Effect of cigarette smoking on vascular flows in pregnancies complicated by intrauterine growth restriction

The Concentration of Follistatin and Activin A in Serum and Selected Biochemical Parameters in Women with Polycystic Ovary Syndrome: Stratification by Tobacco Smoke Exposure, Insulin Resistance, and Overweight/Obesity

Background/Objectives: The aim of the study was to investigate the concentrations of follistatin and activin A in the serum of women with polycystic ovary syndrome (PCOS) and to assess their relationship with selected biochemical parameters, specifically stratifying the analysis based on tobacco smoke, insulin resistance, and abnormal weight. Methods: The research was carried out within a cohort of 88 women (60 women with and 28 without PCOS). Results: We observed significant differences (p < 0.05) in follistatin concentrations between women with PCOS stratified by homeostatic model assessment for insulin resistance (HOMA-IR) values. These differences were consistent across both smoking and non-smoking subgroups with PCOS. Similar results were observed when comparing normal-weight women with PCOS to those with overweight or obesity. Additionally, activin A concentrations were significantly increased by higher body mass index (BMI) and HOMA-IR values in non-smoking women with PCOS. Moreover, we identified a negative correlation (r = -0.30; p < 0.023) between cotinine levels and Anti-Müllerian hormone. Among smoking women with PCOS, we noted decreased concentrations of sex hormone-binding globulin and high-density lipoproteins, alongside increased fasting glucose, insulin, HOMA-IR, and free androgen index values. Conclusions: Our findings suggest that activin A and follistatin concentrations are more strongly influenced by disruptions in glucose metabolism and BMI than by tobacco smoke exposure. The observed changes were more pronounced in follistatin than in activin A level.

Oxidative stress biomarkers for fetal growth restriction in umbilical cord blood: A scoping review

Fetal growth restriction and underlying placental insufficiency are associated with increased oxidative stress. Current diagnostics fail to identify all growth restricted fetuses and newborns, due to focus on small size. This scoping review aims to summarize the available evidence on usefulness of cord blood oxidative stress biomarkers for identification of growth restricted newborns in need of monitoring and support because of associated health risks. MEDLINE and EMBASE were searched from inception to May 2024. Studies were included if oxidative stress biomarkers were measured in cord blood collected immediately after delivery in newborns suspected to be growth restricted. Biomarkers were categorized based on the origin and/or biological function and their interrelationships. Oxidative stress was determined for each individual biomarker and category. Literature search identified 78 studies on 39 different biomarkers, with a total of 2707 newborns with suspected growth restriction, and 4568 controls. Total oxidant/antioxidant status, catalase, glutathione, ischemia-modified albumin, and nucleated red blood cells were most consistently associated with suspected growth restriction. Reactive oxygen species/reactive nitrogen species, factors in their production, antioxidant enzymes, non-enzymatic antioxidants, and products of oxidative stress were not consistently associated. This review collates the evidence of associations between cord blood oxidative stress biomarkers and growth restriction. Total oxidant/antioxidant status, catalase, glutathione, ischemia-modified albumin, and nucleated red blood cells could potentially be candidates for developing a cord blood diagnostic tool for future clinical use.

Effects of Low-Dose Aspirin Combined with Vitamin E on the Incidence of Intrauterine Growth Restriction and Hemorheological Indexes of Pregnant Women in Patients with Gestational Hypertension

Objective

To investigate the effect of low-dose aspirin combined with vitamin E on the incidence of intrauterine growth restriction and hemorheological indexes of pregnant women in patients with gestational hypertension.

Method

134 elderly patients with chronic urticaria treated in our hospital from November 2017 to November 2020 were studied. According to the treatment methods, they were randomly divided into observation and control groups. There were 67 patients in the observation group, aged 20-37 years, with an average of (25.7 ± 2.75) years. There were 67 patients in the control group, aged 21-35 years, with an average of (26.3 ± 3.17) years. No significant difference was observed between the two groups (P > 0.05).

Results

The number of cases with postpartum hemorrhage and intrauterine growth restriction in the observation group was less than that in the control group. The total incidence rate was lower than that in the control group. There were significant differences in the above results (P < 0.05). The number of patients with preterm birth in the observation group was less than that in the control group, but there was no significant difference in the results (P > 0.05). The head circumference, abdominal circumference, biparietal diameter, and femoral length diameter in the control and observation groups increased significantly after treatment (P < 0.05). Compared with the control group, the head circumference, abdominal circumference, biparietal diameter, and femoral diameter in the observation group increased more after treatment, and the results were statistically poor (P < 0.05). The systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, and mean arterial pressure in the control and observation groups decreased significantly after treatment, and the results were statistically different (P < 0.05). Compared with the control group, the systolic blood pressure, diastolic blood pressure, and mean arterial pressure in the observation group decreased more after treatment. The results were statistically different (P < 0.05). The plasma viscosity levels, whole blood high shear viscosity, and whole blood low shear viscosity in the control and observation groups decreased significantly after treatment, and the results were statistically different (P < 0.05). Compared with the control group, plasma viscosity levels, whole blood high shear viscosity, and whole blood low shear viscosity in the observation group decreased more after treatment, and the results were statistically different (P < 0.05). The control and observation groups' fetal systolic/diastolic pressure and pulsatile index decreased significantly after treatment, and the results were statistically different (P < 0.05). Compared with the control group, the fetal systolic/diastolic blood pressure and pulsatile index in the observation group decreased more after treatment, and the results were statistically poor (P < 0.05).

Conclusion

Low-dose aspirin combined with vitamin E is effective in treating intrauterine growth restriction in patients with gestational hypertension. It can effectively control the blood pressure and blood flow of patients and newborns and improve pregnancy outcomes without increasing the incidence of adverse reactions. It is worthy of clinical promotion.

Smoking Cessation during the Second Half of Pregnancy Prevents Low Birth Weight among Australian Born Babies in Regional New South Wales

Smoking during pregnancy is a modifiable risk behavior of adverse health outcomes including low birth weight (LBW), and LBW is a key marker of newborns immediate and future health. This study aimed to examine the association between smoking cessation during the second half of pregnancy and LBW among babies born in Southern New South Wales Local Health District (SNSWLHD). Routinely collected perinatal data on singleton live births for the period 2011–2019 in five public hospitals of SNSWLHD were utilized. Multivariate logistic regression models were fitted to examine the association between smoking cessation during the second half of pregnancy and LBW. Analyses showed that mothers who ceased smoking during the second half of pregnancy were 44% less likely to have LBW babies (adjusted odds ratio (aOR) = 0.56; 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.34, 0.94) compared to those who continued smoking throughout pregnancy. Mothers who reported an average daily dose of 1–10 or >10 cigarettes during the second half of pregnancy were significantly more likely to have babies with LBW than those who ceased smoking during the second half of pregnancy. Early identification of smoking behavior and promotion of smoking-cessation intervention for risk populations including pregnant women within the older age bracket (35–49 years) is imperative to reduce LBW.

The Impact of Early Pregnancy and Exposure to Tobacco Smoke on Blood Antioxidant Status and Copper, Zinc, Cadmium Concentration-A Pilot Study

The aim of the study was to evaluate the impact of early pregnancy and exposure to tobacco smoke on antioxidant status and copper, zinc, and cadmium concentrations in the blood of non-smoking and smoking, as well as non-pregnant or pregnant women. The study included 213 women. More specifically, 150 women in first trimester of pregnancy and 63 non-pregnant women. Women were divided into subgroups according to exposure to tobacco smoke. Pregnancy significant influences higher copper and lower zinc concentration in the serum, whereas exposure to tobacco smoke during pregnancy is mainly associated with an elevation in cadmium and zinc concentration. It seems that metallothionein, superoxide dismutase, and glutathione peroxidase are the important antioxidants during early pregnancy, when exposure to tobacco smoke occurs, whereas the pregnancy itself is associated with a higher concentration of metallothionein and activity of catalase. Both pregnancy in the first trimester and exposure to tobacco smoke decrease glutathione concentration. In addition, active and passive maternal smoking have a similarly negative effect on antioxidant status in the first trimester. Early pregnancy as well as exposure to tobacco smoke is associated with significant alteration in antioxidant status and copper, zinc, and cadmium concentration. Due to a small number of smoking subjects (11 cases of non-pregnant, active smokers and 14 pregnant active smokers), the obtained results should be treated as a pilot, and this should be considered for future studies.

A Pilot Study on Secondhand Smoke Exposure Among Pregnant Women in Chongqing, China: A Combined Questionnaire, Saliva Cotinine Test, and Ultrasound Flow Index Analysis

Objective: The aim of the study was to gain updated data on SHS exposure among pregnant women in Chongqing city, one of the four municipalities of China. Study Design and Setting: Pregnant women attending routine ultrasound checks at an obstetrics and gynecology center voluntarily participated in the survey of SHS exposure. Some participants were also invited to have saliva cotinine tests using a NicAlert kit. The pulsatility index (PI) of the umbilical artery was compared between the SHS and non-SHS groups. Results: A total of 548 pregnant women (74.82 and 25.18% at 12 and 24 weeks' gestation, respectively) participated in the survey from July to November 2019. SHS exposure was reported by 29.44% of participants. "Workplace" was listed as the top location for SHS exposure. Twenty-three of the 31 participants who tested cotinine-negative in their saliva samples self-reported SHS exposure in the survey questionnaire. However, two of the eight participants who tested cotinine-positive in their saliva samples self-reported SHS-exposure negative. The mean PI in the SHS group is higher than that in the non-SHS group (1.10 vs. 1.02) in fetuses at 24 weeks' gestation. However, the PI may not be suitable as an index for SHS exposure at 12 weeks' gestation due to frequent absent or reversed diastolic flow. Conclusion: The first survey on SHS exposure in pregnant women that combines a questionnaire, saliva cotinine tests, and ultrasound flow index analysis has been performed in China and provided valuable data for ensuing studies.

Therapy of a schizoaffective disorder as a risk factor of perinatal complications and fetal developmental disorders

Introduction: Schizoaffective disorder is described as a combination of symptoms of schizophrenia and mood disorder components. It is estimated that in 2009 in Poland over 30 thousands women were treated in outpatient care because of schizotypical disorders, also in 2009, over 5,5 thousands Polish women, were hospitalised because of the same reason.

Material and method: We searched through whole medical documentation of the patient, which were available at the Department of Psychiatry and Gynaecology. We mainly focused on the last hospitalization of the woman. We found research connected to our subject on Science Direct website.

Discussion: A 34-year-old woman was admitted to Department of Psychiatry, patient was 14 weeks pregnant. Family described her behaviour as verbally and physically aggressive and dysphoric which forced her parents to take woman to the hospital. It was her third hospitalization. Pharmacotherapy was insufficient to improve the mental state of the woman. Doctors decided to carry out a series of electroconvulsive treatments (10 procedures). When woman was 36 weeks pregnant, there was a leak of green amniotic fluid and it was necessary to perform a caesarean section. A newborn required mechanical ventilation, had decreased muscle tone and facial dysmorphic features, also defect of the atrial septum was found.

Conclusions: Pregnant women with psychiatric disorders should be all considered high risk. It means that they need multidisciplinary care – psychiatrist, gynaecologist, neonatologist or other specialists, in order to stay in a good condition mentally and physically during pregnancy.

The effects of amniotic fluid and foetal cord blood cotinine concentrations on pregnancy complications and the anthropometric measurements of newborns

Our objective was determining the effects of amniotic fluid (AF) and fetal cord blood (FCB) cotinine concentrations on pregnancy complications and the anthropometric measurements in the newborns whose mothers underwent amniocentesis. This study was conducted as a case-control study, in Turkey. A total of 250 pregnant women with amniocentesis indication were recruited into the study and the cotinine levels in the AF and FCB were determined. A smoking habit did not statistically affect the incidence of pregnancy complications (p>.05). The birth weights of the newborns were negatively correlated with the AF cotinine levels. The incidences of low birth weight, low Apgar scores and RDS were positively correlated with higher levels of cotinine in AF and FCB. It is important for healthcare staff to provide training and consultancy services for the health improvement of pregnant women and the prevention of smoking during pregnancy. Impact statement What is already known on this subject? The pre-pregnancy smoking habit usually continues during the pregnancy. A significant negative correlation was present between the foetal cord blood cotinine levels and the birth weight. What do the results of this study add? The anthropometric measurements of the newborns born from mothers with high AF cotinine levels were lower than newborns born from mothers with low amniotic fluid cotinine levels. Respiratory Distress syndrome is more often determined in newborns born from mothers with high AF cotinine levels. What are the implications of these findings for clinical practice and/or further research? Future studies should be performed to investigate the effects of cigarette smoking on the health problems, the growth characteristics and the neurological development of newborns and infants within the first year of life.

Intrauterine Growth Restriction: Postnatal Monitoring and Outcomes

Intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR) is an important cause of fetal, perinatal and neonatal morbidity and mortality. IUGR occurs because of multiple reasons. Neonates with IUGR experience acute problems in the perinatal and early neonatal period that can be life-threatening. The unfavorable uterine environment causing growth restriction results in programming that predisposes IUGR infants to long-term health issues such as poor physical growth, metabolic syndrome, cardiovascular disease, neurodevelopmental impairment and endocrine abnormalities, warranting careful monitoring. It is imperative to strike the balance between achieving optimal catch-up to promote normal development, while preventing the onset of cardiovascular and metabolic disorders in the long-term.

Influence of Active Exposure to Tobacco Smoke on Nitric Oxide Status of Pregnant Women

Smoking tobacco can impair proper vascular endothelial functioning. This is exhibited through reduced nitric oxide synthesis as well as activity due to accompanying oxidative stress. We examined the relationship between nitric oxide and markers of oxidative stress/antioxidant defense in serum of smoking and non-smoking pregnant women. Subjects included 99 healthy pregnant women, who were tested for nitric oxide (NO), endothelial (eNOS) and inducible (iNOS) nitric oxide synthase, total oxidant capacity (TOC), and total antioxidant capacity (TAC). NO, eNOS, and TAC serum concentrations were significantly lower (p < 0.005), but iNOS (p < 0.05) and TOC (p < 0.001) were higher in smokers than in non-smokers. Multivariate regression analysis showed associations between NO concentration and eNOS, TAC, and smoking status in the whole group of patients. In the model estimated separately for smokers, the highest impact of eNOS (β = 0.375; p = 0.021) and cotinine (β = −0.323; p = 0.037) was indicated for NO concentration. In the model of non-smokers, eNOS (β = 0.291, p = 0.030) and TAC (β = 0.350; p = 0.015) were important for NO level. Smoking during pregnancy could exacerbate oxidative stress, impair the action of nitric oxide synthases, and adversely affect the balance of oxygen and nitrogen metabolism. Relationships between NO concentrations and TAC in the studied women’s blood can confirm the antioxidant nature of nitric oxide.

Influence of tobacco smoke on zinc, cadmium, iron, iron-binding proteins, and low-weight anti-oxidant status in pregnancy

Pregnancy and tobacco smoking (TS) each can cause increases in reactive oxygen species (ROS) production; this, in turn, can lead to disorders in iron management and disruption of the pro- and anti-oxidant balance. The aim of the study was to analyze the influence of TS and Cd on Fe, Zn, and anti-oxidant levels (i.e. glutathione [GSH], metallothionein [MT]) in the blood of pregnant women. The study reported here evaluated 110 blood samples from pregnant women in their 1st, 2nd and 3rd trimester. Concentrations of ferritin and transferrin were measured in the serum; Zn, Fe and cotinine in the plasma, that of Cd in whole blood, that for glutathione in red blood cell lysates, and levels of metallothionein both in the plasma and in lysates prepared from isolated erythrocytes. The results indicated there was a decrease in Zn and increase in Cd and metallothionein levels in pregnant women smokers as compared to in nonsmoking counterparts. Differences in intracellular MT concentration were noted both in smoking and nonsmoking women during pregnancy while there were no changes in extracellular MT level. A decline in circulating ferritin and a rise in transferrin during pregnancy was observed in all groups. Based on the results, it was concluded that exposure to TS-associated xenobiotics like Cd could result in higher MT levels in erythrocytes and in pregnant smokers, the major anti-oxidant mechanism that is in place is one being mediated by MT and not by reduced GSH.

The effect of passive and active exposure to tobacco smoke on lipid profile parameters and the activity of certain membrane enzymes in the blood of women in the first trimester of pregnancy

The effect of tobacco smoke on lipid peroxidation, the lipid profile and membrane-bound enzymatic activity in the first trimester of pregnancy was investigated. In the plasma of women with active exposure to tobacco smoke, we have found increased lipid peroxidation and higher total concentrations of cholesterol, triglycerides and low-density lipoproteins in the blood, as well as a decreased concentration of high-density lipoproteins. A higher concentration of low-density lipoproteins and a lower concentration of high-density lipoproteins were also found in the plasma of passive smokers. In contrast, women who smoked before pregnancy had only a higher low-density lipoprotein concentration. In the group of active and passive smoking women, lower arylesterase and phosphotriesterase activities of paraoxonase were observed, while the lactonase activity of paraoxonase decreased only in the group of active smoking women. In women with active exposure to tobacco smoke, a higher activity level of alanine aminopeptidase and γ-glutamyltransferase in the plasma was found. It is important to monitor the lipid profile during pregnancy, especially when exposure to tobacco smoke occurs.

Pregnancy-specific stress, fetoplacental haemodynamics, and neonatal outcomes in women with small for gestational age pregnancies: a secondary analysis of the multicentre Prospective Observational Trial to Optimise Paediatric Health in Intrauterine Growth Restriction

OBJECTIVES

To examine associations between maternal pregnancy-specific stress and umbilical (UA PI) and middle cerebral artery pulsatility indices (MCA PI), cerebroplacental ratio, absent end diastolic flow (AEDF), birthweight, prematurity, neonatal intensive care unit admission and adverse obstetric outcomes in women with small for gestational age pregnancies. It was hypothesised that maternal pregnancy-specific stress would be associated with fetoplacental haemodynamics and neonatal outcomes.

DESIGN

This is a secondary analysis of data collected for a large-scale prospective observational study.

SETTING

This study was conducted in the seven major obstetric hospitals in Ireland and Northern Ireland.

PARTICIPANTS

Participants included 331 women who participated in the Prospective Observational Trial to Optimise Paediatric Health in Intrauterine Growth Restriction. Women with singleton pregnancies between 24 and 36 weeks gestation, estimated fetal weight <10th percentile and no major structural or chromosomal abnormalities were included.

PRIMARY AND SECONDARY OUTCOME MEASURES

Serial Doppler ultrasound examinations of the umbilical and middle cerebral arteries between 20 and 42 weeks gestation, Pregnancy Distress Questionnaire (PDQ) scores between 23 and 40 weeks gestation and neonatal outcomes.

RESULTS

Concerns about physical symptoms and body image at 35-40 weeks were associated with lower odds of abnormal UAPI (OR 0.826, 95% CI 0.696 to 0.979, p=0.028). PDQ score (OR 1.073, 95% CI 1.012 to 1.137, p=0.017), concerns about birth and the baby (OR 1.143, 95% CI 1.037 to 1.260, p=0.007) and concerns about physical symptoms and body image (OR 1.283, 95% CI 1.070 to 1.538, p=0.007) at 29-34 weeks were associated with higher odds of abnormal MCA PI. Concerns about birth and the baby at 29-34 weeks (OR 1.202, 95% CI 1.018 to 1.421, p=0.030) were associated with higher odds of AEDF. Concerns about physical symptoms and body image at 35-40 weeks were associated with decreased odds of neonatal intensive care unit admission (OR 0.635, 95% CI 0.435 to 0.927, p=0.019).

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest that fetoplacental haemodynamics may be a mechanistic link between maternal prenatal stress and fetal and neonatal well-being, but additional research is required.

The influence of maternal smoking on transferrin sialylation and fetal biometric parameters

OBJECTIVES

Transferrin is a glycosylated protein responsible for transporting iron, an essential metal responsible for proper fetal development. Tobacco is a heavily used xenobiotic having a negative impact on the human body and pregnancy outcomes. Aims of this study was to examine the influence of tobacco smoking on transferrin sialic acid residues and their connection with fetal biometric parameters in women with iron-deficiency.

METHODS

The study involved 173 samples from pregnant women, smokers and non-smokers, iron deficient and not. Transferrin sialylation was determined by capillary electrophoresis. The cadmium (Cd) level was measured by atomic absorption and the sialic acid concentration by the resorcinol method.

RESULTS

Women with iron deficiencies who smoked gave birth earlier than non-smoking, non-iron-deficient women. The Cd level, but not the cotinine level, was positively correlated with transferrin sialylation in the blood of iron-deficient women who smoked; 3-, 4-, 5- and 6-sialoTf correlated negatively with fetal biometric parameters in the same group.

CONCLUSION

It has been shown the relationship between Cd from tobacco smoking and fetal biometric parameters observed only in the iron deficient group suggests an additive effect of these two factors, and indicate that mothers with anemia may be more susceptible to Cd toxicity and disturbed fetal development.

Decreased activation of placental mTOR family members is associated with the induction of intrauterine growth restriction by secondhand smoke in the mouse

Cigarette smoke is known to be a risk for the development of intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR). Our objective was to assess the effects of secondhand smoke (SHS) during pregnancy and to what extent it regulates the activation of mTOR family members and murine trophoblast invasion. Mice were treated to SHS for 4 days. Placental and fetal weights were recorded at the time of necropsy. Immunohistochemistry was used to determine the level of placental trophoblast invasion. Western blots were utilized to assess the activation of caspase 3, XIAP, mTOR, p70 and 4EBP1 in treated and control placental lysates. As compared to controls, treated animals showed: (1) decreased placental (1.4-fold) and fetal (2.3-fold) weights (p < 0.05); (2) decreased trophoblast invasion; (3) significantly decreased active caspase 3 (1.3-fold; p < 0.02) and increased active XIAP (3.6-fold; p < 0.05) in the placenta; and (4) a significant decrease in the activation of placental mTOR (2.1-fold; p < 0.05), p70 (1.9-fold; p < 0.05) and 4EBP1 (1.3-fold; p < 0.05). Confirmatory in vitro experiments revealed decreased trophoblast invasion when SW71 cells were treated with 0.5 or 1.0 % cigarette smoke extract (CSE). Similar to primary smoking, SHS may induce IUGR via decreased activation of the mTOR family of proteins in the placenta. Increased activation of the placental XIAP protein could be a survival mechanism for abnormal trophoblast cells during SHS exposure. Further, CSE reduced trophoblast invasion, suggesting a direct causative effect of smoke on susceptible trophoblast cells involved in IUGR progression. These results provide important insight into the physiological consequences of SHS exposure and smoke-mediated placental disease.

Influence of tobacco smoking on transferrin sialylation during pregnancy in smoking and non-smoking women with iron deficiency

OBJECTIVES

Tobacco smoking influence on proteins is leading to despaired foetal nourishment. Transferrin, is an essential metal-binding protein responsible for iron transport and proper foetal development. This study examines influence of tobacco smoking on transferrin sialic acid residues and its connection to foetal nourishment at women with iron deficiency.

METHODS

The study involved 190 samples from pregnant women in 1st, 2nd and 3rd trimester. Women were divided in terms of tobacco smoking and iron deficiency.

RESULTS

During pregnancy, the levels of 2-, 5- and 6-sialo transferrin were increasing while 3- and 4-sialo transferrin were decreasing in all groups. Transferrin isoforms showed positive correlation with lowered iron stores in the blood of non-smoking women.

CONCLUSION

Tobacco smoking has an influence on number of sialic acids residues in the transferrin and seems to change conversion of Tf isoforms, and this may disturb iron transport and in consequence influence on foetal development and nourishment.

The Influence of Tobacco Smoke on Protein and Metal Levels in the Serum of Women during Pregnancy

Background

Tobacco smoking by pregnant women has a negative effect on fetal development and increases pregnancy risk by changing the oxidative balance and microelements level. Smoking affects the concentration, structure and function of proteins, potentially leading to various negative effects on pregnancy outcomes.

Methodology/Principal Findings

The influence of tobacco smoke on key protein fractions in smoking and non-smoking healthy pregnant women was determined by capillary electrophoresis (CE). Concentrations of the proteins α1-antitrypsin, α1-acid glycoprotein, α2-macroglobulin and transferrin were determined by ELISA tests. Total protein concentration was measured by the Biuret method. Smoking status was established by cotinine levels. Cadmium (Cd) and Zinc (Zn) concentrations were determined by flame atomic absorption spectrometry and the Zn/Cd ratio was calculated based on these numbers. Smoking women had a 3.7 times higher level of Cd than non-smoking women. Zn levels decreased during pregnancy for all women. The Zn/Cd ratio was three times lower in smoking women. The differences between the changes in the protein profile for smoking and non-smoking women were noted. Regarding proteins, α1-antitrypsin and α2-macroglobulin levels were lower in the non-smoking group than in the smoking group and correlated with Cd levels (r = -0.968, p = 0.032 for non-smokers; r = −0.835, p = 0.019 for smokers). Zn/Cd ratios correlated negatively with α1-, α2- and β-globulins.

Conclusions/Significance

Exposure to tobacco smoke increases the concentration of Cd in the blood of pregnant women and may lead to an elevated risk of pregnancy disorders. During pregnancy alter concentrations of some proteins. The correlation of Cd with proteins suggests that it is one of the causes of protein aberrations.

How does tobacco smoke influence the morphometry of the fetus and the umbilical cord?-Research on pregnant women with intrauterine growth restriction exposed to tobacco smoke

Proper structure of the umbilical cord is important for the fetal development. We evaluated effects of toxic factors from tobacco smoke on fetal and umbilical cord morphometry. 109 women in weeks 29-40 of pregnancy (31 smokers with intrauterine growth restriction (IUGR); 28 non-smoking women with IUGR; 50 healthy pregnancies) were included. In smokers with IUGR, cotinine, cadmium and lead concentrations were significantly higher than in controls (mean 55.23ng/l; 1.52ng/ml; 14.85ng/ml vs 1.07; 0.34; 9.42) and inverse correlation between lead concentration and uncoiled umbilical cord was significant (r=-0.80). In smokers with IUGR, area of Wharton's jelly was increased compared to nonsmokers and controls. Inverse correlations occurred between cotinine and cadmium concentration and fetal percentile in smokers (r=-0.87; r=-0.87) and non-smokers (r=-0.47; r=-0.78) with IUGR. Exposure to tobacco smoke measured by cotinine, cadmium and lead concentration has an impact on fetal growth and umbilical cord morphometry and correlates with intensity of IUGR.

Early-life exposure to substance abuse and risk of type 2 diabetes in adulthood

Type 2 diabetes (T2D) is a chronic non-communicable disease that is driven by insulin resistance as a result of increasing obesity and decreasing activity levels that occur with increasing age. This disease generally develops after the age of 40, but it is now increasingly diagnosed in children and young adults. Increasing evidence, however, suggests that T2D can originate during early development. It has been repeatedly found that malnutrition during the gestational period can result in intrauterine growth restriction and low birth weight, which in combination with postnatal catch-up growth may subsequently lead to the development of T2D. There is ample evidence that T2D may also be programmed by maternal substance abuse (the harmful use of psychoactive substances such as illicit drugs or alcohol) during pregnancy and/or lactation. The research activity in this field is currently mainly focused on the childhood health problems following prenatal exposures to substance abuse. The delayed programming effects on adult-onset disorders, including metabolic syndrome and T2D, however, have been reported only rarely. This review provides animal and human evidence that early-life exposure to substance abuse, including alcohol, nicotine, and cocaine, may program not only childhood health outcomes but also life-long metabolic health status, including risk of T2D and related conditions.