A review of five tests to identify motor coordination difficulties in young adults

Hybrid Pedagogical Intervention can Decrease Impulsivity and Antisocial Behavior and Improve Motor and Cognitive Functions Among Iranian Adolescent

The present study aimed to investigate the impact of a hybrid pedagogical model consisting of Teaching Games for Understanding (TGFU) and Teaching for Personal and Social Responsibility (TPSR) on the impulsivity, antisocial behaviors, and cognitive function of adolescent students. The study involved 60 male adolescent school students with an average age of 13.32 ± 1.65 years. The research was conducted in four stages: pre-test, teaching game and responsibility through table tennis sessions, post-test, and follow-up. The results of rANOVA indicated a significant decrease in impulsivity and antisocial behaviors from the beginning to the end of the intervention, along with an improvement in responsibility, cognitive, and motor function. Notably, the hybrid pedagogical model participants reported lower scores for impulsivity and antisocial behavior and higher scores for cognitive and motor function than their counterparts in the control group. The findings of the present study provide evidence for the effectiveness of hybrid pedagogical model in adolescent school students and physical education settings. These results suggest that hybrid pedagogical model can be a valuable addition to standard interventions such as psychotherapy, for reducing psychological problems and impulsivity in adolescent students.

Motor proficiency of persons with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder or autism spectrum disorder diagnosed in adulthood

PURPOSE

To compare (1) motor proficiency of persons diagnosed in adulthood with attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) or autism spectrum disorder (ASD) with normative values of motor proficiency, and (2) motor proficiency between persons with ADHD and those with ASD diagnosed in adulthood.

METHODS

A total of 153 adults (median age 32 years, 36% women) participated in this cross-sectional study. Fifty-three persons with predominately inattentive presentation (ADHD-I), 67 persons with combined presentation (ADHD-C), and 33 persons with ASD performed the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency (BOT-2). One-sample binominal tests were used to compare motor proficiency against standardized norms of BOT-2 for young adults. One-way ANOVAs and Kruskal-Wallis tests were used to compare test outcomes between the groups.

RESULTS

The total sample showed significantly impaired motor proficiency in comparison to norms in all test domains (p < 0.001-0.006), except for fine motor skills. The ASD group showed significantly poorer body coordination compared with the ADHD-I and ADHD-C groups, with a moderate effect size (p = 0.003-0.02, η2 = 0.061).

CONCLUSIONS

Motor proficiency is impaired in most persons with ADHD or ASD diagnosed in adulthood, suggesting that motor assessment should be included in clinical examinations of adults with suspected neurodevelopment disorders.

Translation and Adaptation of the Adult Developmental Coordination Disorder/Dyspraxia Checklist (ADC) into Asian Uzbekistan

Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) is a neurodevelopmental condition that emerges in childhood and its symptoms continue through adulthood. The Adult Developmental Coordination Disorders/Dyspraxia Checklist was the first instrument used to screen adults with possible DCD. The psychometric characteristics of the Uzbek version of the scale were explored. An independent translation of the questionnaire from the original version into the Uzbek language was made. The sample comprised 301 Uzbekistan adults, aged between 17 and 42 years old (M = 20.66; SD = 2.26). Analyses were performed using R software (4.1.0). Descriptive analysis, exploratory factor analysis, and evidence of reliability in terms of internal consistency were assessed using the psych package (2.1.6), intraclass correlation coefficients were assessed using the irr package (0.84.1), and weighted Kappa were assessed using vcd package (1.4-10). To analyse the factor structure of the ADC scale, when applied to an Uzbekistan sample, exploratory factor analysis (EFA) was performed. In the Uzbek version, a one-factor structure was identified, and moderated psychometric properties were found, which makes it a possible alternative to the original scale when applied to adults. This Uzbek version reduces respondents' fatigue since it is smaller than the original one. More studies are needed to confirm the cut-off scores of this new version.

Reduced Peak Bone Mass in Young Adults With Low Motor Competence

Although suboptimal bone health has been reported in children and adolescents with low motor competence (LMC), it is not known whether such deficits are present at the time of peak bone mass. We examined the impact of LMC on bone mineral density (BMD) in 1043 participants (484 females) from the Raine Cohort Study. Participants had motor competence assessed using the McCarron Assessment of Neuromuscular Development at 10, 14, and 17 years, and a whole-body dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry (DXA) scan at 20 years. Bone loading from physical activity was estimated from the International Physical Activity Questionnaire at the age of 17 years. The association between LMC and BMD was determined using general linear models that controlled for sex, age, body mass index, vitamin D status, and prior bone loading. Results indicated LMC status (present in 29.6% males and 21.9% females) was associated with a 1.8% to 2.6% decrease in BMD at all load-bearing bone sites. Assessment by sex showed that the association was mainly in males. Osteogenic potential of physical activity was associated with increased BMD dependent on sex and LMC status, with males with LMC showing a reduced effect from increasing bone loading. As such, although engagement in osteogenic physical activity is associated with BMD, other factors involved in physical activity, eg, diversity, movement quality, may also contribute to BMD differences based upon LMC status. The finding of lower peak bone mass for individuals with LMC may reflect a higher risk of osteoporosis, especially for males; however, further research is required. © 2023 The Authors. Journal of Bone and Mineral Research published by Wiley Periodicals LLC on behalf of American Society for Bone and Mineral Research (ASBMR).

Comparing the Movement Assessment Battery for Children with the Bruininks‐Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency in adolescents with and without schizophrenia

BACKGROUND

As motor impairments have implications for health and functioning, they need to be addressed early, not only in childhood but also in adolescence, the period in which mental disorders as schizophrenia, typically develops. Further, the possible prognostic value of motor impairments in schizophrenia highlights the importance. The Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency (BOT-2) and the Movement Assessment Battery for Children (MABC-2) assess adolescent motor performance. However, MABC-2 is not valid past age 16 and has no sex-norms. Further, while the concurrent validity between the tests and their ability to distinguish between clinical and non-clinical groups has been established in children, however they have not been established in adolescence.

PURPOSE

To compare the ability of MABC-2 and BOT-2 to distinguish between adolescents with and without schizophrenia, to examine the concurrent validity between tests, to examine the agreement between tests in classifying adolescents "at risk" or scoring "below average" and to examine the influence of age and sex on MABC-2.

METHOD

Motor performance assessed by BOT-2 and MABC-2 was compared in 25 adolescents with schizophrenia (14-18) and age- and sex-matched controls using t-test, Cohen's D and false discovery rate's q-value. The associations between tests were assessed using Pearson's correlation and Lin's concordance correlation coefficient. The Kappa coefficient was used to assess the agreement between tests in classifying "risk/below average" and linear regression was adopted to assess the influence of age/sex on MABC-2.

RESULTS

MABC-2 and BOT-2 significantly distinguished adolescents with schizophrenia from controls with large effect size. A strong association (p > 0.001) was found between the tests. The tests revealed moderate agreement in identifying "risk" or scoring "below average". Only sex influenced MABC-2 scores.

CONCLUSION

MABC-2 and BOT-2 are both useful for assessing motor performance and distinguishing between adolescents with and without schizophrenia, although BOT-2 provides a more detailed picture of the challenges in adolescent with schizophrenia.

The role of the primary motor cortex in motor imagery: A theta burst stimulation study

While mentally simulated actions activate similar neural structures to overt movement, the role of the primary motor cortex (PMC) in motor imagery remains disputed. The aim of the study was to use continuous theta burst stimulation (cTBS) to modulate corticospinal activity to investigate the putative role of the PMC in implicit motor imagery in young adults with typical and atypical motor ability. A randomized, double blind, sham‐controlled, crossover, offline cTBS protocol was applied to 35 young adults. During three separate sessions, adults with typical and low motor ability (developmental coordination disorder [DCD]), received active cTBS to the PMC and supplementary motor area (SMA), and sham stimulation to either the PMC or SMA. Following stimulation, participants completed measures of motor imagery (i.e., hand rotation task) and visual imagery (i.e., letter number rotation task). Although active cTBS significantly reduced corticospinal excitability in adults with typical motor ability, neither task performance was altered following active cTBS to the PMC or SMA, compared to performance after sham cTBS. These results did not differ across motor status (i.e., typical motor ability and DCD). These findings are not consistent with our hypothesis that the PMC (and SMA) is directly involved in motor imagery. Instead, previous motor cortical activation observed during motor imagery may be an epiphenomenon of other neurophysiological processes and/or activity within brain regions involved in motor imagery. This study highlights the need to consider multi‐session theta burst stimulation application and its neural effects when probing the putative role of motor cortices in motor imagery.

A controlled continuous theta burst stimulation protocol was adopted to examine the role of the primary motor cortex in motor imagery. While corticospinal excitability was suppressed in individuals with typical motor ability, no changes in imagery performance were detected after applying active stimulation to the motor regions. This suggests that motor regions may not be causally implicated in motor imagery and/or that multiple stimulation sessions may be required when inducing cognitive‐behavioral changes.

Assessment of the Impact of the Tipstim® Device Application and the Study Position on Motor Coordination and Grip Strength of the Affected Upper Limb Post-Ischemic Stroke—A Randomized Parallel Crossover Trial

In the acute phase of stroke, most patients have reduced efficiency of the upper limb and in the chronic phase more than half of these patients still have a deficit in the mobility of the upper limb. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of using the tipstim® device and the tested position of the body and affected upper limb on parameters of motor coordination and grip strength in patients after an ischemic stroke. A randomized, parallel crossover study was conducted in the Rehabilitation Department. The study included 29 people aged 68 ± 9.2 years, 5–7 weeks after ischemic stroke. Patients were randomly assigned to two parallel groups (A/B = 15 people and B/A = 14 people). In each of them, the patient received both experimental (A = tipstim®) and control (B = placebo effect) treatment in a specific order. The HandTutor was used to measure the parameters of motor coordination (maximum range of motion and frequency of motion). We also used an electronic dynamometer to measure the handgrip strength. The patients were examined in two positions: sitting (unstable) and lying with the trunk and affected upper limb stabilized. Results: The analysis showed smaller differences between the measurements in the A/B group than in the B/A group, both without stabilization and with stabilization (wrist Hz = p ˂ 0.001; fingers 2–5 Hz = p ˂ 0.001; handgrip strength = p ˂ 0.049 and p ˂ 0.003). When comparing the influence of the tested position on the results of motor coordination and the handgrip strength, statistically significant differences were found in the placebo group in a stable position (Hz wrist p = 0.007, MaxROM wrist = 0.038, HzF5 = 0.039, MaxROM F4 = 0.035, HzF3 = 0.035, MaxROM F3 = 0.010, HzF2 = 0.049). Conclusions: Repeated use of the tipstim® device did not improve the tested parameters. A significant improvement in the results of coordination of movements and grip strength is possible in a stable position, lying down.

Motor Coordination and Grip Strength of the Dominant and Non-Dominant Affected Upper Limb Depending on the Body Position—An Observational Study of Patients after Ischemic Stroke

Stroke is one of the leading causes of human disability globally. Motor function deficits resulting from a stroke affect the entire body, but relatively often it is the upper limbs that remain ineffective, which is very limiting in everyday life activities. The finding in neurorehabilitation that trunk control contributes to upper limb function is relatively common but has not been confirmed in clinical trials. This observational prospective study aims to analyze the effect of the position of the trunk and the affected upper limb on the coordination and grip strength of the affected dominant and non-dominant hand and wrist in people after ischemic stroke. The research was carried out at the Department of Neurological Rehabilitation, on a group of 60 patients with acute ischemic stroke. A Hand Tutor device and a hand dynamometer were used for the main measurements of the motor coordination parameters (maximum range of motion, frequency of movement) and the grip strength of the dominant and non-dominant upper limb. The patients were examined in two positions: sitting without back support and lying on the back with stabilization of the upper limb. Higher and relevant results were observed in the non-dominant hand, in the supine position in terms of motor coordination parameters of the fingers (p = 0.019; p = 0.011) and wrist (p = 0.033), and grip strength (p = 0.017). Conclusions: The laying position and stabilization of the affected upper limb in the acute phase following ischemic stroke is more beneficial for the coordination of movements and grip strength of the non-dominant hand.

Associations Between Physical Activity and Gross Motor Skills in Parent–Child Dyads

This study examines the associations of physical activity and gross motor skills in parent–child dyads. Parent–child dyads (N = 61, 84% mothers, children aged 8–11 years) participated in this study. Anthropometrics were self-reported through Qualtrics. Physical activity was assessed using accelerometers. Motor skills were measured through four skills: catch, kick, throw, and jump. These skills were assessed using process (i.e., performance criteria of the Test of Gross Motor Development-3) and product (i.e., catch percentage and jump distance) measures. A complete motor skill score was computed by standardizing both process and product scores and summing them. Correlation coefficients and ordinary least square regressions were computed to examine the associations of physical activity and motor skills. Parents’ and children’s moderate to vigorous physical activity were significantly associated (β = 0.30 ± 0.11; p = .008). Parents’ and children’s motor skills were significantly associated (β = 0.46 ± 0.18; p = .012). Understanding parent determinants can support effective interventions targeting children’s low physical activity levels and improving motor competence. Our results highlight the importance of parents’ physical activity and motor skills, which are significantly associated with those of their children. These parent factors may be a key consideration for effective family-based physical activity interventions.

Mental rotation performance in young adults with and without developmental coordination disorder

While there have been consistent behavioural reports of atypical hand rotation task (HRT) performance in adults with developmental coordination disorder (DCD), this study aimed to clarify whether this deficit could be attributed to specific difficulties in motor imagery (MI), as opposed to broad deficits in general mental rotation. Participants were 57 young adults aged 18-30 years with (n = 22) and without DCD (n = 35). Participants were compared on the HRT, a measure of MI, and the letter number rotation task (LNRT), a common visual imagery task. Only participants whose behavioural performance on the HRT suggested use of a MI strategy were included in group comparisons. Young adults with DCD were significantly less efficient compared to controls when completing the HRT yet showed comparable performance on the LNRT relative to adults with typical motor ability. Our data are consistent with the view that atypical HRT performance in adults with DCD is likely to be attributed to specific difficulties engaging in MI, as opposed to deficits in general mental rotation. Based on the theory that MI provides insight into the integrity of internal action representations, these findings offer further support for the internal modelling deficit hypothesis of DCD.

Error-Related Cognitive Control and Behavioral Adaptation Mechanisms in the Context of Motor Functioning and Anxiety

Motor proficiency reflects the ability to perform precise and coordinated movements in different contexts. Previous research suggests that different profiles of motor proficiency may be associated with different cognitive functioning characteristics thus suggesting an interaction between cognitive and motor processes. The current study investigated this interaction in the general population of healthy adults with different profiles of motor proficiency by focusing on error-related cognitive control and behavioral adaptation mechanisms. In addition, the impact of these processes was assessed in terms of trait anxiety and worries. Forty healthy adults were divided into high and low motor proficiency groups based on an assessment of their motor skills. Using electroencephalography during a flanker task, error-related negativity (ERN) was measured as the neural indicator of cognitive control. Post-error slowing (PES) was measured to represent behavioral adaptation. Participants also completed an anxiety assessment questionnaire. Participants in the high motor proficiency group achieved better task accuracy and showed relatively enhanced cognitive control through increased ERN. Contrastingly, individuals in the lower motor proficiency group achieved poorer accuracy whilst showing some evidence of compensation through increased PES. Trait anxiety reflecting general worries was found to be correlated with motor functioning, but the study could not provide evidence that this was related to cognitive or behavioral control mechanisms. The interaction between cognitive and motor processes observed in this study is unique for healthy and sub-clinical populations and provides a baseline for the interpretation of similar investigations in individuals with motor disorders.

Gross Motor Coordination: We Have a Problem! A Study With the Körperkoordinations Test für Kinder in Youth (6-13 Years)

The main goal of our cross-sectional research was to determine the current values of gross motor coordination (GMC) of Italian boys and girls between 6 and 13 years of age. Secondary goals were to study gender differences, and the four subtests trend with ages. Results were compared with the references proposed by KTK authors and with similar searches. Anthropometric measurements and KTK data from 2,206 schoolchildren (girls: n = 1,050; boys: n = 1,156) were collected. The KTK raw score (RS) increased with the age of the subjects (r = 0.678; p < 0.001). In 11-13-year-old subjects, the increase in results is less than in younger subjects. RS showed differences by gender (F = 5.899; p = 0.015) and age (F = 269.193; p < 0.001) without interaction gender × age. Motor quotient (MQ) tended to decrease with age (r = -0.148; p < 0.001); it showed differences by gender (F = 79.228; p < 0.001), age (F = 14.217; p < 0.001), and an interaction gender × age (F = 2.249; p < 0.05). Boys showed better performance than did girls in the raw scores of three of four subtests (JS: F = 24.529; MS: F = 9.052; HH: F = 11.105). Girls show better performances than did boys in the WB (F = 14.52). Differences between genders make us believe it appropriate to maintain a differentiated standardization. RS increased with age, and it seems reasonable, therefore, to maintain a GMC age-based normalization. On the contrary, MQ tended to decrease. All this makes us speculate that today's young people accumulate less significant motor experiences over the years compared to those achieved by their peers in the 1970s. Italian data were lower than German references and Belgian results but slightly higher than the Brazilian ones. The comparison among these four searches confirmed a worrying downward trend in GMC and its characterization by geographical and sociocultural areas. Updated parameters of the KTK can provide helpful references to improve policies to support physical activity, sport, and physical education in youth.

Physical Therapy Management of Children With Developmental Coordination Disorder: An Evidence-Based Clinical Practice Guideline From the Academy of Pediatric Physical Therapy of the American Physical Therapy Association

BACKGROUND

Developmental coordination disorder (DCD), classified as a neurodevelopmental disorder in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5), affects approximately 5% to 6% of school-aged children. Characteristics of DCD include poor motor coordination and delayed development of motor skills, not explained by other conditions. Motor deficits negatively affect school productivity, performance in activities of daily living, and recreation participation. Children with coordination problems, at risk for or diagnosed with DCD, should be evaluated by a team of professionals, including a physical therapist (PT).

PURPOSE

This clinical practice guideline (CPG) provides management strategies for PTs and informs clinicians and families about DCD. It links 13 action statements with specific levels of evidence through critical appraisal of the literature and provides recommendations for implementation.

RESULTS/CONCLUSIONS

The DCD CPG addresses examination, referral, first choice and supplemental interventions, discharge, compliance audits, implementation, and research recommendations. Supplemental tools are provided to support PT management.

Association of Childhood Psychomotor Coordination With Survival Up to 6 Decades Later

IMPORTANCE

Poorer performance on standard tests of motor coordination in children has emerging links with sedentary behavior, obesity, and functional capacity in later life. These observations are suggestive of an untested association of coordination with health outcomes, including mortality.

OBJECTIVE

To examine the association of performance on a series of psychomotor coordination tests in childhood with mortality up to 6 decades later.

DESIGN, SETTING, AND PARTICIPANTS

The British National Child Development Study (1958 Birth Cohort Study) is a prospective cohort study based on a nationally representative sample of births from England, Scotland, and Wales. A total of 17 415 individuals had their gross and fine motor psychomotor coordination assessed using 9 tests at ages 11 and 16 years. Data analysis for the present study was conducted from October 2016 to December 2019.

MAIN OUTCOMES AND MEASURES

All-cause mortality as ascertained from a vital status registry and survey records.

RESULTS

In this birth cohort study of 17 415 individuals who underwent a series of psychomotor coordination tests in childhood, follow up was conducted over several decades. Of the analytical sample of 12 678 individuals, 51% were male, and 72% came from a lower social group. Mortality surveillance between ages 12 and 58 years in an analytical sample of 17 062 men and women yielded 1072 deaths (766 661 person-years at risk). In survival analyses with adjustment for sex, higher scores on 7 of the 9 childhood coordination tests were associated with a lower risk of mortality in a stepwise manner. After controlling for early-life socioeconomic, health, cognitive, and developmental factors, lower mortality was statistically significantly associated with 3 tests: ball catching at age 11 years (0-8 vs 10 catches: hazard ratio [HR], 1.57; 95% CI, 1.19-2.07), match-picking at age 11 years (>50 vs 0-36 seconds: HR, 1.33; 95% CI, 1.09-1.63), and hopping at age 16 years (very unsteady vs very steady: HR, 1.28; 95% CI, 1.01-1.63).

CONCLUSIONS AND RELEVANCE

The results of this cohort study suggest that childhood motor coordination is associated with lower mortality up to middle-age; these findings require replication.

Identifying Developmental Motor Difficulties: A Review of Tests to Assess Motor Coordination in Children

The latest guidelines recommend early identification of children with motor impairments using a standardized norm-referenced test. Motor coordination difficulties in developmental age have been studied extensively over recent years, with experimental literature on developmental coordination disorder (DCD) suggesting that motor proficiency assessments depend on the nature of the task at hand. In this article we reviewed 14 assessment tools to measure movement performance in childhood and adolescence, which are often referred to in an international context. This updated review aims to compare motor tests depending on a) the nature of the tasks included in the battery (i.e., questionnaire and clinical examination), b) psychometric properties, and c) cultural adaptation to relevant developmental norms. Finally, implications for diagnosis and clinical practice are discussed. Considering there are several tests used for DCD, it is important to better define their reliability and validity in different cultures in order to better compare the validation studies and select the most appropriate test to use in the assessment procedure.

Freestyle gymnastic exercise can be used to assess complex coordination in a variety of sports

Objective

The assessment of motor coordination is a very complex process and demonstrates a high degree of sport specificity. There are a limited number of tests, if any, where results correlate with the success rate of athletes in different sports.

Methods

Free style gymnastic exercise (FSGE) and coordination ball dribbling exercise (CBDE) were used to see whether the execution quality of these tests is related to the quality of athletes from team handball, water polo, kayak, rhythmical gymnastics (RG) and aerobics (222 athletes - 75 male, 147 female; 23 non-athletes - 9 male, 14 female).

Results

FSGE results related to the quality of performance in all sports (r = -0.232, p < 0.01 in handball, water polo, kayak and r = -0.26, p < 0.05 in aerobics and RG), while CBDE did not. Older players had higher ranking as they had more time to be successful at their sport (r = -0.498, p < 0.01 in handball, water polo, kayak; r = -0.298, p < 0.05 in aerobics and RG). The scores of FSGE were independent from the age and gender of the subjects.

Conclusions

The main findings were: (i) that athletes did significantly better than the controls in both tests; (ii) RG and aerobics athletes did better on the FSGE than handball, water polo players and kayakers; (iii) handball players did better than kayakers, RG and aerobics athletes on the CBDE test; and (iv) better ranked athletes performed better on the FGSE test. Therefore, FSGE test appears to be a reliable test to assess coordination in variety of sport and different levels of sport performance.

Relationships among motor skill, perceived self-competence, fitness, and physical activity in young adults

PURPOSE

This large-scale, exploratory study sought to examine the associations between motor skill proficiency (MSP), perceived self-competence (PC), physical fitness (PF), and self-reported physical activity (PA) to assess the assumption that relationships among these variables found in childhood and adolescence persist into young-adulthood. Specifically, predictors of PF and PA were assessed. Additionally, the contributions body mass index (BMI) and gender made to these relationships, as well as that of process- versus product-oriented motor skills data, were studied. Finally, how these relationships differed by gender was explored.

METHODS

Participants' (n = 448) MSP was assessed using select measures from the TGMD-2 and the BOT-2, while PF was evaluated using the FitnessGram. Participants also completed surveys to assess PC (SPPCS), PA (past-week MAQ), and demographic information. Height and weight were collected to calculate BMI.

RESULTS

Models predicting physical fitness had good fit to the observed data, with perceived athletic competence, locomotor skill, upper-limb coordination, BMI, and gender accounting for about 75% (R² = 0.748) of aerobic PF variance and about 48% (R² = 0.476) of variance in push-up performances. About 18% (R² = 0.178) of variance in curl-up performances was predicted by perceived athletic competence, locomotor skill, upper-limb coordination, and PA. The PA model demonstrated weaker predictive power, with only about 10% (R² = 0.097) of variance explained. When considering male and female models separately, female models demonstrated better fit when predicting all PF and PA outcome variables. BMI and gender operated as significant predictors to differing degrees across the various models.

CONCLUSIONS

There is compelling evidence to believe relationships found among MSP, PC, PF, and PA in childhood and adolescence also exist in early adulthood. However, differences in the roles of gender and physical fitness versus physical activity are likely to exist.

Structural validity of the Bruininks-Oseretsky test of motor proficiency - Second edition brief form (BOT-2-BF)

BACKGROUND

Practitioners often assess the motor skills of children presented with suspected developmental delays. It is essential that the tests used to assess children have strong measurement properties including validity.

AIM

The structural validity of the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency - second edition Brief Form (BOT-2-BF) was investigated.

METHOD

123 healthy children (67 males & 56 females; M = 10 years, 2 months; SD = 1 year, 4 months) completed the BOT-2-BF. The Rasch Measurement Model (RMM) was used to assess the 14-item BOT-2-BF's dimensionality, hierarchical ordering, differential item functioning (DIF), and item and person separation reliability.

RESULTS

Nine BOT-2-BF misfit RMM requirements. A second RMM analysis of a five-item BOT-2-BF version was completed. The five-item version did meet the RMM requirements of item fit, dimensionality, hierarchical ordering, lack of DIF, and adequate item and person separation reliability.

IMPLICATIONS

The 14-item version of the BOT-2-BF is not recommended for use as a screening scale to assess children's motor skill performance. However, a revised five-item version of the BOT-2-BF did appear to meet RMM expectations. Further psychometric assessment of the revised five-item version of the BOT-2-BF is recommended.

Motor coordination problems and psychological distress in young adults: A test of the Environmental Stress Hypothesis

BACKGROUND AND AIMS

The Environmental Stress Hypothesis (ESH) has been used to examine how the relationship between poor motor coordination and psychological distress is affected by physical health and psychosocial factors. However, work applying the ESH is still limited, and no studies have used this framework with adults. The current investigation aims to examine the association between motor coordination and psychological distress among emerging adults, and examine potential mediators to this relationship based on the ESH.

METHODS

225 young adults aged 17-23 years completed a survey of motor coordination, physical activity, secondary stressors (i.e., general stress and global relationships), perceived social support, self-concept, and psychological distress. Structural equation modeling was conducted to examine mediating pathways and overall model fit.

RESULTS

The final model of the ESH showed good model fit (x² = 83.24, p < .01; RMSEA=0.056; NNFI = 0.927; CFI = 0.954; GFI = 0.947), and indicated that the relationship between poor motor coordination and psychological distress was mediated by secondary stressors, perceived social support, and self-concept.

CONCLUSIONS

This study highlights the effect of poor motor coordination on psychological distress in young adults, and suggests that interventions should target psychosocial well-being, in addition to motor coordination, to prevent psychological distress.

What's missing in autism spectrum disorder motor assessments?

BACKGROUND

Motor delays and impairments in autism spectrum disorders (ASD) are extremely common and often herald the emergence of pervasive atypical development. Clinical accounts of ASD and standardized measures of motor function have identified deficits in multiple motor domains. However, literature describing frequently used standardized motor assessments in children with ASD, their test properties, and their limitations are sparse.

METHODS

We systematically reviewed the literature to identify the most frequently used standardized motor assessments used to evaluate children with ASD from infancy to early childhood. All assessments included were required to possess reference norms, evaluate more than one motor domain, and have undergone some degree of validation.

RESULTS

We identified six frequently used standardized measures of motor function per our inclusion and exclusion criteria. We investigated and described in detail the psychometric properties of these assessments, their utility for use with children with ASD, and their individual and overall strengths and limitations. The global strengths of these assessments are the ability to identify early development delays and differences in fine and gross motor function in children with ASD. Global limitations of these studies are lack of validation in individuals with ASD and scoring systems that often miss specific and subtle abnormalities.

CONCLUSIONS

Standardized assessments of motor function have provided valuable information on motor impairments in ASD. However, significant limitations remain in the use of these measures in children with ASD. Moving forward, it is imperative that standardized measures of motor function receive greater validation testing in children with ASD to assess their potential application given the clinical heterogeneity of this condition. In addition, utilizing quantitative measures of motor function should allow for evaluation and comparison of individuals with ASD across the lifespan with varying cognitive and behavioral abilities.

White matter organization in developmental coordination disorder: A pilot study exploring the added value of constrained spherical deconvolution

Previous studies of white matter organization in sensorimotor tracts in developmental coordination disorder (DCD) have adopted diffusion tensor imaging (DTI), a method unable to reconcile pathways with ‘crossing fibres’. In response to limitations of the commonly adopted DTI approach, the present study employed a framework that can reconcile the ‘crossing fibre’ problem (i.e., constrained spherical deconvolution- CSD) to characterize white matter tissue organization of sensorimotor tracts in young adults with DCD. Participants were 19 healthy adults aged 18–46: 7 met diagnostic criteria for DCD (4 females) and 12 were controls (3 females). All underwent high angular diffusion MRI. After preprocessing, the left and right corticospinal tracts (CST) and superior longitudinal fasciculi (SLF) were delineated and all tracts were then generated using both CSD and DTI tractography respectively. Based on the CSD model, individuals with DCD demonstrated significantly decreased mean apparent fibre density (AFD) in the left SLF relative to controls (with large effect size, Cohen's d = 1.32) and a trend for decreased tract volume of the right SLF (with medium-large effect size, Cohen's d = 0.73). No differences in SLF microstructure were found between groups using DTI, nor were differences in CST microstructure observed across groups regardless of hemisphere or diffusion model. Our data are consistent with the view that motor impairment characteristic of DCD may be subserved by white matter abnormalities in sensorimotor tracts, specifically the left and right SLF. Our data further highlight the benefits of higher order diffusion MRI (e.g. CSD) relative to DTI for clarifying earlier inconsistencies in reports speaking to white matter organization in DCD, and its contribution to poor motor skill in DCD.

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All previous diffusion studies of white matter in DCD have employed a tensor model

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We employed a non-tensor model to characterize microstructure in adults with DCD

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The non-tensor model showed atypical white matter organization in the SLF in DCD

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The tensor model failed to detect microstructural group differences for any tract

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Motor impairment characteristic of DCD may be subserved by white matter abnormalities

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We need to move beyond the tensor model in characterizing white matter in DCD

Early and anticipatory postural adjustments in healthy subjects under stable and unstable sitting conditions

Clinicians frequently incorporate unstable sitting devices into training plans for improving proximal postural muscle control; however, the effect of unstable sitting conditions on postural adjustments during dynamic activities has not been fully explored. The aim of this study was to characterize early postural adjustments (EPAs) and anticipatory postural adjustments (APAs) under stable and unstable sitting conditions. Using a cross-sectional laboratory study design, 13 healthy college student volunteers used their dominant hand to reach forward and push a target under stable and unstable sitting conditions; subjects sat on an air-filled rubber cushion for the unstable condition. EPAs and APAs were quantified by recording muscle activation of the trunk and lower extremity muscles using electromyography (EMG). The center of pressure (COP) was measured using a force plate. The resulting EMG integral of the ipsilateral gastrocnemius muscle was larger during the EPA phase and smaller during the APA phase under unstable conditions (p = 0.014 and p = 0.041, respectively). COP amplitude in the anterior-posterior direction, path length, and velocity, was larger during the APA phase (p = 0.035, p = 0.023, and 0.023, respectively). This suggests greater distal muscle activation during EPAs in unstable sitting conditions, specifically in the ipsilateral gastrocnemius muscle. In addition, APAs adjusted by reducing the activity of the ipsilateral gastrocnemius muscle and increasing the anterior-posterior shift in the COP to compensate for the expected additional perturbation due to an unstable surface.

A hitchhiker's guide to assessing young people's motor competence: Deciding what method to use

OBJECTIVES

To offer a user's guide to select appropriate measures of motor competence for children and adolescents.

DESIGN

Expert consensus among a working group of the International Motor Development Research Consortium (I-MDRC).

METHODS

The guide provides information on objective (motion devices and direct observation) and subjective (self-reports and proxy reports) methods for assessing motor competence among children and adolescents. Key characteristics (age group, sample size, delivery mode, assessment time, data output, data processing) as well as limitations and practical considerations (e.g., cost, sources of error) with regard to each method are included in this paper. We do not recommend specific instruments, rather a guide to assist researchers and practitioners interested in assessing children's motor competence.

RESULTS

A decision flow chart was developed to support practitioners and researchers in selecting appropriate methods for measuring motor competence in young people. Real-life scenarios are presented to illustrate the use of different methods in research and practice.

CONCLUSIONS

Policy makers, practitioners and researchers should consider the strengths and limitations of each method when measuring motor competence in children and adolescents. This will allow them to choose the most appropriate instrument(s) that meets their needs.

The relationship of gross upper and lower limb motor competence to measures of health and fitness in adolescents aged 13-14 years

Introduction

Motor competence (MC) is an important factor in the development of health and fitness in adolescence.

Aims

This cross-sectional study aims to explore the distribution of MC across school students aged 13–14 years old and the extent of the relationship of MC to measures of health and fitness across genders.

Methods

A total of 718 participants were tested from three different schools in the UK, 311 girls and 407 boys (aged 13–14 years), pairwise deletion for correlation variables reduced this to 555 (245 girls, 310 boys). Assessments consisted of body mass index, aerobic capacity, anaerobic power, and upper limb and lower limb MC. The distribution of MC and the strength of the relationships between MC and health/fitness measures were explored.

Results

Girls performed lower for MC and health/fitness measures compared with boys. Both measures of MC showed a normal distribution and a significant linear relationship of MC to all health and fitness measures for boys, girls and combined genders. A stronger relationship was reported for upper limb MC and aerobic capacity when compared with lower limb MC and aerobic capacity in boys (t=−2.21, degrees of freedom=307, P=0.03, 95% CI −0.253 to –0.011).

Conclusion

Normally distributed measures of upper and lower limb MC are linearly related to health and fitness measures in adolescents in a UK sample.

Trial registration number

NCT02517333.

Interhemispheric Cortical Inhibition Is Reduced in Young Adults With Developmental Coordination Disorder

Introduction

While the etiology of developmental coordination disorder (DCD) is yet to be established, brain-behavior modeling provides a cogent argument that neuropathology may subserve the motor difficulties typical of DCD. We argue that a number of the core behavioral features of the DCD profile (such as poor surround inhibition, compromised motor inhibition, and the presence of mirror movements) are consistent with difficulties regulating inhibition within the primary motor cortex (M1). This study aimed to be the first account of the integrity of cortical inhibition in motor cortices in DCD.

Method

The sample consisted of eight adults with DCD aged (18–30 years) and 10 aged matched neurotypical controls. Participants received a common battery of single and paired-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation from which a series of neurophysiological measures classically used to measure intra- [e.g., short-interval cortical inhibition (SICI), long-interval cortical inhibition (LICI), and cortical silent period] and inter hemispheric [e.g., ipsilateral silent period (ISP)] cortical inhibition of the M1 at rest were recorded.

Results

While no group differences were observed for any measure of intrahemispheric cortical inhibition, individuals with DCD demonstrated significantly reduced interhemispheric cortical inhibition relative to controls, shown by consistently lower ISP_ratios.

Conclusion

Our findings are consistent with the view that regulation of cortical inhibition of M1 activity may be atypical in individuals with DCD, indicating differential GABAergic operation. This effect, however, appears to be select to cortical inhibition. Importantly, our data support the notion that reduced interhemispheric M1 cortical inhibition may at least partly explain commonly reported difficulties with bimanual motor control in DCD. The neurochemical implications and limitations of this evidence will be discussed.

Improving Early Adolescent Girls' Motor Skill: A Cluster Randomized Controlled Trial

BACKGROUND

Physical activity (PA) levels decline substantially during adolescence and are consistently lower in girls. Competency in a range of fundamental movement skills (FMSs) may serve as a protective factor for the decline in PA typically observed in adolescent girls; yet, girls' mastery in FMS is low. Although interventions can improve FMS, there is a lack of interventions targeting girls, and very few are conducted in high schools. In addition, interventions are usually conducted by researchers, not teachers, and thus have little chance of being embedded into curricula.

PURPOSE

This study aimed to evaluate the effectiveness of a school-based intervention, delivered by teachers, in improving adolescent girls' FMS.

METHODS

Four all-girls Australian secondary schools were recruited and randomized into intervention or control groups. In total, 190 year 7 girls (103 control/87 intervention; mean age, 12.4 ± 0.3 yr) completed baseline and posttest measures at 12 wk. Six FMS (i.e., catch, throw, kick, jump, leap, and dodge) were measured using the Victorian FMS Assessment instrument. Mixed models with posttest skill (i.e., locomotor, object control, and total skill) as the outcome, adjusting for baseline skill, intervention and control status, and relevant covariates, as well as accounting for clustering at school and class level, were used to assess the intervention impact.

RESULTS

There were significant intervention effects, and large effect sizes (Cohen d) noted in locomotor (P = 0.04, t = 5.15, d = 1.6), object control (P < 0.001, t = 11.06, d = 0.83), and total skill (P = 0.02, t = 7.22, d = 1.36).

CONCLUSIONS

Teachers adequately trained in authentic assessment and student-centered instruction can significantly improve the FMS competency of early adolescent girls. Therefore, comprehensive teacher training should be viewed as an integral component of future school-based interventions.

The General Motor Ability Hypothesis: An Old Idea Revisited

While specific motor abilities have become a popular explanation for motor performance, the older, alternate notion of a general motor ability should be revisited. Current theories lack consensus, and most motor assessment tools continue to derive a single composite score to represent motor capacity. In addition, results from elegant statistical procedures such as higher order factor analyses, cluster analyses, and Item Response Theory support a more global motor ability. We propose a contemporary model of general motor ability as a unidimensional construct that is emergent and fluid over an individual’s lifespan, influenced by both biological and environmental factors. In this article, we address the implications of this model for theory, practice, assessment, and research. Based on our hypothesis and Item Response Theory, our Lifespan Motor Ability Scale can identify motor assessment tasks that are relevant and important across varied phases of lifespan development.

Corticospinal excitability during motor imagery is reduced in young adults with developmental coordination disorder

While a compelling body of behavioral research suggests that individuals with developmental coordination disorder (DCD) experience difficulties engaging motor imagery (MI), very little is known about the neural correlates of this deficit. Since corticospinal excitability is a predictor of MI proficiency in healthy adults, we reasoned that decreased MI efficiency in DCD may be paralleled by atypical primary motor cortex (PMC) activity. Participants were 29 young adults aged 18- 36 years: 8 with DCD (DCD) and 21 controls. Six participants with DCD and 15 controls showed behavioral profiles consistent with the use of a MI strategy (MI users) while performing a novel adaptation of the classic hand laterality task (HLT). Single-pulse transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) was administered to the hand node of the left PMC (hPMC) at 50ms, 400ms or 650ms post stimulus presentation during the HLT. Motor-evoked potentials (MEPs) were recorded from the right first dorsal interosseous (FDI) via electromyography. As predicted, MI users with DCD were significantly less efficient than MI using controls, shown by poorer performance on the HLT. Importantly, unlike healthy controls, no evidence of enhanced hPMC activity during MI was detected in our DCD group. Our data are consistent with the view that inefficient MI in DCD may be subserved by decreased hPMC activity. These findings are an important step towards clarifying the neuro-cognitive correlates of poor MI ability and motor skill in individuals with DCD.

A narrative meta-review of a series of systematic and meta-analytic reviews on the intervention outcome for children with developmental co-ordination disorder

BACKGROUND

Systematic reviews and meta-analyses are considered to be the 'gold standards' for synthesizing research evidence in particular areas of enquiry. However, such reviews are only useful if they themselves are conducted to a sufficiently high standard. The aim of this study was to conduct a narrative meta-review of existing analyses of the effectiveness of interventions designed for children with developmental co-ordination disorder (DCD).

METHODS

A narrative meta-review of systematic and meta-analytic reviews aimed at evaluating the effectiveness of intervention for children with DCD was conducted on studies published between 1950 and 2014. We identified suitable reviews, using a modification of the Population, Intervention, Comparison, Outcome (PICO) system and evaluated their methodological quality using the Assessment of Multiple Systematic Reviews (AMSTAR). In addition, the consistency of the quality of evidence and classification of intervention approaches was assessed independently by two assessors.

RESULTS

The literature search yielded a total of four appropriate reviews published in the selected time span. The Assessment of Multiple Systematic Reviews percentage quality scores assigned to each review ranged from 0% (low quality) to 55% (medium quality). Evaluation of the quality of evidence and classification of intervention approaches yielded a discrepancy rate of 25%. All reviews concluded that some kind of intervention was better than none at all.

CONCLUSIONS

Although the quality of the reviews progressively improved over the years, the shortcomings identified need to be addressed before concrete evidence regarding the best approach to intervention for children with DCD can be specified.

Inter-limb transfer of kinematic adaptation in individuals with motor difficulties

A previous study suggested that adults with greater motor difficulties demonstrated less adaptation under a regular error feedback schedule (gain=1:1) but reached a similar level of adaptation compared to controls when feedback was enhanced (gain=1:2). In light of these findings, the present study examined inter-limb transfer after adults adapted to visuomotor distortions with their dominant hand on either regular or enhanced feedback schedules. Results revealed that successful transfer related to the magnitude of adaptation with their dominant hand regardless of the individuals' motor abilities on the regular feedback schedule. When the feedback was enhanced, the transfer was not related to either the adaptation of the dominant hand or individuals' motor abilities. We argue that a stable internal model is essential for inter-limb transfer in kinematic adaptation.

The reliability and validity of an authentic motor skill assessment tool for early adolescent girls in an Australian school setting

OBJECTIVES

Proficiency in fundamental movement skills (FMS) is positively correlated with cardiorespiratory fitness, healthy weight status, and physical activity. Many instruments have been developed to assess FMS in children. It is important to accurately measure FMS competency in adolescent populations, particularly in girls, who are less proficient than boys. Yet these tests have not been validated or tested for reliability among girls in this age group.

DESIGN

The current study tested the concurrent validity and reliability of two FMS assessment instruments; the newly developed Canadian Agility and Movement Skill Assessment (CAMSA), against the Victorian FMS Assessment from Australia, among a sample of early adolescent girls.

METHODS

In total, 34 Year 7 females (mean age 12.6 years) from Australia were tested and retested on each instrument in a school setting.

RESULTS

Test-retest reliability was excellent for the overall CAMSA score (ICC=0.91) and for the isolated time and skill score components (time: ICC=0.80; skill: ICC=0.85). Test-retest reliability of the Victorian FMS Assessment was also good (ICC=0.79). There was no evidence of proportional bias in either assessment. There was evidence of strong concurrent validity (r_s=0.68, p<0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

Both instruments were found to be reliable and valid. However, compared to the Victorian FMS instrument, the CAMSA has the advantage of both process and product assessment, less time needed to administer and higher authenticity, and so may be an attractive alternative to the more traditional forms of FMS assessment, for use with early adolescent girls, in school settings.

Development and evaluation of the psychometric properties of the Adolescent Motor Competence Questionnaire (AMCQ) for Adolescents

BACKGROUND

There are no valid and reliable self-report measures designed to identify level of motor competence and suspected motor difficulties among 12-18year old adolescents.

AIM

This paper reports the development and evaluation of a self-report questionnaire (Adolescent Motor Competence Questionnaire; AMCQ) to address this need.

METHOD

The project proceeded in 3 phases; (A) item development, (B) content evaluation, and (C) examination of reliability and validity of the final questionnaire. Each phase was informed by criteria A and B in the Diagnostic and Statistical Manual of Mental Disorders, Fifth Edition (DSM-5), comments from a sample of 10 adolescents aged between 12 and 18 years with a range of movement skills, key informants and international experts. A convenience sample of 38 adolescents completed the final version of the AMCQ. The McCarron Assessment of Neuromuscular Development (MAND) was used to investigate concurrent validity.

RESULTS

The final version of the AMCQ comprised 26 items scored using a 4 point Likert scale with a maximum score of 104. Analyses revealed the questionnaire has an acceptable internal consistency (0.902) and 7day test-retest reliability (0.956). A moderate positive correlation between the AMCQ and the MAND of 0.491 (p<0.002) provides some evidence of concurrent validity.

CONCLUSION

The development of the AMCQ was exploratory in nature and has the potential to be a reliable and valid tool for measuring motor competence in Australian adolescents.