CONICET), San Martin, Buenos Aires, Argentina
| | - Federico Rojas
- Biomedical and Life Sciences, Faculty of Health and Medicine, Lancaster University, Lancaster, United Kingdom
| | - Miguel Navarro
- Instituto de Parasitología y Biomedicina “López-Neyra”, CSIC (IPBLN-CSIC), Granada, Spain
| | - Vanina Eder Alvarez
- Instituto de Investigaciones Biotecnológicas “Dr. Rodolfo Ugalde”–IIBIO (UNSAM-CONICET), San Martin, Buenos Aires, Argentina
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4
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Zahedifard F, Bansal M, Sharma N, Kumar S, Shen S, Singh P, Rathi B, Zoltner M. Phenotypic screening reveals a highly selective phthalimide-based compound with antileishmanial activity. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2024; 18:e0012050. [PMID: 38527083 PMCID: PMC10994559 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0012050] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2023] [Revised: 04/04/2024] [Accepted: 03/05/2024] [Indexed: 03/27/2024] Open
Abstract
Pharmacophores such as hydroxyethylamine (HEA) and phthalimide (PHT) have been identified as potential synthons for the development of compounds against various parasitic infections. In order to further advance our progress, we conducted an experiment utilising a collection of PHT and HEA derivatives through phenotypic screening against a diverse set of protist parasites. This approach led to the identification of a number of compounds that exhibited significant effects on the survival of Entamoeba histolytica, Trypanosoma brucei, and multiple life-cycle stages of Leishmania spp. The Leishmania hits were pursued due to the pressing necessity to expand our repertoire of reliable, cost-effective, and efficient medications for the treatment of leishmaniases. Antileishmanials must possess the essential capability to efficiently penetrate the host cells and their compartments in the disease context, to effectively eliminate the intracellular parasite. Hence, we performed a study to assess the effectiveness of eradicating L. infantum intracellular amastigotes in a model of macrophage infection. Among eleven L. infantum growth inhibitors with low-micromolar potency, PHT-39, which carries a trifluoromethyl substitution, demonstrated the highest efficacy in the intramacrophage assay, with an EC50 of 1.2 +/- 3.2 μM. Cytotoxicity testing of PHT-39 in HepG2 cells indicated a promising selectivity of over 90-fold. A chemogenomic profiling approach was conducted using an orthology-based method to elucidate the mode of action of PHT-39. This genome-wide RNA interference library of T. brucei identified sensitivity determinants for PHT-39, which included a P-type ATPase that is crucial for the uptake of miltefosine and amphotericin, strongly indicating a shared route for cellular entry. Notwithstanding the favourable properties and demonstrated efficacy in the Plasmodium berghei infection model, PHT-39 was unable to eradicate L. major infection in a murine infection model of cutaneous leishmaniasis. Currently, PHT-39 is undergoing derivatization to optimize its pharmacological characteristics.
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Affiliation(s)
- Farnaz Zahedifard
- Drug Discovery and Evaluation Unit, Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Science, Charles University in Prague, Biocev, Vestec, Czech Republic
| | - Meenakshi Bansal
- H. G. Khorana Centre for Chemical Biology, Department of Chemistry, Hansraj College, University of Delhi, Delhi, India
- Department of Chemistry, Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram, University of Science & Technology, Murthal, Sonepat Haryana, India
| | - Neha Sharma
- H. G. Khorana Centre for Chemical Biology, Department of Chemistry, Hansraj College, University of Delhi, Delhi, India
| | - Sumit Kumar
- Department of Chemistry, Deenbandhu Chhotu Ram, University of Science & Technology, Murthal, Sonepat Haryana, India
| | - Siqi Shen
- Drug Discovery and Evaluation Unit, Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Science, Charles University in Prague, Biocev, Vestec, Czech Republic
| | - Priyamvada Singh
- Department of Chemistry, Miranda House, University of Delhi, Delhi, India
- Delhi School of Public Health, Institution of Eminence, University of Delhi, Delhi, India
| | - Brijesh Rathi
- H. G. Khorana Centre for Chemical Biology, Department of Chemistry, Hansraj College, University of Delhi, Delhi, India
- Delhi School of Public Health, Institution of Eminence, University of Delhi, Delhi, India
| | - Martin Zoltner
- Drug Discovery and Evaluation Unit, Department of Parasitology, Faculty of Science, Charles University in Prague, Biocev, Vestec, Czech Republic
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5
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Ciganda M, Sotelo-Silveira J, Dubey AP, Pandey P, Smith JT, Shen S, Qu J, Smircich P, Read LK. Translational control by Trypanosoma brucei DRBD18 contributes to the maintenance of the procyclic state. RNA (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2023; 29:1881-1895. [PMID: 37730435 PMCID: PMC10653379 DOI: 10.1261/rna.079625.123] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/08/2023] [Accepted: 08/24/2023] [Indexed: 09/22/2023]
Abstract
Trypanosoma brucei occupies distinct niches throughout its life cycle, within both the mammalian and tsetse fly hosts. The immunological and biochemical complexity and variability of each of these environments require a reshaping of the protein landscape of the parasite both to evade surveillance and face changing metabolic demands. In kinetoplastid protozoa, including T. brucei, posttranscriptional control mechanisms are the primary means of gene regulation, and these are often mediated by RNA-binding proteins. DRBD18 is a T. brucei RNA-binding protein that reportedly interacts with ribosomal proteins and translation factors. Here, we tested a role for DRBD18 in translational control. We validate the DRBD18 interaction with translating ribosomes and the translation initiation factor, eIF3a. We further show that DRBD18 depletion by RNA interference leads to altered polysomal profiles with a specific depletion of heavy polysomes. Ribosome profiling analysis reveals that 101 transcripts change in translational efficiency (TE) upon DRBD18 depletion: 41 exhibit decreased TE and 60 exhibit increased TE. A further 66 transcripts are buffered, that is, changes in transcript abundance are compensated by changes in TE such that the total translational output is expected not to change. In DRBD18-depleted cells, a set of transcripts that codes for procyclic form-specific proteins is translationally repressed while, conversely, transcripts that code for bloodstream form- and metacyclic form-specific proteins are translationally enhanced. RNA immunoprecipitation/qRT-PCR indicates that DRBD18 associates with members of both repressed and enhanced cohorts. These data suggest that DRBD18 contributes to the maintenance of the procyclic state through both positive and negative translational control of specific mRNAs.
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Affiliation(s)
- Martin Ciganda
- Department of Microbiology, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York 14203, USA
| | - José Sotelo-Silveira
- Departamento de Genómica, Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas Clemente Estable, Montevideo 11600, Uruguay
| | - Ashutosh P Dubey
- Department of Microbiology, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York 14203, USA
| | - Parul Pandey
- Department of Microbiology, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York 14203, USA
| | - Joseph T Smith
- Department of Microbiology, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York 14203, USA
| | - Shichen Shen
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University at Buffalo and NYS Center of Excellence in Bioinformatics and Life Sciences, Buffalo, New York 14203, USA
| | - Jun Qu
- Department of Pharmaceutical Sciences, University at Buffalo and NYS Center of Excellence in Bioinformatics and Life Sciences, Buffalo, New York 14203, USA
| | - Pablo Smircich
- Laboratorio de Bioinformática, Departamento de Genómica, Instituto de Investigaciones Biológicas Clemente Estable, Montevideo 11600, Uruguay
- Sección Genómica Funcional, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de la República, Montevideo 11400, Uruguay
| | - Laurie K Read
- Department of Microbiology, Jacobs School of Medicine and Biomedical Sciences, University at Buffalo, Buffalo, New York 14203, USA
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6
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Rajan KS, Madmoni H, Bashan A, Taoka M, Aryal S, Nobe Y, Doniger T, Galili Kostin B, Blumberg A, Cohen-Chalamish S, Schwartz S, Rivalta A, Zimmerman E, Unger R, Isobe T, Yonath A, Michaeli S. A single pseudouridine on rRNA regulates ribosome structure and function in the mammalian parasite Trypanosoma brucei. Nat Commun 2023; 14:7462. [PMID: 37985661 PMCID: PMC10662448 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-023-43263-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/04/2022] [Accepted: 11/05/2023] [Indexed: 11/22/2023] Open
Abstract
Trypanosomes are protozoan parasites that cycle between insect and mammalian hosts and are the causative agent of sleeping sickness. Here, we describe the changes of pseudouridine (Ψ) modification on rRNA in the two life stages of the parasite using four different genome-wide approaches. CRISPR-Cas9 knock-outs of all four snoRNAs guiding Ψ on helix 69 (H69) of the large rRNA subunit were lethal. A single knock-out of a snoRNA guiding Ψ530 on H69 altered the composition of the 80S monosome. These changes specifically affected the translation of only a subset of proteins. This study correlates a single site Ψ modification with changes in ribosomal protein stoichiometry, supported by a high-resolution cryo-EM structure. We propose that alteration in rRNA modifications could generate ribosomes preferentially translating state-beneficial proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- K Shanmugha Rajan
- The Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences and Advanced and Nanotechnology Institute, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, 5290002, Israel
- Department of Chemical and Structural Biology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, 7610001, Israel
| | - Hava Madmoni
- The Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences and Advanced and Nanotechnology Institute, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, 5290002, Israel
| | - Anat Bashan
- Department of Chemical and Structural Biology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, 7610001, Israel
| | - Masato Taoka
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Minami-osawa 1-1, Hachioji-shi, Tokyo, 192-0397, Japan
| | - Saurav Aryal
- The Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences and Advanced and Nanotechnology Institute, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, 5290002, Israel
| | - Yuko Nobe
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Minami-osawa 1-1, Hachioji-shi, Tokyo, 192-0397, Japan
| | - Tirza Doniger
- The Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences and Advanced and Nanotechnology Institute, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, 5290002, Israel
| | - Beathrice Galili Kostin
- The Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences and Advanced and Nanotechnology Institute, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, 5290002, Israel
| | - Amit Blumberg
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Minami-osawa 1-1, Hachioji-shi, Tokyo, 192-0397, Japan
| | - Smadar Cohen-Chalamish
- The Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences and Advanced and Nanotechnology Institute, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, 5290002, Israel
| | - Schraga Schwartz
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, 76100, Israel
| | - Andre Rivalta
- Department of Chemical and Structural Biology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, 7610001, Israel
| | - Ella Zimmerman
- Department of Chemical and Structural Biology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, 7610001, Israel
| | - Ron Unger
- The Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences and Advanced and Nanotechnology Institute, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, 5290002, Israel
| | - Toshiaki Isobe
- Department of Chemistry, Graduate School of Science, Tokyo Metropolitan University, Minami-osawa 1-1, Hachioji-shi, Tokyo, 192-0397, Japan
| | - Ada Yonath
- Department of Chemical and Structural Biology, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, 7610001, Israel
| | - Shulamit Michaeli
- The Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences and Advanced and Nanotechnology Institute, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, 5290002, Israel.
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Melfi F, Carradori S, Campestre C, Haloci E, Ammazzalorso A, Grande R, D'Agostino I. Emerging compounds and therapeutic strategies to treat infections from Trypanosoma brucei: an overhaul of the last 5-years patents. Expert Opin Ther Pat 2023; 33:247-263. [PMID: 36933190 DOI: 10.1080/13543776.2023.2193328] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 03/19/2023]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Human African Trypanosomiasis is a neglected disease caused by infection from parasites belonging to the Trypanosoma brucei species. Only six drugs are currently available and employed depending on the stage of the infection: pentamidine, suramin, melarsoprol, eflornithine, nifurtimox, and fexinidazole. Joint research projects were launched in an attempt to find new therapeutic options for this severe and often lethal disease. AREAS COVERED After a brief description of the recent literature on the parasite and the disease, we searched for patents dealing with the proposal of new anti-trypanosomiasis agents and, following the PRISMA guidelines, we filtered the results to those published from 2018onwards returning suitable entries, which represent the contemporary landscape of compounds/strategies against Trypanosoma brucei. In addition, some relevant publications from the overall scientific literature were also discussed. EXPERT OPINION This review comprehensively covers and analyzes the most recent advances not only in the discovery of new inhibitors and their structure-activity relationships but also in the assessment of innovative biological targets opening new scenarios in the MedChem field. Lastly, also new vaccines and formulations recently patented were described. However, natural and synthetic compounds were analyzed in terms of inhibitory activity and selective toxicity against human cells.
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Affiliation(s)
- Francesco Melfi
- Department of Pharmacy, "G. d'Annunzio" University of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy
| | - Simone Carradori
- Department of Pharmacy, "G. d'Annunzio" University of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy
| | - Cristina Campestre
- Department of Pharmacy, "G. d'Annunzio" University of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy
| | - Entela Haloci
- Department of Pharmacy, University of Medicine, Tirana, Albania
| | | | - Rossella Grande
- Department of Pharmacy, "G. d'Annunzio" University of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy
| | - Ilaria D'Agostino
- Department of Pharmacy, "G. d'Annunzio" University of Chieti-Pescara, Chieti, Italy
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Ciganda M, Sotelo-Silveira J, Smith JT, Shen S, Qu J, Smircich P, Read LK. Translational control by Trypanosoma brucei DRBD18 contributes to the maintenance of the procyclic state. BIORXIV : THE PREPRINT SERVER FOR BIOLOGY 2023:2023.02.08.527724. [PMID: 36798237 PMCID: PMC9934708 DOI: 10.1101/2023.02.08.527724] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 02/12/2023]
Abstract
Trypanosoma brucei occupies distinct niches throughout its life cycle, within both the mammalian and tsetse fly hosts. The immunological and biochemical complexity and variability of each of these environments require a reshaping of the protein landscape of the parasite both to evade surveillance and face changing metabolic demands. Whereas most well-studied organisms rely on transcriptional control as the main regulator of gene expression, post-transcriptional control mechanisms are particularly important in T. brucei , and these are often mediated by RNA-binding proteins. DRBD18 is a T. brucei RNA-binding protein that interacts with ribosomal proteins and translation factors. Here, we tested a role for DRBD18 in translational control. We show that DRBD18 depletion by RNA interference leads to altered polysomal profiles with a specific depletion of heavy polysomes. Ribosome profiling analysis reveals that 101 transcripts change in translational efficiency (TE) upon DRBD18 depletion: 41 exhibit decreased TE and 60 exhibit increased TE. A further 66 transcripts are buffered, i.e . changes in transcript abundance are compensated by changes in TE such that the total translational output is expected not to change. Proteomic analysis validates these data. In DRBD18-depleted cells, a cohort of transcripts that codes for procyclic form-specific proteins is translationally repressed while, conversely, transcripts that code for bloodstream form- and metacyclic form-specific proteins are translationally enhanced. These data suggest that DRBD18 contributes to the maintenance of the procyclic state through both positive and negative translational control of specific mRNAs.
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9
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Rossi IV, Nunes MAF, Sabatke B, Ribas HT, Winnischofer SMB, Ramos ASP, Inal JM, Ramirez MI. An induced population of Trypanosoma cruzi epimastigotes more resistant to complement lysis promotes a phenotype with greater differentiation, invasiveness, and release of extracellular vesicles. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:1046681. [PMID: 36590580 PMCID: PMC9795005 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.1046681] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/16/2022] [Accepted: 11/24/2022] [Indexed: 12/23/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction Chagas disease is a neglected tropical disease caused by Trypanosoma cruzi, which uses blood-feeding triatomine bugs as a vector to finally infect mammalian hosts. Upon entering the host, the parasite needs to effectively evade the attack of the complement system and quickly invade cells to guarantee an infection. In order to accomplish this, T. cruzi expresses different molecules on its surface and releases extracellular vesicles (EVs). Methods Here, we have selected a population of epimastigotes (a replicative form) from T. cruzi through two rounds of exposure to normal human serum (NHS), to reach 30% survival (2R population). This 2R population was characterized in several aspects and compared to Wild type population. Results The 2R population had a favored metacyclogenesis compared with wild-type (WT) parasites. 2R metacyclic trypomastigotes had a two-fold increase in resistance to complementmediated lysis and were at least three times more infective to eukaryotic cells, probably due to a higher GP82 expression in the resistant population. Moreover, we have shown that EVs from resistant parasites can transfer the invasive phenotype to the WT population. In addition, we showed that the virulence phenotype of the selected population remains in the trypomastigote form derived from cell culture, which is more infective and also has a higher rate of release of trypomastigotes from infected cells. Conclusions Altogether, these data indicate that it is possible to select parasites after exposure to a particular stress factor and that the phenotype of epimastigotes remained in the infective stage. Importantly, EVs seem to be an important virulence fator increasing mechanism in this context of survival and persistence in the host.
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Affiliation(s)
- Izadora Volpato Rossi
- Graduate Program in Cell and Molecular Biology, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, PR, Brazil,Carlos Chagas Institute, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (FIOCRUZ-PR), Curitiba, PR, Brazil
| | | | - Bruna Sabatke
- Carlos Chagas Institute, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (FIOCRUZ-PR), Curitiba, PR, Brazil,Graduate Program in Microbiology, Pathology and Parasitology, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, PR, Brazil
| | - Hennrique Taborda Ribas
- Graduate Program in Biochemistry Sciences, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, PR, Brazil
| | - Sheila Maria Brochado Winnischofer
- Graduate Program in Biochemistry Sciences, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, PR, Brazil,Department of Biochemistry and Molecular Biology, Federal University of Paraná, Curitiba, PR, Brazil
| | | | - Jameel Malhador Inal
- School of Human Sciences, London Metropolitan University, London, United Kingdom,School of Life and Medical Sciences, University of Hertfordshire, London, United Kingdom
| | - Marcel Ivan Ramirez
- Carlos Chagas Institute, Fundação Oswaldo Cruz (FIOCRUZ-PR), Curitiba, PR, Brazil,*Correspondence: Marcel Ivan Ramirez,
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10
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Heme-deficient metabolism and impaired cellular differentiation as an evolutionary trade-off for human infectivity in Trypanosoma brucei gambiense. Nat Commun 2022; 13:7075. [PMID: 36400774 PMCID: PMC9674590 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-34501-4] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/27/2020] [Accepted: 10/27/2022] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Resistance to African trypanosomes in humans relies in part on the high affinity targeting of a trypanosome lytic factor 1 (TLF1) to a trypanosome haptoglobin-hemoglobin receptor (HpHbR). While TLF1 avoidance by the inactivation of HpHbR contributes to Trypanosoma brucei gambiense human infectivity, the evolutionary trade-off of this adaptation is unknown, as the physiological function of the receptor remains to be elucidated. Here we show that uptake of hemoglobin via HpHbR constitutes the sole heme import pathway in the trypanosome bloodstream stage. T. b. gambiense strains carrying the inactivating mutation in HpHbR, as well as genetically engineered T. b. brucei HpHbR knock-out lines show only trace levels of intracellular heme and lack hemoprotein-based enzymatic activities, thereby providing an uncommon example of aerobic parasitic proliferation in the absence of heme. We further show that HpHbR facilitates the developmental progression from proliferating long slender forms to cell cycle-arrested stumpy forms in T. b. brucei. Accordingly, T. b. gambiense was found to be poorly competent for slender-to-stumpy differentiation unless a functional HpHbR receptor derived from T. b. brucei was genetically restored. Altogether, we identify heme-deficient metabolism and disrupted cellular differentiation as two distinct HpHbR-dependent evolutionary trade-offs for T. b. gambiense human infectivity.
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Falk F, Melo Palhares R, Waithaka A, Clayton C. Roles and interactions of the specialized initiation factors EIF4E2, EIF4E5 and EIF4E6 in Trypanosoma brucei: EIF4E2 maintains the abundances of S-phase mRNAs. Mol Microbiol 2022; 118:457-476. [PMID: 36056730 DOI: 10.1111/mmi.14978] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/13/2022] [Revised: 08/14/2022] [Accepted: 08/30/2022] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
Abstract
Trypanosoma brucei has six versions of the cap-binding translation initiation factor EIF4E. We investigated the functions of EIF4E2, EIF4E3, EIF4E5 and EIF4E6 in bloodstream forms. We confirmed the protein associations previously found in procyclic forms, and detected specific co-purification of some RNA-binding proteins. Bloodstream forms lacking EIF4E5 grew normally and differentiated to replication-incompetent procyclic forms. Depletion of EIF4E6 inhibited bloodstream-form trypanosome growth and translation. EIF4E2 co-purified only the putative RNA binding protein SLBP2. Bloodstream forms lacking EIF4E2 multiplied slowly, had a low maximal cell density, and expressed the stumpy-form marker PAD1, but showed no evidence for enhanced stumpy-form signalling. EIF4E2 knock-out cells differentiated readily to replication-competent procyclic forms. EIF4E2 was strongly associated with a subset of mRNAs that are maximally abundant in S-phase, and these all had decreased abundances in EIF4E2 knock-out cells. Three EIF4E2 target mRNAs are also bound and stabilized by the Pumilio domain protein PUF9. Yeast 2-hybrid results suggested that PUF9 interacts directly with SLBP2, but PUF9 was not detected in EIF4E2 pull-downs. We speculate that the EIF4E2-SLBP2 complex might interact with its target mRNAs, perhaps via PUF9, only early during G1/S, stabilizing the mRNAs in preparation for translation later in S-phase or in early G2.
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Affiliation(s)
- Franziska Falk
- Heidelberg University Centre for Molecular Biology (ZMBH), Im Neuenheimer Feld, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Rafael Melo Palhares
- Heidelberg University Centre for Molecular Biology (ZMBH), Im Neuenheimer Feld, Heidelberg, Germany.,Institut für Mikro- und Molekularbiologie, Justus-Liebig-Universität Giessen, IFZ, Heinrich-Buff-Ring 26-32, 35392 Giessen, Germany
| | - Albina Waithaka
- Heidelberg University Centre for Molecular Biology (ZMBH), Im Neuenheimer Feld, Heidelberg, Germany
| | - Christine Clayton
- Heidelberg University Centre for Molecular Biology (ZMBH), Im Neuenheimer Feld, Heidelberg, Germany
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12
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Bishola Tshitenge T, Clayton C. The Trypanosoma brucei RNA-binding protein DRBD18 ensures correct mRNA trans splicing and polyadenylation patterns. RNA (NEW YORK, N.Y.) 2022; 28:1239-1262. [PMID: 35793904 PMCID: PMC9380746 DOI: 10.1261/rna.079258.122] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/17/2022] [Accepted: 06/23/2022] [Indexed: 06/15/2023]
Abstract
The parasite Trypanosoma brucei grows as bloodstream forms in mammals, and as procyclic forms in tsetse flies. Transcription is polycistronic, all mRNAs are trans spliced, and polyadenylation sites are defined by downstream splicing signals. Expression regulation therefore depends heavily on post-transcriptional mechanisms. The RNA-binding protein DRBD18 was previously implicated in the export of some mRNAs from the nucleus in procyclic forms. It copurifies the outer ring of the nuclear pore, mRNA export factors and exon-junction-complex proteins. We show that for more than 200 mRNAs, DRBD18 depletion caused preferential accumulation of versions with shortened 3'-untranslated regions, arising from use of polyadenylation sites that were either undetectable or rarely seen in nondepleted cells. The shortened mRNAs were often, but not always, more abundant in depleted cells than the corresponding longer versions in normal cells. Their appearance was linked to the appearance of trans-spliced, polyadenylated RNAs containing only downstream 3'-untranslated region-derived sequences. Experiments with one mRNA suggested that nuclear retention alone, through depletion of MEX67, did not affect mRNA length, suggesting a specific effect of DRBD18 on processing. DRBD18-bound mRNAs were enriched in polypyrimidine tract motifs, and DRBD18 was found in both the nucleus and the cytoplasm. We therefore suggest that in the nucleus, DRBD18 might bind to polypyrimidine tracts in 3'-UTRs of mRNA precursors. Such binding might both prevent recognition of mRNA-internal polypyrimidine tracts by splicing factors, and promote export of the processed bound mRNAs to the cytosol.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Christine Clayton
- Heidelberg University Center for Molecular Biology (ZMBH), D69120 Heidelberg, Germany
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13
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da Costa KM, Valente RDC, da Fonseca LM, Freire-de-Lima L, Previato JO, Mendonça-Previato L. The History of the ABC Proteins in Human Trypanosomiasis Pathogens. Pathogens 2022; 11:pathogens11090988. [PMID: 36145420 PMCID: PMC9505544 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens11090988] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2022] [Revised: 08/24/2022] [Accepted: 08/25/2022] [Indexed: 11/16/2022] Open
Abstract
Human trypanosomiasis affects nearly eight million people worldwide, causing great economic and social impact, mainly in endemic areas. T. cruzi and T. brucei are protozoan parasites that present efficient mechanisms of immune system evasion, leading to disease chronification. Currently, there is no vaccine, and chemotherapy is effective only in the absence of severe clinical manifestations. Nevertheless, resistant phenotypes to chemotherapy have been described in protozoan parasites, associated with cross-resistance to other chemically unrelated drugs. Multidrug resistance is multifactorial, involving: (i) drug entry, (ii) activation, (iii) metabolism and (iv) efflux pathways. In this context, ABC transporters, initially discovered in resistant tumor cells, have drawn attention in protozoan parasites, owing to their ability to decrease drug accumulation, thus mitigating their toxic effects. The discovery of these transporters in the Trypanosomatidae family started in the 1990s; however, few members were described and functionally characterized. This review contains a brief history of the main ABC transporters involved in resistance that propelled their investigation in Trypanosoma species, the main efflux modulators, as well as ABC genes described in T. cruzi and T. brucei according to the nomenclature HUGO. We hope to convey the importance that ABC transporters play in parasite physiology and chemotherapy resistance.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kelli Monteiro da Costa
- Laboratório de Glicobiologia, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, Brazil
- Correspondence: (K.M.C.); (L.M.P.)
| | - Raphael do Carmo Valente
- Núcleo de Pesquisa Multidisciplinar em Biologia, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Campus Duque de Caxias Prof. Geraldo Cidade, Duque de Caxias 25250-470, Brazil
| | - Leonardo Marques da Fonseca
- Laboratório de Glicobiologia, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, Brazil
| | - Leonardo Freire-de-Lima
- Laboratório de Glicobiologia, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, Brazil
| | - Jose Osvaldo Previato
- Laboratório de Glicobiologia, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, Brazil
| | - Lucia Mendonça-Previato
- Laboratório de Glicobiologia, Instituto de Biofísica Carlos Chagas Filho, Universidade Federal do Rio de Janeiro, Rio de Janeiro 21941-902, Brazil
- Correspondence: (K.M.C.); (L.M.P.)
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14
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Bhattacharya A, Fernandez-Prada C, Alonso GD, Biswas A. Editorial: Signaling in stress sensing and resistance in parasitic protozoa. Front Cell Infect Microbiol 2022; 12:962047. [PMID: 35967874 PMCID: PMC9372558 DOI: 10.3389/fcimb.2022.962047] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/05/2022] [Accepted: 06/08/2022] [Indexed: 11/21/2022] Open
Affiliation(s)
- Arijit Bhattacharya
- Deptartment of Biological Sciences, Adamas University, Kolkata, India
- *Correspondence: Arijit Bhattacharya, ; Christopher Fernandez-Prada, christopher.fernandez.prada @ umontreal.ca; Guillermo Daniel Alonso, ; Arunima Biswas,
| | - Christopher Fernandez-Prada
- Département de Pathologie et Microbiologie, Faculté de Médecine Vétérinaire, Université de Montréal, Saint-Hyacinthe, QC, Canada
- *Correspondence: Arijit Bhattacharya, ; Christopher Fernandez-Prada, christopher.fernandez.prada @ umontreal.ca; Guillermo Daniel Alonso, ; Arunima Biswas,
| | - Guillermo Daniel Alonso
- CONICET Instituto de Investigaciones en Ingeniería Genética y Biología Molecular Dr. Héctor N. Torres (INGEBI), Buenos Aires, Argentina
- *Correspondence: Arijit Bhattacharya, ; Christopher Fernandez-Prada, christopher.fernandez.prada @ umontreal.ca; Guillermo Daniel Alonso, ; Arunima Biswas,
| | - Arunima Biswas
- Molecular Cell Biology Laboratory, Deptartment of Zoology, University of Kalyani, Kalyani, India
- *Correspondence: Arijit Bhattacharya, ; Christopher Fernandez-Prada, christopher.fernandez.prada @ umontreal.ca; Guillermo Daniel Alonso, ; Arunima Biswas,
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15
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Rajan KS, Adler K, Doniger T, Cohen-Chalamish S, Aharon-Hefetz N, Aryal S, Pilpel Y, Tschudi C, Unger R, Michaeli S. Identification and functional implications of pseudouridine RNA modification on small noncoding RNAs in the mammalian pathogen Trypanosoma brucei. J Biol Chem 2022; 298:102141. [PMID: 35714765 PMCID: PMC9283944 DOI: 10.1016/j.jbc.2022.102141] [Citation(s) in RCA: 6] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/09/2022] [Revised: 06/09/2022] [Accepted: 06/11/2022] [Indexed: 01/11/2023] Open
Abstract
Trypanosoma brucei, the parasite that causes sleeping sickness, cycles between an insect and a mammalian host. However, the effect of RNA modifications such as pseudouridinylation on its ability to survive in these two different host environments is unclear. Here, two genome-wide approaches were applied for mapping pseudouridinylation sites (Ψs) on small nucleolar RNA (snoRNA), 7SL RNA, vault RNA, and tRNAs from T. brucei. We show using HydraPsiSeq and RiboMeth-seq that the Ψ on C/D snoRNA guiding 2'-O-methylation increased the efficiency of the guided modification on its target, rRNA. We found differential levels of Ψs on these noncoding RNAs in the two life stages (insect host and mammalian host) of the parasite. Furthermore, tRNA isoform abundance and Ψ modifications were characterized in these two life stages demonstrating stage-specific regulation. We conclude that the differential Ψ modifications identified here may contribute to modulating the function of noncoding RNAs involved in rRNA processing, rRNA modification, protein synthesis, and protein translocation during cycling of the parasite between its two hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- K. Shanmugha Rajan
- The Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences and Advanced and Nanotechnology Institute, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel
| | - Katerina Adler
- The Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences and Advanced and Nanotechnology Institute, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel
| | - Tirza Doniger
- The Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences and Advanced and Nanotechnology Institute, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel
| | - Smadar Cohen-Chalamish
- The Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences and Advanced and Nanotechnology Institute, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel
| | - Noa Aharon-Hefetz
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Saurav Aryal
- The Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences and Advanced and Nanotechnology Institute, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel
| | - Yitzhak Pilpel
- Department of Molecular Genetics, Weizmann Institute of Science, Rehovot, Israel
| | - Christian Tschudi
- Department of Epidemiology and Microbial Diseases, Yale School of Public Health, New Haven, Connecticut, USA
| | - Ron Unger
- The Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences and Advanced and Nanotechnology Institute, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel
| | - Shulamit Michaeli
- The Mina and Everard Goodman Faculty of Life Sciences and Advanced and Nanotechnology Institute, Bar-Ilan University, Ramat-Gan, Israel,For correspondence: Shulamit Michaeli
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16
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Dewar CE, Oeljeklaus S, Mani J, Mühlhäuser WWD, von Känel C, Zimmermann J, Ochsenreiter T, Warscheid B, Schneider A. Mistargeting of aggregation prone mitochondrial proteins activates a nucleus-mediated posttranscriptional quality control pathway in trypanosomes. Nat Commun 2022; 13:3084. [PMID: 35654893 PMCID: PMC9163028 DOI: 10.1038/s41467-022-30748-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 08/10/2021] [Accepted: 05/02/2022] [Indexed: 12/25/2022] Open
Abstract
Mitochondrial protein import in the parasitic protozoan Trypanosoma brucei is mediated by the atypical outer membrane translocase, ATOM. It consists of seven subunits including ATOM69, the import receptor for hydrophobic proteins. Ablation of ATOM69, but not of any other subunit, triggers a unique quality control pathway resulting in the proteasomal degradation of non-imported mitochondrial proteins. The process requires a protein of unknown function, an E3 ubiquitin ligase and the ubiquitin-like protein (TbUbL1), which all are recruited to the mitochondrion upon ATOM69 depletion. TbUbL1 is a nuclear protein, a fraction of which is released to the cytosol upon triggering of the pathway. Nuclear release is essential as cytosolic TbUbL1 can bind mislocalised mitochondrial proteins and likely transfers them to the proteasome. Mitochondrial quality control has previously been studied in yeast and metazoans. Finding such a pathway in the highly diverged trypanosomes suggests such pathways are an obligate feature of all eukaryotes. Mitochondria import most of their proteins posttranslationally. Here, Dewar et al. characterize the mitochondrial quality control mechanism of Trypanosoma brucei. Through proteomics and functional studies, they show that only ablation of ATOM69, one of the seven subunits of its mitochondrial protein translocase, triggers a unique quality control pathway resulting in TbUbL1 release from the nucleus and subsequent proteasomal degradation of non-imported mitochondrial proteins.
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Affiliation(s)
- Caroline E Dewar
- Department of Chemistry, Biochemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Bern, Freiestrasse 3, Bern, CH-3012, Switzerland
| | - Silke Oeljeklaus
- Faculty of Chemistry and Pharmacy, Department of Biochemistry, Theodor Boveri-Institute, University of Würzburg, 97074, Würzburg, Germany.,Biochemistry and Functional Proteomics, Institute of Biology II, Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, 79104, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Jan Mani
- Department of Chemistry, Biochemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Bern, Freiestrasse 3, Bern, CH-3012, Switzerland
| | - Wignand W D Mühlhäuser
- Biochemistry and Functional Proteomics, Institute of Biology II, Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, 79104, Freiburg, Germany
| | - Corinne von Känel
- Department of Chemistry, Biochemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Bern, Freiestrasse 3, Bern, CH-3012, Switzerland
| | - Johannes Zimmermann
- Faculty of Chemistry and Pharmacy, Department of Biochemistry, Theodor Boveri-Institute, University of Würzburg, 97074, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Torsten Ochsenreiter
- Institute of Cell Biology, University of Bern, Baltzerstrasse 4, Bern, CH-3012, Switzerland
| | - Bettina Warscheid
- Faculty of Chemistry and Pharmacy, Department of Biochemistry, Theodor Boveri-Institute, University of Würzburg, 97074, Würzburg, Germany. .,Biochemistry and Functional Proteomics, Institute of Biology II, Faculty of Biology, University of Freiburg, 79104, Freiburg, Germany. .,CIBSS Centre for Integrative Biological Signalling Studies, University of Freiburg, 79104, Freiburg, Germany.
| | - André Schneider
- Department of Chemistry, Biochemistry and Pharmaceutical Sciences, University of Bern, Freiestrasse 3, Bern, CH-3012, Switzerland.
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Genomic Occupancy of the Bromodomain Protein Bdf3 Is Dynamic during Differentiation of African Trypanosomes from Bloodstream to Procyclic Forms. mSphere 2022; 7:e0002322. [PMID: 35642518 PMCID: PMC9241505 DOI: 10.1128/msphere.00023-22] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/05/2022] Open
Abstract
Trypanosoma brucei, the causative agent of human and animal African trypanosomiasis, cycles between a mammalian host and a tsetse fly vector. The parasite undergoes huge changes in morphology and metabolism during adaptation to each host environment. These changes are reflected in the different transcriptomes of parasites living in each host. However, it remains unclear whether chromatin-interacting proteins help mediate these changes. Bromodomain proteins localize to transcription start sites in bloodstream parasites, but whether the localization of bromodomain proteins changes as parasites differentiate from bloodstream to insect stages remains unknown. To address this question, we performed cleavage under target and release using nuclease (CUT&RUN) against bromodomain protein 3 (Bdf3) in parasites differentiating from bloodstream to insect forms. We found that Bdf3 occupancy at most loci increased at 3 h following onset of differentiation and decreased thereafter. A number of sites with increased bromodomain protein occupancy lie proximal to genes with altered transcript levels during differentiation, such as procyclins, procyclin-associated genes, and invariant surface glycoproteins. Most Bdf3-occupied sites are observed throughout differentiation. However, one site appears de novo during differentiation and lies proximal to the procyclin gene locus housing genes essential for remodeling surface proteins following transition to the insect stage. These studies indicate that occupancy of chromatin-interacting proteins is dynamic during life cycle stage transitions and provide the groundwork for future studies on the effects of changes in bromodomain protein occupancy. Additionally, the adaptation of CUT&RUN for Trypanosoma brucei provides other researchers with an alternative to chromatin immunoprecipitation (ChIP). IMPORTANCE The parasite Trypanosoma brucei is the causative agent of human and animal African trypanosomiasis (sleeping sickness). Trypanosomiasis, which affects humans and cattle, is fatal if untreated. Existing drugs have significant side effects. Thus, these parasites impose a significant human and economic burden in sub-Saharan Africa, where trypanosomiasis is endemic. T. brucei cycles between the mammalian host and a tsetse fly vector, and parasites undergo huge changes in morphology and metabolism to adapt to different hosts. Here, we show that DNA-interacting bromodomain protein 3 (Bdf3) shows changes in occupancy at its binding sites as parasites transition from the bloodstream to the insect stage. Additionally, a new binding site appears near the locus responsible for remodeling of parasite surface proteins during transition to the insect stage. Understanding the mechanisms behind host adaptation is important for understanding the life cycle of the parasite.
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Lisack J, Morriswood B, Engstler M. Response to comment on 'Unexpected plasticity in the life cycle of Trypanosoma Brucei'. eLife 2022; 11:e75922. [PMID: 35103593 PMCID: PMC8806184 DOI: 10.7554/elife.75922] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/29/2021] [Accepted: 12/20/2021] [Indexed: 01/23/2023] Open
Abstract
We thank Keith Matthews and Stephen Larcombe for their thoughtful comment, which follows the good tradition of public scientific discourse (Matthews and Larcombe, 2022). While their remarks have prompted us to take another critical look at our data, we think that they neither alter our conclusions nor offer a practical alternative explanation. In essence, we see two possible interpretations of our experiments: either the trypanosome life cycle can accommodate a more flexible role for the slender stage, or the definition of the stumpy stage needs to be radically changed. While the first interpretation - which we favour - would not falsify any published work, the second one - which Matthews and Larcombe are proposing - would contradict the literature. Hence, we favour a model with an unexpected phenotypic plasticity for the slender stage and a certain degree of stochasticity in the trypanosome life cycle.
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Affiliation(s)
- Jaime Lisack
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of WürzburgWürzburgGermany
| | - Brooke Morriswood
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of WürzburgWürzburgGermany
| | - Markus Engstler
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of WürzburgWürzburgGermany
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Matthews KR, Larcombe S. Comment on 'Unexpected plasticity in the life cycle of Trypanosoma brucei'. eLife 2022; 11:74985. [PMID: 35103595 PMCID: PMC8806180 DOI: 10.7554/elife.74985] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/28/2021] [Accepted: 12/20/2021] [Indexed: 12/18/2022] Open
Abstract
Schuster et al. make the important observation that small numbers of trypanosomes can infect tsetse flies, and further argue that this can occur whether the infecting parasites are developmentally ‘slender’ or ‘stumpy’(Schuster et al., 2021). We welcome their careful experiments but disagree that they require a rethink of the trypanosome life-cycle. Instead, the study reveals that stumpy forms are more likely to successfully infect flies, the key limit on parasite transmission, and we predict this advantage would be greatly amplified in tsetse infections in the field. Further, we argue that stumpy forms are defined by a suite of molecular adaptations for life-cycle progression, with morphology being a secondary feature. Finally, their dominance in chronic infections means most natural tsetse infections would involve stumpy forms, even in small numbers. Our interpretation does not require re-evaluation of the obligatory life cycle of the parasite, where stumpy forms are selected to sustain transmission.
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Affiliation(s)
- Keith R Matthews
- Institute for Immunology and Infection Research, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
| | - Stephen Larcombe
- Institute for Immunology and Infection Research, School of Biological Sciences, University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom
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20
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Abstract
Abstract
In Trypanosoma brucei and related Kinetoplastids, regulation of gene expression occurs mostly post-transcriptionally, and RNA-binding proteins play a critical role in the regulation of mRNA and protein abundance. Trypanosoma brucei ZC3H28 is a 114 KDa cytoplasmic mRNA-binding protein with a single C(x)7C(x)5C(x)sH zinc finger at the C-terminus and numerous proline-, histidine- or glutamine-rich regions. ZC3H28 is essential for normal bloodstream-form trypanosome growth, and when tethered to a reporter mRNA, ZC3H28 increased reporter mRNA and protein levels. Purification of N-terminally tagged ZC3H28 followed by mass spectrometry showed enrichment of ribosomal proteins, various RNA-binding proteins including both poly(A) binding proteins, the translation initiation complex EIF4E4/EIF4G3, and the activator MKT1. Tagged ZC3H28 was preferentially associated with long RNAs that have low complexity sequences in their 3′-untranslated regions; their coding regions also have low ribosome densities. In agreement with the tethering results, after ZC3H28 depletion, the levels of a significant proportion of its bound mRNAs decreased. We suggest that ZC3H28 is implicated in the stabilization of long mRNAs that are poorly translated.
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21
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Steketee PC, Giordani F, Vincent IM, Crouch K, Achcar F, Dickens NJ, Morrison LJ, MacLeod A, Barrett MP. Transcriptional differentiation of Trypanosoma brucei during in vitro acquisition of resistance to acoziborole. PLoS Negl Trop Dis 2021; 15:e0009939. [PMID: 34752454 PMCID: PMC8648117 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pntd.0009939] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/10/2021] [Revised: 12/06/2021] [Accepted: 10/21/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022] Open
Abstract
Subspecies of the protozoan parasite Trypanosoma brucei are the causative agents of Human African Trypanosomiasis (HAT), a debilitating neglected tropical disease prevalent across sub-Saharan Africa. HAT case numbers have steadily decreased since the start of the century, and sustainable elimination of one form of the disease is in sight. However, key to this is the development of novel drugs to combat the disease. Acoziborole is a recently developed benzoxaborole, currently in advanced clinical trials, for treatment of stage 1 and stage 2 HAT. Importantly, acoziborole is orally bioavailable, and curative with one dose. Recent studies have made significant progress in determining the molecular mode of action of acoziborole. However, less is known about the potential mechanisms leading to acoziborole resistance in trypanosomes. In this study, an in vitro-derived acoziborole-resistant cell line was generated and characterised. The AcoR line exhibited significant cross-resistance with the methyltransferase inhibitor sinefungin as well as hypersensitisation to known trypanocides. Interestingly, transcriptomics analysis of AcoR cells indicated the parasites had obtained a procyclic- or stumpy-like transcriptome profile, with upregulation of procyclin surface proteins as well as differential regulation of key metabolic genes known to be expressed in a life cycle-specific manner, even in the absence of major morphological changes. However, no changes were observed in transcripts encoding CPSF3, the recently identified protein target of acoziborole. The results suggest that generation of resistance to this novel compound in vitro can be accompanied by transcriptomic switches resembling a procyclic- or stumpy-type phenotype.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pieter C. Steketee
- The Roslin Institute, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian, United Kingdom
| | - Federica Giordani
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Isabel M. Vincent
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Kathryn Crouch
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Fiona Achcar
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Nicholas J. Dickens
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Liam J. Morrison
- The Roslin Institute, Royal (Dick) School of Veterinary Studies, University of Edinburgh, Easter Bush, Midlothian, United Kingdom
| | - Annette MacLeod
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, United Kingdom
| | - Michael P. Barrett
- Wellcome Centre for Integrative Parasitology, Institute of Infection, Immunity and Inflammation, College of Medical, Veterinary and Life Sciences, University of Glasgow, United Kingdom
- Glasgow Polyomics, University of Glasgow, United Kingdom
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22
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Trypanosoma brucei Tim50 Possesses PAP Activity and Plays a Critical Role in Cell Cycle Regulation and Parasite Infectivity. mBio 2021; 12:e0159221. [PMID: 34517757 PMCID: PMC8546626 DOI: 10.1128/mbio.01592-21] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/14/2022] Open
Abstract
Trypanosoma brucei, the infective agent for African trypanosomiasis, possesses a homologue of the translocase of the mitochondrial inner membrane 50 (TbTim50). It has a pair of characteristic phosphatase signature motifs, DXDX(T/V). Here, we demonstrated that, besides its protein phosphatase activity, the recombinant TbTim50 binds and hydrolyzes phosphatidic acid in a concentration-dependent manner. Mutations of D242 and D244, but not of D345and D347, to alanine abolished these activities. In silico structural homology models identified the putative binding interfaces that may accommodate different phosphosubstrates. Interestingly, TbTim50 depletion in the bloodstream form (BF) of T. brucei reduced cardiolipin (CL) levels and decreased mitochondrial membrane potential (ΔΨ). TbTim50 knockdown (KD) also reduced the population of G2/M phase and increased that of G1 phase cells; inhibited segregation and caused overreplication of kinetoplast DNA (kDNA), and reduced BF cell growth. Depletion of TbTim50 increased the levels of AMPK phosphorylation, and parasite morphology was changed with upregulation of expression of a few stumpy marker genes. Importantly, we observed that TbTim50-depleted parasites were unable to establish infection in mice. Proteomics analysis showed reductions in levels of the translation factors, flagellar transport proteins, and many proteasomal subunits, including those of the mitochondrial heat shock locus ATPase (HslVU), which is known to play a role in regulation of kinetoplast DNA (kDNA) replication. Reduction of the level of HslV in TbTim50 KD cells was further validated by immunoblot analysis. Together, our results showed that TbTim50 is essential for mitochondrial function, regulation of kDNA replication, and the cell cycle in the BF. Therefore, TbTim50 is an important target for structure-based drug design to combat African trypanosomiasis.
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23
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Abstract
The parasite that causes African sleeping sickness can be transmitted from mammals to tsetse flies in two stages of its lifecycle, rather than one as was previously thought.
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Affiliation(s)
- Fabien Guegan
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Lisboa, Portugal
| | - Luisa Figueiredo
- Instituto de Medicina Molecular João Lobo Antunes, Lisboa, Portugal
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24
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Schuster S, Lisack J, Subota I, Zimmermann H, Reuter C, Mueller T, Morriswood B, Engstler M. Unexpected plasticity in the life cycle of Trypanosoma brucei. eLife 2021; 10:66028. [PMID: 34355698 PMCID: PMC8448533 DOI: 10.7554/elife.66028] [Citation(s) in RCA: 17] [Impact Index Per Article: 5.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/22/2020] [Accepted: 08/05/2021] [Indexed: 12/22/2022] Open
Abstract
African trypanosomes cause sleeping sickness in humans and nagana in cattle. These unicellular parasites are transmitted by the bloodsucking tsetse fly. In the mammalian host’s circulation, proliferating slender stage cells differentiate into cell cycle-arrested stumpy stage cells when they reach high population densities. This stage transition is thought to fulfil two main functions: first, it auto-regulates the parasite load in the host; second, the stumpy stage is regarded as the only stage capable of successful vector transmission. Here, we show that proliferating slender stage trypanosomes express the mRNA and protein of a known stumpy stage marker, complete the complex life cycle in the fly as successfully as the stumpy stage, and require only a single parasite for productive infection. These findings suggest a reassessment of the traditional view of the trypanosome life cycle. They may also provide a solution to a long-lasting paradox, namely the successful transmission of parasites in chronic infections, despite low parasitemia.
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Affiliation(s)
- Sarah Schuster
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Jaime Lisack
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Ines Subota
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Henriette Zimmermann
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | - Christian Reuter
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
| | | | | | - Markus Engstler
- Department of Cell and Developmental Biology, University of Würzburg, Würzburg, Germany
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25
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Li B, Zhao Y. Regulation of Antigenic Variation by Trypanosoma brucei Telomere Proteins Depends on Their Unique DNA Binding Activities. Pathogens 2021; 10:pathogens10080967. [PMID: 34451431 PMCID: PMC8402208 DOI: 10.3390/pathogens10080967] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2021] [Revised: 07/22/2021] [Accepted: 07/27/2021] [Indexed: 01/17/2023] Open
Abstract
Trypanosoma brucei causes human African trypanosomiasis and regularly switches its major surface antigen, Variant Surface Glycoprotein (VSG), to evade the host immune response. Such antigenic variation is a key pathogenesis mechanism that enables T. brucei to establish long-term infections. VSG is expressed exclusively from subtelomere loci in a strictly monoallelic manner, and DNA recombination is an important VSG switching pathway. The integrity of telomere and subtelomere structure, maintained by multiple telomere proteins, is essential for T. brucei viability and for regulating the monoallelic VSG expression and VSG switching. Here we will focus on T. brucei TRF and RAP1, two telomere proteins with unique nucleic acid binding activities, and summarize their functions in telomere integrity and stability, VSG switching, and monoallelic VSG expression. Targeting the unique features of TbTRF and TbRAP1′s nucleic acid binding activities to perturb the integrity of telomere structure and disrupt VSG monoallelic expression may serve as potential therapeutic strategy against T. brucei.
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Affiliation(s)
- Bibo Li
- Center for Gene Regulation in Health and Disease, Department of Biological, Geological, and Environmental Sciences, College of Sciences and Health Professions, Cleveland State University, 2121 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44115, USA
- Case Comprehensive Cancer Center, Case Western Reserve University, 10900 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
- Department of Inflammation and Immunity, Lerner Research Institute, Cleveland Clinic, 9500 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44195, USA
- Center for RNA Science and Therapeutics, Case Western Reserve University, 10900 Euclid Avenue, Cleveland, OH 44106, USA
- Correspondence: (B.L.); (Y.Z.)
| | - Yanxiang Zhao
- Shenzhen Research Institute, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Shenzhen, China
- State Key Laboratory of Chemical Biology and Drug Discovery, Department of Applied Biology and Chemical Technology, The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, Hung Hom, Hong Kong, China
- Correspondence: (B.L.); (Y.Z.)
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26
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Chaudhuri M, Tripathi A, Gonzalez FS. Diverse Functions of Tim50, a Component of the Mitochondrial Inner Membrane Protein Translocase. Int J Mol Sci 2021; 22:7779. [PMID: 34360547 PMCID: PMC8346121 DOI: 10.3390/ijms22157779] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/01/2021] [Revised: 07/14/2021] [Accepted: 07/16/2021] [Indexed: 12/17/2022] Open
Abstract
Mitochondria are essential in eukaryotes. Besides producing 80% of total cellular ATP, mitochondria are involved in various cellular functions such as apoptosis, inflammation, innate immunity, stress tolerance, and Ca2+ homeostasis. Mitochondria are also the site for many critical metabolic pathways and are integrated into the signaling network to maintain cellular homeostasis under stress. Mitochondria require hundreds of proteins to perform all these functions. Since the mitochondrial genome only encodes a handful of proteins, most mitochondrial proteins are imported from the cytosol via receptor/translocase complexes on the mitochondrial outer and inner membranes known as TOMs and TIMs. Many of the subunits of these protein complexes are essential for cell survival in model yeast and other unicellular eukaryotes. Defects in the mitochondrial import machineries are also associated with various metabolic, developmental, and neurodegenerative disorders in multicellular organisms. In addition to their canonical functions, these protein translocases also help maintain mitochondrial structure and dynamics, lipid metabolism, and stress response. This review focuses on the role of Tim50, the receptor component of one of the TIM complexes, in different cellular functions, with an emphasis on the Tim50 homologue in parasitic protozoan Trypanosoma brucei.
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Affiliation(s)
- Minu Chaudhuri
- Department of Microbiology, Immunology, and Physiology, Meharry Medical College, Nashville, TN 37208, USA; (A.T.); (F.S.G.)
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27
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Michels PAM, Villafraz O, Pineda E, Alencar MB, Cáceres AJ, Silber AM, Bringaud F. Carbohydrate metabolism in trypanosomatids: New insights revealing novel complexity, diversity and species-unique features. Exp Parasitol 2021; 224:108102. [PMID: 33775649 DOI: 10.1016/j.exppara.2021.108102] [Citation(s) in RCA: 32] [Impact Index Per Article: 10.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/22/2021] [Revised: 03/13/2021] [Accepted: 03/18/2021] [Indexed: 12/16/2022]
Abstract
The human pathogenic trypanosomatid species collectively called the "TriTryp parasites" - Trypanosoma brucei, Trypanosoma cruzi and Leishmania spp. - have complex life cycles, with each of these parasitic protists residing in a different niche during their successive developmental stages where they encounter diverse nutrients. Consequently, they adapt their metabolic network accordingly. Yet, throughout the life cycles, carbohydrate metabolism - involving the glycolytic, gluconeogenic and pentose-phosphate pathways - always plays a central role in the biology of these parasites, whether the available carbon and free energy sources are saccharides, amino acids or lipids. In this paper, we provide an updated review of the carbohydrate metabolism of the TriTryps, highlighting new data about this metabolic network, the interconnection of its pathways and the compartmentalisation of its enzymes within glycosomes, cytosol and mitochondrion. Differences in the expression of the branches of the metabolic network between the successive life-cycle stages of each of these parasitic trypanosomatids are discussed, as well as differences between them. Recent structural and kinetic studies have revealed unique regulatory mechanisms for some of the network's key enzymes with important species-specific variations. Furthermore, reports of multiple post-translational modifications of trypanosomal glycolytic enzymes suggest that additional mechanisms for stage- and/or environmental cues that regulate activity are operational in the parasites. The detailed comparison of the carbohydrate metabolism of the TriTryps has thus revealed multiple differences and a greater complexity, including for the reduced metabolic network in bloodstream-form T. brucei, than previously appreciated. Although these parasites are related, share many cytological and metabolic features and are grouped within a single taxonomic family, the differences highlighted in this review reflect their separate evolutionary tracks from a common ancestor to the extant organisms. These differences are indicative of their adaptation to the different insect vectors and niches occupied in their mammalian hosts.
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Affiliation(s)
- Paul A M Michels
- Centre for Immunity, Infection and Evolution and Centre for Translational and Chemical Biology, School of Biological Sciences, The University of Edinburgh, Edinburgh, United Kingdom.
| | - Oriana Villafraz
- Laboratoire de Microbiologie Fondamentale et Pathogénicité (MFP), Université de Bordeaux, CNRS UMR-5234, France
| | - Erika Pineda
- Laboratoire de Microbiologie Fondamentale et Pathogénicité (MFP), Université de Bordeaux, CNRS UMR-5234, France
| | - Mayke B Alencar
- Laboratory of Biochemistry of Tryps, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, 05508-000, Brazil
| | - Ana J Cáceres
- Laboratorio de Enzimología de Parásitos, Departamento de Biología, Facultad de Ciencias, Universidad de Los Andes, Mérida, 5101, Venezuela.
| | - Ariel M Silber
- Laboratory of Biochemistry of Tryps, Department of Parasitology, Institute of Biomedical Sciences, University of São Paulo, São Paulo, 05508-000, Brazil.
| | - Frédéric Bringaud
- Laboratoire de Microbiologie Fondamentale et Pathogénicité (MFP), Université de Bordeaux, CNRS UMR-5234, France.
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