The fundamental motor skill proficiency among Polish primary school-aged children: A nationally representative surveillance study

OBJECTIVES

With the premise that physical education classes should promote physical activity by teaching and learning fundamental motor skills, this study aimed to evaluate the fundamental motor skill proficiency of primary school students and determine the level of achievement of established learning outcomes for fundamental motor skills, as specified in the Polish National Physical Education Curriculum.

DESIGN AND METHODS

A cross-sectional design was used for this study. The sample consisted of 2605 children and adolescents enrolled in grades 1-3 (ages 7-9, n = 1165), 4-6 (ages 10-12, n = 837), and 7-8 (ages 13-14, n = 603), including 1353 boys and 1252 girls. The Fundamental Motor Skills in Sport test, a qualitative and process-oriented assessment tool, was used to evaluate fundamental motor skills. The Fundamental Motor Skills in Sport test evaluates the following movement skills: hurdles, jumping rope, forward roll, ball bouncing, ball throwing and catching, and kicking and stopping a ball.

RESULTS

The desired level of overall fundamental motor skill proficiency was achieved by only 2 % of students. An elementary level of fundamental motor skill proficiency was demonstrated by an additional 3.5 % of students. Further, the results showed that only 10-30 % of students had achieved mastery or were close to achieving mastery in a given fundamental motor skill. The skill with the lowest level of proficiency was jumping rope, which only 11 % of students had mastered or were near to mastering.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study of a large, nationally representative sample of primary school students in Poland indicates that the vast majority (approximately 94 %) of them demonstrated insufficient fundamental motor skill proficiency. This may greatly hinder effective, safe, and healthy participation in lifelong physical activity.

Individual differences in children's movement variability in a virtual reality playground task

Children's movements are highly complex, and thus require measurements that capture various gross motor strategies. This study examined whether aspects of individual differences in children's gross motor movement patterns could be captured in virtual reality (VR) and how motor movements could be conceptualized through freezing-freeing patterns of degrees of freedom. To this end, a three-minute VR scenario was developed for children to freely explore, play, and move around without further instructions, and their movement strategies were simultaneously captured by a non-invasive inertial motion capture system. Sixty-four children aged 7-10 (boys: n = 37, girls: n = 27) participated. The results of correlational and principal component analysis (PCA) on measures of variability of upper extremities indicated significant relationships between nearly all measures (r = 0.31-0.69, p < 0.05). Similarly, a PCA on variability from joint movements in the lower extremities indicated relatively high intercorrelations (r = 0.31-0.71, p < 0.01). A pattern of four different variability profiles was indicated in the interrelationship between the upper and lower body. These findings emphasize the value of using innovative measurements and whole-body motion capture to disentangle individual differences in children's movement variability in product- and process-oriented assessments of gross motor competence.

Does body mass index distinguish motor proficiency, social and emotional maturity among adolescent girls?

BACKGROUND

The objective of this study was to investigate whether different body mass index (BMI) groups could serve as a distinguishing factor for assessing motor proficiency and social and emotional maturity in adolescent girls.

METHODS

140 girls ranging from 12 to 14.5 years old were selected from the schools of Tabriz city, Iran. After their height and weight were measured to calculate body mass index, they completed the following questionnaires: Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of motor proficiency, Second Edition,Vineland Social Maturity Scale, and Emotional Maturity scale.

RESULTS

normal-weight girls had a meaningful advantage against overweight and underweight participants in the gross motor factor of motor proficiency (p = 0.004), but there wasn't a meaningful difference in the fine motor p = 0.196) and coordination factors (p = 0.417). Also, social maturity showed an advantage of normal and underweight adolescent girls in the self-help dressing factor (p = 0.018), while the locomotion skills (p = 0.010) factor revealed a better performance of normal weight and overweight groups over underweight adolescents. No significant differences were observed in the emotional maturity subscales (p = 0.63) between the groups.

CONCLUSIONS

The present study demonstrates that BMI has a direct influence on adolescents' gross motor proficiency and social maturity.

The fus test: a promising tool for evaluating fundamental motor skills in children and adolescents

Fundamental motor skills (FMS) are essential for enjoyable, confident and skillful participation in physical activity across the lifespan. Due to the alarming low level of FMS proficiency in children and adolescents worldwide, the development of motor competency is an urgent issue for physical education. The promotion and implementation of a systematic process of teaching and learning FMS should be a physical education priority. Accordingly, effective assessment tools for evaluating FMS should be adopted or developed. Because FMS assessment for both children and adolescents need further effective solutions, the primary aim of this study was to develop the new age-related test of FMS (Fundamental Motor Skills in Sport test, in Polish: Test Fundamentalnych Umiejętności Ruchowych w Sporcie, FUS). The secondary aim of this study was to establish validity and inter-rater, intra-rater, test-retest reliabilities and internal consistency of the FUS test. The FUS test involves six sport skill-based tasks: hurdling, jumping rope, forward roll, ball bouncing, throwing and catching a ball, and kicking and stopping a ball. Two hundred sixty-four Polish students in grades 1-3 (7-9 yrs; n = 81), 4-6 (10-12 yrs; n = 89) and 7-8 (13-14 yrs; n = 94), including 139 girls and 125 boys completed the FUS test. The content validity index for all items was notably high. Both inter-rater and intra-rater reliability showed substantial to almost perfect agreement, with observed agreements for FUS skills between 78.5 and 93.1%. Ball bouncing had a moderate correlation with the forward roll and throwing and catching, while other correlations were low or insignificant. ICC values, ranging from 0.95 to 0.97, confirmed excellent test-retest reliability. The results of our study provide evidence that the FUS test is valid, reliable, and feasible to administer in school settings. Therefore, this tool test has the potential to support deliberate practice and improve motor competence by providing a standardized and structured approach to measuring FMS among school-aged children and adolescents.

The effects of the COVID-19 lockdowns on motor skill development of 6- and 7-year old children in the Netherlands: a longitudinal study

BACKGROUND

The closing of schools and sports clubs during the COVID-19 lockdown raised questions about the possible impact on children's motor skill development. Therefore, we compared motor skill development over a one-year period among four different cohorts of primary school children of which two experienced no lockdowns during the study period (control cohorts) and two cohorts experienced one or two lockdowns during the study period (lockdown cohorts).

METHODS

A total of 992 children from 9 primary schools in Amsterdam (the Netherlands) participated in this study (age 5 - 7; 47.5% boys, 52.5% girls). Their motor skill competence was assessed twice, first in grade 3 (T1) and thereafter in grade 4 (T2). Children in control group 1 and lockdown group 1 were assessed a third time after two years (T3). Motor skill competence was assessed using the 4-Skills Test, which includes 4 components of motor skill: jumping force (locomotion), jumping coordination (coordination), bouncing ball (object control) and standing still (stability). Mixed factorial ANOVA's were used to analyse our data.

RESULTS

No significant differences in motor skill development over the study period between the lockdown groups and control groups (p > 0.05) were found, but a difference was found between the two lockdown groups: lockdown group 2 developed significantly better than lockdown group 1 (p = 0.008). While socioeconomic status was an effect modifier, sex and motor ability did not modify the effects of the lockdowns.

CONCLUSIONS

The COVID-19 lockdowns in the Netherlands did not negatively affect motor skill development of young children in our study. Due to the complexity of the factors related to the pandemic lockdowns and the dynamic systems involved in motor skill development of children, caution must be taken with drawing general conclusions. Therefore, children's motor skill development should be closely monitored in the upcoming years and attention should be paid to individual differences.

Reliability and validity of the Körperkoordinationstest Für Kinder in Chinese children

Background

The Körperkoordinationstest Für Kinder (KTK) is a reliable and low-cost motor coordination test tool that has been used in several countries. However, whether the KTK is a reliable and valid instrument for use in Chinese children has not been assessed. Additionally, because the KTK was designed to incorporate locomotor, object control, and stability skills, and there is a lack of measurement tools that include stability skills assessment for Chinese children, the KTK's value and validity are worth discussing.

Methods

A total of 249 primary school children (131 boys; 118 girls) aged 9-10 years from Shanghai were recruited in this study. Against the Test of Gross Motor Development-3 (TGMD-3), the concurrent validity of the KTK was assessed. We also tested the retest reliability and internal consistency of the KTK.

Results

The test-retest reliability of the KTK was excellent (overall: r = 0.951; balancing backwards: r = 0.869; hopping for height: r = 0.918; jumping sideways: r = 0.877; moving sideways: r = 0.647). Except for the boys, the internal consistency of the KTK was higher than the acceptable level of Cronbach's α > 0.60 (overall: α = 0.618; boys: α = 0.583; girls: α = 0.664). Acceptable concurrent validity was found between the total scores for the KTK and TGMD-3 (overall: r = 0.420, p < 0.001; boys: r = 0.411, p < 0.001; girls: r = 0.437, p < 0.001).

Discussion

The KTK is a reliable instrument for assessing the motor coordination of children in China. As such, the KTK can be used to monitor the level of motor coordination in Chinese children.

A Skill Acquisition Perspective on the Impact of Exergaming Technology on Foundational Movement Skill Development in Children 3-12 Years: A Systematic Review and Meta-analysis

BACKGROUND

Sedentary, digital screen time in children represents a major concern due to its detrimental effect on children's development. Nowadays, however, advances in technology allow children to actively interact with a digital screen using their whole body (e.g., exergaming), providing potential for movement learning. Exergaming technology may prove valuable in supporting children's development of foundational movement skills (FMS).

OBJECTIVE

To examine the impact of exergaming technology on the development of FMS in children 3-12 years through a skill acquisition lens.

METHODS

Systematic review and meta-analysis were conducted following the PRISMA guidelines. Web of Science, PubMed, PsycINFO and SPORTDiscus databases were searched between 2007 and 2022. Studies were eligible if they conducted an exergaming intervention to improve FMS in typically developing children aged three to twelve with a control group, using a baseline and post-intervention assessment design. FMS outcomes were pooled with a random effects model.

RESULTS

Nine trials (4 RCTs, 2 cluster RCTs and 3 non-randomized trials) of varying methodological quality (2 had low, 6 had some concerns, and 1 had a high risk of bias) were included, with a total of 783 participants. FMS outcome measures across studies comprised object control skills, locomotor skills, coordination, agility, balance and balance-related skills. The meta-analysis included showed a small positive effect in favor of the exergaming intervention (r = 0.24 [95% confidence interval: 0.11-0.36]).

CONCLUSION

Our results indicate that screen-based technology that requires an active engagement of the child can promote the development of FMS. Considering that FMS are the foundation of a child's physical, mental, health and academic development, this finding could lead to a reshaping of the perception of digital screen-based technology and the role this should play in children's lives. We speculate that the observed benefits most likely depend upon the quality of information-movement coupling specificity and the motor learning strategies built into the exergame and/or the intervention design. We do not believe this is dependent on the type of FMS being performed or the amount of practice. We recommend therefore that future research should examine how practitioners (school teachers, coaches and parents) can facilitate the interaction between a child and exergaming technology.

Protocol for a multicenter-cluster randomized clinical trial of a motor skills intervention to promote physical activity and health in children: the CHAMP afterschool program study

BACKGROUND

Promoting health-enhancing and sustainable physical activity levels across childhood and adolescence contribute to positive health outcomes as an adult. This study will aim to: a) examine the immediate (pre- to post-intervention) and sustained (1-year post-intervention follow-up) effects of the Children's Health Activity Motor Program-Afterschool Program (CHAMP-ASP) on physical activity, motor competence, and perceived motor competence relative to the comparison ASP, b) examine the immediate and sustained effects of CHAMP-ASP on secondary health outcomes, specifically health-related physical fitness (i.e., cardiorespiratory fitness, muscular strength, percent body fat) and weight status compared to children in the comparison ASP, and c) determine if perceived motor competence mediates the effect of CHAMP-ASP on moderate-to-vigorous physical activity.

METHODS

This multicenter cluster randomized trial will be implemented by ASP staff and will be conducted in ASPs located in two city-based cohorts: East Lansing/Lansing and Ann Arbor/Ypsilanti, Michigan. Children (N = 264) who are K-2 graders will participate 35 min/day X 3 days/week for 19 weeks (1995 min) in their afterschool movement program (i.e., CHAMP-ASP vs. comparison). The research team will train ASP staff to implement the program, which will be delivered within the existing ASP offering. Measures of physical activity (accelerometer), motor competence (process and product measures of fundamental motor skills), health-related fitness, perceived motor competence, and anthropometry will be collected pre-, immediately post-, and one-year post-intervention. Random-effects models will be used to assess the clustered longitudinal effect of the intervention on outcome measures.

DISCUSSION

The long-term goal is to provide a sustainable, ecologically-relevant, and evidence-based program during the early elementary years that can be delivered by ASP staff, is health-enhancing, and increases physical activity in children. Findings hold the potential to help shape public health and educational policies and interventions that support healthy development and active living during the early years.

TRIAL REGISTRATION

ClinicalTrials.gov Identifier NCT05342701 .

ETHICS AND DISSEMINATION

Ethical approval was obtained through the Health Sciences and Behavioral Sciences IRB, University of Michigan (HUM00208311). The CHAMP-ASP study is funded by the National Institutes of Health. Findings will be disseminated via print, online media, dissemination events, and practitioner and/or research journals.

Reliability levels of motor competence in youth athletes

This study aimed to analyze the reliability of the tests included in the motor competence assessment (MCA) battery and compare the effects of the number of trials per test. Thirty female volleyball players (14.6 ± 1.3 years of age) were tested. The participants performed two or three trials of each test. Intra-class correlation (ICC) was calculated, and a paired sample t-test analyzed the variations between trials (1st vs. 2nd vs. 3rd). Results revealed a significant difference between the first and the second trials for jumping sideways [t(29) = -4.108, p < 0.01], standing long jump [t(29) = -3.643, p < 0.01], and shuttle run [t(29) = -3.139, p < 0.01]. No significant result was registered in the shifting platforms, ball throwing and kicking between the first and second trials. Hence, any difference was recorded between the second and third trial. High ICC values were registered in lateral jumps, among the three repetitions of ball kicking and ball throwing, and between the last two repetitions of shuttle run. Almost perfect values were recorded for the shifting platforms and standing long jump. Nevertheless, there seems to be a learning effect between the first and the second repetition-no differences were registered only considering the two manipulative tests. In conclusion, except for jumping sideways, the MCA tests are reliable and only need to be performed two times instead of three.

Associations of sleep characteristics with cognitive and gross motor development in toddlers

OBJECTIVE

To examine cross-sectional associations of sleep characteristics (duration, consolidation, timing, variability) with cognitive and gross motor development in toddlers.

METHODS

Participants were 205 toddlers (19.6 ± 4.3 months) from the GET-UP!

STUDY

Nap/nighttime sleep onset and offset were measured using an accelerometer and used to calculate nap/nighttime sleep duration. Total sleep duration was calculated and classified as meeting or not meeting the sleep recommendation of the Australian 24-Hour Movement Guidelines (11-14 h/d). Nighttime sleep ratio (ie, nighttime sleep duration: total sleep duration), indicative of consolidation, was expressed as a percent value. Nighttime sleep midpoint (ie, the midpoint between nighttime sleep onset and offset), indicating the lateness of sleep schedules, was converted to a decimal hour. For sleep variability, the intraindividual standard deviation of nighttime sleep duration and nighttime sleep midpoint was calculated, respectively. Cognitive development (Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development-III) and specific domains of gross motor development (Peabody Developmental Motor Scales, 2nd edition) were measured.

RESULTS

Shorter nap duration (B = -0.87, 95%CI: -1.71, -0.02) and higher nighttime sleep ratio (B = 0.13, 95% CI: 0.02, 0.24) were associated with better cognitive development. Regarding gross motor development, positive associations were found for nighttime sleep duration (object manipulation: B = 0.26, 95% CI: 0.01, 0.51; gross motor quotient: B = 1.21, 95% CI: 0.04, 2.38) and total sleep duration (object manipulation: B = 0.28, 95% CI: 0.03, 0.52); negative associations were found for nighttime sleep midpoint (stationary: B = -0.31; 95% CI: -0.58, -0.06) and nighttime sleep duration variability (stationary: B = -0.32, 95% CI: -0.64, -0.004).

CONCLUSIONS

In toddlers, more consolidated sleep may be an indicator of better cognitive development. Promoting longer and more consistent nighttime sleep duration, as well as an earlier nighttime sleep schedule, may facilitate gross motor development. However, our findings for the associations of sleep characteristics with cognitive and gross motor development need to be confirmed in prospective studies.

Fundamental movement skills and perceived competence, but not fitness, are the key factors associated with technical skill performance in boys who play grassroots soccer

OBJECTIVE

This study examined the association between fitness, fundamental movement skills (FMS) and perceived competence on technical skills in boys engaged in grassroots soccer. Methods: Sixty boys (8-12 years of age, Mean ± SD = 10 ± 1 years) undertook assessment of FMS, perceived competence, physical fitness (15m sprint speed, standing long jump distance and seated 1kg medicine ball throw as a composite z-score) and technical skills (dribbling, passing and shooting as a composite z-score).

RESULTS

Multiple backwards linear regression was used to determine to amount of variance in technical skill explained by FMS, perceived competence and fitness. Results indicated a significant model (F 3,58= 42.04, P = .0001, Adj R2 = .680) which explained 68% of the variance in technical skills. Perceived competence (β=.316, P =.001), Total FMS (β=.140, P =.002), and chronological age (β=.863), P =.001) significantly contributed to the model.

CONCLUSION

This study demonstrates that better technical skills (passing, dribbling, shooting) in youth soccer are explained, alongside age, by being competent in FMS and having a more positive perception of competence. Coaches should therefore seek to encourage development of these factors during childhood for the benefit of technical skill performance.

Bidirectional relationships of physical activity and gross motor skills before and after summer break: Application of a cross-lagged panel model

BACKGROUND

Gross motor skills are postulated to have a bidirectional relationship with physical activity (PA); however, no study has tested this relationship before and after a summer break. The purpose of this study was to examine the bidirectional relationships between school PA and gross motor skills in children before and after a summer break.

METHODS

Participants were a sample of 440 children recruited from 3 low-income schools (age = 8.9 ± 1.2 years, mean ± SD). PA was assessed as average school-day step counts using Yamax DigiWalker pedometers (Yamasa Tokei Keiki, Tokyo, Japan) worn for 5 consecutive school days. Gross motor skills were assessed using the Test for Gross Motor Development, 3rd edition. Data were collected at 2 timepoints: at the end of spring semester (T1) and at the beginning of the subsequent fall semester (T2). An age- and body mass index-adjusted cross-lagged model was employed to relate T1 school step counts with T2 gross motor skills and T1 gross motor skills with T2 school step counts.

RESULTS

T1 gross motor skills significantly predicted T2 school step counts (β = 0.24, 95 % confidence interval (95%CI): 0.08-0.40, p = 0.003); however, T1 school step counts did not predict T2 gross motor skills (β = 0.04, 95%CI: -0.06 to 0.14, p = 0.445). The model explained 35.4% and 15.9% of the variances of T2 gross motor skills and T2 school step counts, respectively. Additional analyses indicated that these relationships were driven primarily by ball skills.

CONCLUSION

The relationship between gross motor skills and school PA was not bidirectional; however, higher gross motor skills, specifically ball skills, predicted higher school PA after a 3-month summer break.

Effect of Childhood Developmental Coordination Disorder on Adulthood Physical Activity; Arvo Ylppö Longitudinal Study

Individuals at risk of Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD) have low levels of physical activity in childhood due to impaired motor competence; however, physical activity levels in adulthood have not been established. This study sought to determine the impact of DCD risk on physical activity levels in adults using accelerometry measurement. Participants (n = 656) from the Arvo Ylppö Longitudinal Study cohort had their motor competence assessed at the age of five years, and their physical activity quantified via device assessment at the age of 25 years. Between group differences were assessed to differentiate physical activity measures for individuals based on DCD risk status, with general linear modeling performed to control for the effects of sex, body mass index (BMI), and maternal education. Participants at risk of DCD were found to have a lower total number of steps (d = 0.3, p = 0.022) than those not at risk. Statistical modeling indicated that DCD risk status increased time spent in sedentary light activity (β = 0.1, 95% CI 0.02 to 0.3, p = 0.026) and decreased time spent in vigorous physical activity via interaction with BMI (β = 0.04, 95% CI 0.001 to 0.1, p = 0.025). Sensitivity analysis found that visuomotor impairment did not significantly impact physical activity but did increase the role of DCD risk status in some models. This 20‐year‐longitudinal study indicated that DCD risk status continues to negatively impact on levels of physical activity into early adulthood.

Enhancing the implementation and sustainability of fundamental movement skill interventions in the UK and Ireland: lessons from collective intelligence engagement with stakeholders

BACKGROUND

To have population-level impact, physical activity (PA) interventions must be effectively implemented and sustained under real-world conditions. Adequate Fundamental Movement Skills (FMS) is integral to children being able to actively participate in play, games, and sports. Yet, few FMS interventions have been implemented at scale, nor sustained in routine practice, and thus it is important to understand the influences on sustained implementation. The study's aim was to use Collective Intelligence (CI)-an applied systems science approach-with stakeholder groups to understand barriers to the implementation of FMS interventions, interdependencies between these barriers, and options to overcome the system of barriers identified.

METHODS

Three CI sessions were conducted with three separate groups of experienced FMS intervention researchers/practitioners (N = 22) in the United Kingdom and Ireland. Participants generated and ranked barriers they perceive most critical in implementing FMS interventions. Each group developed a structural model describing how highly ranked barriers are interrelated in a system. Participants then conducted action mapping to solve the problem based on the logical relations between barriers reflected in the model.

RESULTS

The top ranked barriers (of 76) are those related to policy, physical education curriculum, and stakeholders' knowledge and appreciation. As reflected in the structural model, these barriers have influences over stakeholders' efficacy in delivering and evaluating interventions. According to this logical structure, 38 solutions were created as a roadmap to inform policy, practice, and research. Collectively, solutions suggest that efforts in implementation and sustainability need to be coordinated (i.e., building interrelationship with multiple stakeholders), and a policy or local infrastructure that supports these efforts is needed.

CONCLUSIONS

The current study is the first to describe the complexity of barriers to implementing and sustaining FMS interventions and provide a roadmap of actions that help navigate through the complexity. By directing attention to the ecological context of FMS intervention research and participation, the study provides researchers, policy makers, and practitioners with a framework of critical components and players that need to be considered when designing and operationalising future projects in more systemic and relational terms.

TGMD-3 short version: Evidence of validity and associations with sex in Irish children

This study examined the internal structure and evidence of validity of the Test of Gross Motor Development 3^rd edition (TGMD-3) in primary school aged children. Participants (n = 1608, 47% girls, age range 5-11 years, mean age 9.2 ± 2.04) were recruited from Irish schools across twelve counties (56% rural, 44% urban). The TGMD-3 was used to measure FMS proficiency (Ulrich, 2020). A two-factor model (13 skills) was used and confirmatory indexes were calculated. The Bayesian criteria and the Composite Reliability were employed to evaluate alternative models. Relationships between the final model proposed with age, sex and BMI were calculated using a network analysis. Mplus 8.0 and Rstudio were used. A two-factor model (locomotion and object control) with adequate values (> 0.30) for the seven skills (gallop, hop, jump, two-hand strike, bounce, catch, overhand throw) presented excellent indexes. The skills with the highest indicator of strength centrality in the network were bounce and catch for both boys and girls and hop for boys and horizontal jump for girls. This study evidences the validity and reliability of the internal structure of the TGMD-3 and demonstrates that a short version of the TGMD-3, comprising seven skills is a valid measure of FMS in this population.

Excess adiposity and low physical fitness hamper Supine-to-Stand test performance among sedentary adolescents

OBJECTIVE

The aim of this study was to analyze the relationship between body adiposity and physical fitness with performance in the Supine-to-Stand test (STS-test) in sedentary adolescents.

METHODS

Sixty-two adolescents, of both sexes, between 10 and 16 years old, participated in the study. Body mass (BM), height, waist circumference (WC), fat mass (FM), fat-free mass (FFM), right and left handgrip strength (HGS-right, HGS-left), abdominal resistance (ABDO), flexibility (FLEX), and cardiorespiratory fitness (VO_2peak) were measured. Body mass index (BMI), z-score BMI (BMI-z), tri-ponderal mass index (TMI) and waist-to-height ratio (WHtR) were calculated. The STS-test was applied to evaluate the STS-MC by the movement patterns in the execution of the test. The STS-time in seconds (s) was categorized into terciles: fast (FG < 2.0 s), intermediate (IG = 2.0-2.6 s) and slow (SG > 2.6 s). One-way ANOVA, Chi-square, Spearman's correlation coefficient as well as non-parametric tests were used, with significance p ≤ 0.05.

RESULTS

The SG presented higher BMI, BMI-z, TMI, WHtR, FM, %FM, as well as lower averages for %FFM, HGS-right, HGS-left, FLEX, ABDO, VO_2peak, VO_2peak relative to BM (VO_2peakBM) in relation to GF. The BMI, BMI-z, TMI, WC, WHtR and FM showed moderate and direct correlations with STS-time and inverse with STS-MC (p < 0.01). HGS-right, HGS-left, ABDO, and VO_2peakBM showed moderate and an inverse correlation with STS-time (p < 0.05). The VO_2peakBM was moderate and with direct correlations to STS-MC (p < 0.01).

CONCLUSION

It is concluded that excess fat and low physical fitness hamper STS-test performance. Therefore, the STS-test can be used for screening students to assess MC.

Motor competence in fundamental motor skills and sport skill learning: Testing the proficiency barrier hypothesis

We investigated whether motor competence in fundamental motor skills influences sports motor skill learning. Motor competence in fundamental motor skills related to the overhead volleyball serve (i.e., throwing and volleying) was evaluated in 38 children (aged 9-10 yrs) and participants were divided into lower and higher motor competence groups. The groups practiced the volleyball serve under random or constant-random conditions during an acquisition phase and then assessed in pre-test, intermediate, and retention tests. A three-way repeated-measures ANOVA showed performance improvement from pre-test to retention test only for high motor competence groups in fundamental motor skills. Initial competence in fundamental motor skills influences sport skills learning and demonstrates a potential proficiency barrier to learning complex-sports motor skills.

Fundamental movement skill proficiency and objectively measured physical activity in children with bronchiectasis: a cross-sectional study

Background

Bronchiectasis is a major contributor to respiratory morbidity and healthcare utilization in children. Children with bronchiectasis exhibit low levels of physical activity (PA) and poor fundamental movement skills (FMS) may be a contributing factor. However, there are no data on FMS’s in this population. The current study assessed FMS proficiency in children with bronchiectasis and examined associations with objectively measured PA.

Methods

Forty-six children with bronchiectasis (mean age 7.5 ± 2.6 year, 63% Male) were recruited from the Queensland Children’s Hospital, Brisbane. PA was measured using the ActiGraph GT3X + accelerometer. Raw accelerometer data were processed into daily time spent in sedentary activities, light-intensity activities and games, walking, running, and moderate-to-vigorous activities and games using a random forest (RF) PA classification algorithm specifically developed for children. Daily MVPA was calculated by summing time spent in walking, running, and moderate-to-vigorous activities and games. FMS were assessed using the Test of Gross Motor Development 2nd Edition (TGMD-2).

Results

Fewer than 5% of children demonstrated mastery in the run, gallop, hop, and leap; while fewer than 10% demonstrated mastery for the two-handed strike, overarm throw, and underarm throw. Only eight of the 46 children (17.4%) achieved their age equivalency for locomotor skills, while just four (8.7%) achieved their age equivalency for object control skills. One-way ANCOVA revealed that children achieving their age equivalency for FMS had significantly higher levels of MVPA than children not achieving their age equivalency (51.7 vs 36.7 min/day). When examined by the five activity classes predicted by the RF algorithm, children achieving their age equivalency exhibited significantly greater participation moderate-to-vigorous intensity activities and games (22.1 vs 10.7 min/day). No significant differences were observed for sedentary activities, light-intensity activities and games, walking, and running.

Conclusion

Children with bronchiectasis exhibit significant delays in their FMS development. However, those who meet their age equivalency for FMS proficiency participate in significantly more daily MVPA than children who do not meet their age-equivalency. Therapeutic exercise programs designed to improve FMS proficiency are thus likely to be beneficial in this population.

Identifying childhood movement profiles and comparing differences in mathematical skills between clusters: A latent profile analysis

The aims of this study were; 1) to identify different movement profiles in sixth graders, and 2) to investigate if there are differences in their mathematical basic (BasicMath) and problem solving (ProbSol) skills between existing movement profiles. The sample included 461 (223 girls, 238 boys) students with a mean age of 11.27 ± .32 years from southern and middle Finland. A latent profile analysis (LPA) revealed four movement profiles: "poor movers", "average movers", "skilled movers" and "expert movers". These profiles differed substantially in their motor competence (MC) and health-related fitness (HRF). A multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) also revealed that "poor movers" and "average movers" obtained lower results in BasicMath comparing with "skilled movers". The results of this study suggest that cardiorespiratory and muscular fitness, MC and BasicMath are interrelated.

Hopping skill in individuals with Down syndrome: A qualitative and quantitative assessment

INTRODUCTION

Individuals with Down syndrome (DS) show a delayed acquisition of gross motor skills. Among gross motor skills, hopping is a particular form of jumping that can be performed using one leg. Despite its large use during play and physical activity, this skill in adults with DS has not received much attention so far. Here, we aim at investigating hopping skill in adults with DS both from a quantitative and qualitative point of view.

METHODS

Center of mass and dominant leg kinematics during hopping over distance were recorded from 24 adult individuals with DS and from 21 typically developed adults (TD) using two inertial measurement units positioned on the posterior aspect of the lower back and on the lateral malleolus of the hopping leg. From linear acceleration and angular velocity signals, hopping frequency (HF), cycle, stance and flight duration (CD, SD, FD), vertical stiffness (K_V) and peak to peak linear acceleration and angular velocities about the cranio-caudal, antero-posterior and medio-lateral axes were extracted. A qualitative process assessment of the hopping skill was carried out using the performance criteria of the test for gross motor development (TGMD-3). The extracted parameters were submitted to analysis of covariance, with stature as a covariate to rule-out possible confounding effects.

RESULTS

The qualitative assessment highlighted a poorer hopping performance in the DS group compared to the TD group. DS participants showed higher HF and K_V, shorter CD, SD, FD and lower angular velocity about the cranio-caudal axis compared to the TD group. Significant correlations between the temporal parameters of the quantitative assessment and the results of the qualitative assessment were observed.

DISCUSSION

The poorer motor competence in hopping in individuals with DS compared to TD peers may be related to the shorter flight time and higher vertical stiffness observed in TD peers. The adopted instrumental approach, overcoming the limitations of subjective evaluations, represents a promising opportunity to quantify motor competence in hopping.

Does level of motor competence affect the associations between identity health and self-perceptions in adolescents?

BACKGROUND

Adolescence is a particularly important time for the development of self-perceptions and identity as many environmental and personal factors are influential. One relatively unexplored factor is level of motor competence.

AIM

To examine the relationship between identity health and self-perceptions in male and female adolescents with low motor competence (LMC) compared to typically developing (TD) adolescents.

METHOD

Adolescents (N = 160, 64.4% males, M_age = 14.45 yrs., SD = 0.75) completed the Adolescent Motor Competence Questionnaire (AMCQ), Assessment of Identity Development in Adolescence (AIDA), and Harter's Self-Perception Profile for Adolescents (SPPA). Based on the AMCQ score, the sample was grouped into LMC and TD. Pearson's product moment correlations between the AIDA and SPPA subscales were derived for gender, competence groups, and gender x competence sub-groups.

RESULTS

Overall, males had lower AIDA scores (healthier identity) than the females and significant associations with all self-perception domains. For females, only scholastic and social competence, physical appearance, behavioural conduct, close friendship and Global Self-worth (GSW) domains were significantly related to their AIDA score. The adolescents in the LMC group had higher AIDA scores (less-healthier identity) and fewer self-perception domains [scholastic competence, physical appearance, behavioural conduct, close friendships and GSW] were associated to their AIDA scores. For the TD group, all self-perception domains were significantly correlated with their AIDA scores. When grouped by gender and motor competence, the TD males had the healthiest identity scores which were strongly associated with all self-perception subdomains. For males with LMC, only scholastic competence, behavioural conduct and GSW domains were significantly related with their identity score. Females from both competence groups reported significant associations between physical appearance, close friendships, behavioural conduct, and social competence domains with their identity scores. Scholastic competence was also significantly associated with identity only for females with LMC.

CONCLUSION

Positive self-perceptions across a range of domains are associated with a healthier identity, but differ according to level of motor competence and gender. For those with LMC, the self-perception subdomains unrelated to physical activity and sport, such as school-based aspects were associated with a healthier identity. These findings should guide school based interventions to provide support in these domains in order to strengthen self-worth and identity health.

Socioeconomic and gender-based disparities in the motor competence of school-age children

This study examined socioeconomic and gender-based disparities in motor competence (MC) amongst 6-12-year-old children (N = 2654). Validated product-oriented tests assessing agility, balance and coordination were used to measure MC. School-level socioeconomic status (low, middle, high) was used to assess socioeconomic disparities. Analysis of covariance (ANCOVA) were conducted and odds ratios were calculated for the likelihood of having low MC by gender and socioeconomic status (SES). Girls displayed lower MC than boys for agility and coordination involving object-control (P < 0.001) while boys scored lower than girls for balance and hand-foot coordination (P < 0.001). Children in high SES schools displayed the highest level of MC for agility, balance and coordination (P < 0.001). Compared to the children in high SES schools, odds of having low competence in balance was higher for the children in low SES schools and odds of having low competence in agility and coordination were higher for the children in both low and middle SES schools. Newell's model of constraints (1986) and Bourdieu's concept of habitus (1984) were used to consider potential explanations of the observed disparities. To level up inequalities in children's MC, resources invested in school-based interventions should be proportionate to the school SES.

Youth motor competence promotion model: a quantitative investigation into modifiable factors

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to quantify the relationships between enabling, predisposing and reinforcing ecological factors on motor competence and investigate potential sex, weight status, and school level differences.

METHODS

Data were collected from 429 children (52% boys; aged 11.1±0.6 years; 87% white British). Cardiorespiratory fitness (20m Multistage Shuttle Run), muscular strength (Handgrip Strength) and online questionnaire (Child Health and Activity Tool; CHAT) data on moderate-to-vigorous physical activity, sport participation and available surrounding physical activity facilities were included as enabling variables. Three predisposing variables were determined from self-report data on benefits/barriers to exercise, adequacy, and predilection. Parental/guardian physical activity levels and persons whom participate in physical activity and sport with the participant (CHAT) were selected as reinforcing variables. Motor competence was determined from cumulative scores for Dragon Challenge tasks (Balance Bench, Core Agility, Wobble Spot, Overarm Throw, Basketball Dribble, Catch, Jumping Patterns, T-Agility, Sprint). Confirmatory Factor Analysis assessed the fit of measured variables into latent factors. Structural equation modelling evaluated relationships between these latent factors.

RESULTS

Motor competence was directly affected by the enabling factor (β=0.50,p<0.001) but indirectly affected by reinforcing and predisposing factors, mediated by the enabling factor (β=0.13, p=0.014; β=0.25, p=0.002). Multi-group comparisons showed that each of these effects did not differ by sex, weight status or school level (p>0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

This study demonstrated that enabling factors are crucial for the development of motor competence. This is the first study to quantify an ecological model with motor competence as the endogenous variable and is key to future interventions.

Bi-directional prospective associations between objectively measured physical activity and fundamental motor skills in children: a two-year follow-up

Background

The direction of the longitudinal relationship between physical activity (PA) and fundamental motor skills (FMS) remains unclear. We evaluated the bi-directional, prospective relationships between intensity-specific physical activity (PA) and domain-specific fundamental motor skills (FMS) over 2 years in children attending preschool at baseline.

Methods

A sample of 230 children (mean age at baseline 4.7 yr, 52% boys) from the 'Sogn og Fjordane Preschool Physical Activity Study' was measured 2 years apart. PA was assessed using ActiGraph accelerometers (GT3X+). FMS were evaluated by a test battery guided by the 'Test of Gross Motor Development 3' and the 'Preschooler Gross Motor Quality Scale'. PA outcomes were total PA (TPA [counts per minute]) and intensity specific PA and sedentary behaviour (SED) (min/day). FMS outcomes were locomotor, object control, and balance skills. Linear mixed model adjusting for potential co-variates was used to evaluate the bi-directional prospective associations between these variables, including the moderating effect of sex and age.

Results

Baseline total PA, moderate-to-vigorous PA (MVPA), and vigorous PA predicted higher locomotor, object control, and balance skills at follow-up (standardized regression coefficient (β): 0.17 to 0.26, p = 0.002–0.017). Baseline SED predicted lower locomotor skills at follow-up (β: − 0.27, p = 0.012). Baseline light PA did not predict FMS at follow-up. Baseline FMS were not associated with PA or SED at follow-up.

Conclusions

MVPA was positively associated with development of FMS in young children. In contrast, FMS were not related to future PA levels. Our results suggest promotion of MVPA is important for FMS development in young children.

Associations Between the Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire - Brazilian Version (DCDQ-BR) and Motor Competence in School-Age Children

Aim: Parental screening of children's motor skills can be helpful for early identification of Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD). The present study examined the associations between the Developmental Coordination Disorder Questionnaire - Brazilian version (DCDQ-BR) and motor competence in school-age children.Methods: 707 children (332 boys, 375 girls) aged between 6- to 10-years and one of their parents participated in the study. Parents completed the DCDQ-BR and children's motor competence was determined using the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency - 2nd edition (BOT-2).Results: The agreement between the BOT-2 and DCDQ-BR results was comparable across age, ranging from 74-84 percent. In general, there were low- to moderate correlations between all aspects of the parent report and children's motor competence. Sensitivity and specificity of the DCDQ-BR were 70% and 81%, respectively. Overall, boys had higher motor competence than girls, but parent reports were similar for gender.Conclusions: Parental assessment of their child's motor ability is moderately associated with motor competence, and this association is similar for boys and girls, even though boys scored higher in motor competence. Our findings suggest that it may be possible to reduce the length of clinical assessment by only testing children that flag as suspect for DCD in the DCDQ-BR.

The association between mental rotation capacity and motor impairment in children with obesity-an exploratory study

BACKGROUND

Motor impairments are relatively common in children with obesity and evidence suggests that these difficulties go beyond those expected based on the extra weight. This study aimed to investigate the mental rotation capacity in children with obesity, i.e., the ability to mentally view and rotate spatial information, which is a function of both visual-spatial and action representation processes. In particular, we examined whether children with obesity solved mental hand rotation tasks using an egocentric perspective (i.e., motor imagery) and if performance was related to their motor competence.

METHODS

Fifty children (age range: 7-11 y) of which 19 with obesity and motor impairments (OB-) as assessed by the Movement Assessment Battery for Children (2nd version), 13 with obesity without motor impairments (OB+) and 18 control children with a healthy weight (HW) and normal motor competence, were submitted to a classic hand rotation task. Sitting at a desk the children were instructed to indicate the laterality of a picture of a hand displayed on a monitor as quickly and as accurately as possible.

RESULTS

The results indicate no differences in response time between groups (2,648 ms, 2,558 ms, 2,664 ms for OB-, OB+ and HW respectively). The OB- group, however, had significantly lower accuracy rates and inverse efficiency scores than the HW group (Accuracy: 72% vs. 89%; Inverse efficiency: 4,428 vs. 3,238). No difference was observed in accuracy and inverse efficiency between the OB+ and HW group (Accuracy: 86%; Inverse efficiency: 3,432). In all groups, slower and more error-prone responses were observed when the angle of rotation was larger and when the hand on display was incongruent with the posture of the participants, which indicates that judgments were made from an egocentric perspective and involved motor imagery.

CONCLUSION

All children, including those with obesity, appear to engage in motor imagery. This notion needs to be investigated further in children with obesity and motor impairments, given their generally lower accuracy and decreased efficiency, which may indicate a reduced mental rotation capacity.

Physical activity, motor competence and movement and gait quality: A principal component analysis

OBJECTIVE

While novel analytical methods have been used to examine movement behaviours, to date, no studies have examined whether a frequency-based measure, such a spectral purity, is useful in explaining key facets of human movement. The aim of this study was to investigate movement and gait quality, physical activity and motor competence using principal component analysis.

METHODS

Sixty-five children (38 boys, 4.3 ± 0.7y, 1.04 ± 0.05 m, 17.8 ± 3.2 kg, BMI; 16.2 ± 1.9 kg∙m²) took part in this study. Measures included accelerometer-derived physical activity and movement quality (spectral purity), motor competence (Movement Assessment Battery for Children 2nd edition; MABC2), height, weight and waist circumference. All data were subjected to a principal component analysis, and the internal consistency of resultant components were assessed using Cronbach's alpha.

RESULTS

Two principal components, with excellent internal consistency (Cronbach α >0.9) were found; the 1st principal component, termed "movement component", contained spectral purity, traffic light MABC2 score, fine motor% and gross motor% (α = 0.93); the 2nd principal component, termed "anthropometric component", contained weight, BMI, BMI% and body fat% (α = 0.91).

CONCLUSION

The results of the present study demonstrate that accelerometric analyses can be used to assess motor competence in an automated manner, and that spectral purity is a meaningful, indicative, metric related to children's movement quality.

Quantifying cycling as a foundational movement skill in early childhood

OBJECTIVES

The addition of cycling to the fundamental movement phase of the motor development model has been proposed. Lifelong physical activity behaviours, like cycling, are established during childhood and it is vital that research focuses on these skills. In order to determine the position of cycling within this newly proposed model, the learning process of this skill must be examined. The current paper will quantify the skill of cycling as a learning process and investigate cycling's place as a Foundational Movement Skill. Investigation into whether a composite score could be derived from combining fundamental movement skills proficiency scores and ability on a balance bike (as a measure of the learning process of cycling) will also be conducted.

DESIGN AND METHODS

Ninety-seven preschool children were assessed on ability on a balance bike (bike with no pedals) using two separate timed tracks (straight and curved) and fundamental movement skill proficiency. Data analysis included descriptive statistics, Pearson product-moment correlations and principal axis factoring.

RESULTS

Statistically significant correlations were found between ability on a balance bike and all three subcomponents of fundamental movement skills (locomotor, object-control & stability). Principal axis factoring revealed the presence of one component that all four variables could explain.

CONCLUSION

Ability on a balance bike is a standalone Foundational Movement Skill and is not a representation of locomotor, object-control or stability. Furthermore, ability on a balance bike can be combined with locomotor, object-control and stability to produce an overall composite score for Foundational Movement Skills.

Longitudinal associations among cardiorespiratory and muscular fitness, motor competence and objectively measured physical activity

OBJECTIVES

This study aimed to investigate cross-lagged associations in motor competence, cardiorespiratory fitness, muscular fitness and accelerometer-based moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) engagement.

DESIGN

One-year prospective follow-up study.

METHODS

A sample was 491 (275 girls; M at baseline=11.27, SD=.32) Finnish physical education students. Students' motor competence was assessed by (1) two-legged jumping from side to side test, (2) throwing-catching combination test and (3) 5-leaps test. Their cardiorespiratory fitness was analyzed by a 20-m shuttle run test and muscular fitness by curl-up and push-up tests. Additionally, students' MVPA was measured objectively by hip-worn accelerometers.

RESULTS

Results demonstrated that: (1) cardiorespiratory fitness measured at Grade 5 was the only significant predictor of later MVPA and this association appeared only in the boys' group, (2) MVPA assessed at Grade 5 significantly predicted cardiorespiratory fitness in the girls' group, (3) cardiorespiratory fitness collected at Grade 5 associated with muscular fitness, locomotor and stability skills in both girls and boys, and (4) locomotor skills measured at Grade 5 predicted significantly muscular fitness, locomotor and manipulative skills in both sex groups.

CONCLUSIONS

Elementary school years are important in providing students with experiences in physical activity (PA) which leads to improvements s in cardiorespiratory health. Additionally, this study showed that cardiorespiratory fitness collected at Grade 5 associated with later muscular fitness, and locomotor and stability skills in both sex groups. These findings are noteworthy because muscular fitness in youth has several health-related benefits and motor competence in childhood and adolescence has positive association with later PA engagement.

The use of the Körperkoordinationstest für Kinder in the talent pathway in youth athletes: A systematic review

OBJECTIVES

Identifying talented athletes from an early age to accelerate their development requires the investment of substantial resources. Due to the need for multifactorial approaches to talent identification, motor competence assessments are increasingly prevalent in contemporary testing batteries. Therefore, the aim of this review was to evaluate the literature on the use of a product-oriented motor competence assessment tool, the Körperkoordinationstest für Kinder (KTK) in the talent pathway and determine whether it is warranted in such programs.

METHODS

Three electronic databases (i.e. PubMed, SPORTDiscus and Web of Science) were searched for studies that used at least one component of the KTK to assess motor competence for talent detection, identification, development and selection in athletic populations. A total of 21 articles were included in the review, of which seven used the full version of the KTK and 14 used modified versions or individual components of the battery. The quality of included studies was assessed using a modified version of the Joanna Brigg's Institute Critical Appraisal Checklist.

RESULTS

The analysed literature suggests that the KTK can successfully distinguish between athletes of different competition levels and across different sporting domains, however, findings should be interpreted with caution due to the cross-sectional nature of the studies. Furthermore, the moving sideways subtest displayed the greatest discriminative power for athletes of different competition levels. Motor competence was not affected by maturation and did not differ between genders or playing positions.

CONCLUSIONS

Collectively, these findings suggest that the KTK is a useful motor competence assessment in the talent pathway.

The direct and indirect effects of motor competence on adolescents' mental health through health-related physical fitness

Mental health is an important public health issue and up to one in five youth experience mental health problems. The primary purpose of this study was to examine the relationship among motor competence, health-related physical fitness and mental health outcomes in adolescents. A secondary goal was to test the direct and indirect effects of motor competence on adolescents' mental health through health-related physical fitness. Participants were 279 adolescents (M_age = 12.49, SD = 0.89) recruited in the south-west region of the US Motor competence including volleyball, soccer, and ultimate Frisbee, were assessed using PE Metrics™. FITNESSGRAM® test battery was used to assess health-related physical fitness components. Students completed a survey measuring their depressive symptoms and health-related quality of life. Motor competence was significantly associated with components of health-related physical fitness (r ranged from -0.15 to 0.38). The robust fit of the model supports the significant indirect effect of motor competence on mental health outcomes through health-related physical fitness (χ²/df = 39.92/25; CFI = 0.97; RMSEA = 0.046; 90% CI [0.02, 0.07]). The hypothesized conceptual model tested in this study provides insights into the potential interaction of motor competence and health-related physical fitness with adolescents' mental health.

Motor competence and health-related fitness in children: A cross-cultural comparison between Portugal and the United States

BACKGROUND

Motor competence and health-related fitness are important components for the development and maintenance of a healthy lifestyle in children. This study examined cross-cultural performances on motor competence and health-related fitness between Portuguese and U.S. children.

METHODS

Portuguese (n = 508; 10.14 ± 2.13 years , mean ± SD) and U.S. (n = 710; 9.48 ± 1.62 years) children performed tests of cardiorespiratory fitness (Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run), upper body strength (handgrip), locomotor skill performance (standing long jump), and object projection skill performance (throwing and kicking). Portuguese and U.S. children were divided into 2 age groups (6-9 and 10-13 years) for data analysis purposes. A two-factor one-way analysis of covariance (ANOVA) was conducted with the Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run, handgrip, standing long jump scores, kicking, and throwing speed (km/h) as dependent variables.

RESULTS

Results indicated that Portuguese children, irrespective of sex, presented better performances in locomotor and cardiorespiratory performance (standing long jump and Progressive Aerobic Cardiovascular Endurance Run) than U.S. children in both age bands. U.S. children outperformed Portuguese children during throwing and handgrip tests. Kicking tests presented gender differences: Portuguese boys and U.S. girls outperformed their internationally matched counterparts.

CONCLUSION

Cultural differences in physical education curricula and sports participation may impact differences in motor competence and fitness development in these countries.

Difference in physical fitness in children with initially high and low gross motor competence: A ten-year follow-up study

The aim of the study was to investigate the difference in relative physical fitness between children with initially high and low gross motor competence in a ten-year prospective study. A sample of 49 children from a local primary school was tested on gross motor competence and physical fitness in 1st grade (5/6 years old). The children were tested again in 2nd (motor competence only), 7th, and 10th grade (15/16 years old). The sample was divided into two groups; initially high and low gross motor competence, according to score (median-split) on the Körperkoordinationstest für Kinder-test battery in 1st grade. Results suggested that the initially high gross motor competence-group performed significantly better on a multidimensional physical fitness test, compared to the initially low gross motor competence-group at all time-points. There were also statistically significant differences between the groups in gross motor competence in 7th and 10th grade, with the initially high gross motor competence-group scoring most favorable. The findings from the present study highlight the importance of identifying and supporting young individuals with low gross motor competence, to prevent low levels of physical fitness in the future.

A hitchhiker's guide to assessing young people's motor competence: Deciding what method to use

OBJECTIVES

To offer a user's guide to select appropriate measures of motor competence for children and adolescents.

DESIGN

Expert consensus among a working group of the International Motor Development Research Consortium (I-MDRC).

METHODS

The guide provides information on objective (motion devices and direct observation) and subjective (self-reports and proxy reports) methods for assessing motor competence among children and adolescents. Key characteristics (age group, sample size, delivery mode, assessment time, data output, data processing) as well as limitations and practical considerations (e.g., cost, sources of error) with regard to each method are included in this paper. We do not recommend specific instruments, rather a guide to assist researchers and practitioners interested in assessing children's motor competence.

RESULTS

A decision flow chart was developed to support practitioners and researchers in selecting appropriate methods for measuring motor competence in young people. Real-life scenarios are presented to illustrate the use of different methods in research and practice.

CONCLUSIONS

Policy makers, practitioners and researchers should consider the strengths and limitations of each method when measuring motor competence in children and adolescents. This will allow them to choose the most appropriate instrument(s) that meets their needs.

Differences in Step Counts, Motor Competence, and Enjoyment Between an Exergaming Group and a Non-Exergaming Group

OBJECTIVE

The purpose of this study was to examine the effect of an exergaming program on physical activity, motor competence, and enjoyment in preschool children.

MATERIALS AND METHODS

A sample of 65 preschool children was recruited from an urban preschool located in the Western United States. Children were randomly assigned to either an exergaming (n = 36) or a free-play group (n = 29). The intervention was 30 min/day, 5 days/week for 12 weeks for both groups, and all outcome variables were measured once during the final week of the intervention. The exergaming program included three active videogames: GoNoodles, Adventure to Fitness, and Cosmic Kids Yoga. Children in the free-play group were offered a variety of sport activities. School-day step counts were recorded using pedometers, motor competence was assessed by the Test for Gross Motor Development-Edition 3 (TGMD-3), and enjoyment was accessed using one subscale of the Intrinsic Motivational Inventory. A 2 × 2 multivariate analysis of variance (MANOVA) test was employed to examine the differences between sexes and groups on the outcome variables.

RESULTS

The omnibus MANOVA yielded a statistically significant multivariate group main effect (F = 3.71, P = 0.016). Follow-up tests revealed statistically significant differences between groups on average school step counts (mean difference = 785 steps, P = 0.003, d = 0.68) and total TGMD-3 scores (mean difference = 8.7, P = 0.019, d = 0.51), with the exergaming group displaying higher mean scores compared with the free-play group.

CONCLUSION

Young children who were randomly assigned to the exergaming group demonstrated higher school-day step counts and higher motor competence levels compared with the free-play group. These results support the use of this modality in childcare settings.

Body representation does not lag behind in updating for the pubertal growth spurt

Both making perceptual judgments about your own body and successfully moving your body through the world depend on a mental representation of the body. However, there are indications that moving might be challenging when your body is changing. For instance, the pubertal growth spurt has been reported to be negatively correlated to motor competence. A possible explanation for this clumsiness would be that when the body is growing fast, updating the body representation may lag behind, resulting in a mismatch between internal body representation and actual body size. The current study investigated this hypothesis by testing participants ranging from aged 6 to 50 years on both a tactile body image task and a motor body schema task. Separate groups of participants, including those in the age range when pubertal growth spurt occurs, were asked to estimate the distance between two simultaneously applied tactile stimuli on the arm and to move their hand through apertures of different widths. Tactile distance estimations were equal between participants before, during, and after the age range where the pubertal growth spurt is expected. Similarly, Bayesian evaluation of informative hypotheses showed that participants in the age range of the growth spurt did not move through the apertures as if their representation of the hand was smaller than its physical size. These results suggest that body representations do not lag behind in updating for the pubertal growth spurt.

Bidirectional association between weight status and motor skills in adolescents : A 4-year longitudinal study

BACKGROUND

Despite considerable efforts the prevalence of overweight and obesity in youth remains high. Poor motor skills have been associated with increased body weight but there is still limited information on the longitudinal association of these health parameters.

AIM

This study examined the prospective association between motor skills and body weight in 10- to 14-year-old youth.

METHODS

Body weight, height and motor skills, assessed via the German motor test 16-18 (Deutscher Motorik Test, DMT6-18), were measured in 213 middle school students (57% male) every year over a 4‑year period. Club sports participation and migration status were assessed via a questionnaire.

RESULTS

Besides an inverse cross-sectional association between body weight and motor skills, excess body weight was associated with impaired development of motor skills (p < 0.05). Furthermore, weight loss was associated with enhanced motor development and allowed previously overweight students to catch up with their normal weight peers. High motor skills at baseline also reduced the odds of becoming overweight/obese during the observation period. These results were independent of club sports participation.

CONCLUSION

There is a bidirectional, synergistic association between body weight and motor skills. Facilitating the development of motor skills in children and adolescents may therefore be a viable intervention strategy targeting weight management and physical activity in youth.

The roles of physical activity and sedentary behavior on Hispanic children's mental health: a motor skill perspective

PURPOSE

Motor competence (MC) has been recognized as the foundation for life-time moderate-to-vigorous physical activity (MVPA) as well as an influential factor in reducing sedentary behavior during childhood. Guided by Blair et al.'s health model, the purpose of this study was to examine the behavioral mechanism of mental health including physical, psychosocial, and cognitive health among Hispanic children related to MC and MVPA.

METHODS

A prospective research design was used with two-wave assessments across one academic year. A total of 141 Hispanic kindergarteners (Mean_age = 5.37, SD = 0.48) were recruited in Texas. Nearly all (94.3%) of the participants were from low-income families based on the Income Eligibility Guidelines. The study was approved by the University Research Review Board, and informed consent was obtained from parents/guardians prior to starting the study.

RESULTS

Multiple regressions indicated that manipulative skill was a significant predictor of physical and psychosocial health (β = 0.21, β = 0.26, p < 0.05, respectively) and locomotor skill served as a significant predictor for cognitive health (β = 0.22, p < 0.01), after controlling for BMI. Bootstrapping analyses supported the statistical significance of indirect effects of MC on mental health outcomes through MVPA (95% CI [0.031, 0.119]) and sedentary behavior (95% CI [0.054, 0.235]), respectively.

CONCLUSION

The results suggest that skill-based activities/games, with instructions, should be encouraged during school-based physical activity and health promotion programs in childhood education. Better understanding of the early effects of MC may contribute to designing strategies to promote Hispanic children's well-being.

Motor competence and characteristics within the preschool environment

OBJECTIVES

Environmental characteristics within preschools that influence children's motor competence are largely unknown. The purpose of the present study was to examine the contribution of various preschool environmental characteristics to children's locomotor, object control, and total gross motor scores.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional, observational study of 3-5 year-old children (n=229) from 22 preschools in South Carolina.

METHODS

The Children's Activity and Movement in Preschool Study (CHAMPS) Motor Skills Protocol assessed MC. Preschool directors provided information regarding policies and practices. The research team measured playgrounds and classrooms, and the Early Childhood Environment Rating Scale-Revised assessed preschool quality. Time spent in open space and electronic media use were also assessed using direct observation. The aforementioned variables predicted children's object control, locomotor, and total gross motor scores.

RESULTS

Classroom size/child ratio, teacher education, playground size, electronic media use, and trips to outside organizations emerged as significant predictors of locomotor score and total motor score. The object control model was non-significant.

CONCLUSIONS

Preschools may be able to promote motor competence by allowing children more time in open spaces, structured activity experiences, and by expanding existing outdoor playground space whenever possible.

Low fundamental movement skill proficiency is associated with high BMI and body fatness in girls but not boys aged 6-11 years old

This study examined differences in children's body mass index (BMI) and body fatness (BF%) as a function of gender and fundamental movement skill (FMS) proficiency. Following ethics approval and parental consent, 248, 6-11 year-old children (112 boys, 136 girls) underwent assessment of 7 FMS: sprint run, side gallop, hop, kick, catch, throw and vertical jump. FMS tertiles ("high", "medium" or "low" FMS) were created based on the summed components of the FMS. Skinfold measures were used to calculate BF%. Physical activity (PA) was assessed using pedometry and maturation predicted using anthropometry. Data were analysed using a 2 (Gender) × 3 (FMS tertile) ways analysis of covariance (ANCOVA), controlling for age, maturation and PA. Age (P = .001) and maturation (P = .006) were associated with BMI. Girls classified as high FMS proficiency had significantly lower BMI compared to girls with low and medium FMS proficiency. Age (P = .0001) and maturation (P = .007) were associated with BF%. BF% was also higher for girls with low FMS compared to those with medium and high FMS. BF% and BMI were not different across FMS tertile in boys. Such findings suggest focusing on FMS may be especially important for healthy weight, particularly in girls.

Configurations of actual and perceived motor competence among children: Associations with motivation for sports and global self-worth

The present study used a person-centred approach to examine whether different profiles based on actual and perceived motor competence exist in elementary school children. Multilevel regression analyses were conducted to explore how children with different motor competence-based profiles might differ in their autonomous motivation for sports and global self-worth. Validated questionnaires were administered to 161 children (40% boys; age=8.82±0.66years) to assess their perceived motor competence, global self-worth, and motivation for sports. Actual motor competence was measured with the Körperkoordinationstest für Kinder. Cluster analyses identified four motor competence-based profiles: two groups were characterized by corresponding levels of actual and perceived motor competence (i.e., low-low and high-high) and two groups were characterized by divergent levels of actual and perceived motor competence (i.e., high-low and low-high). Children in the low-low and high-low group displayed significantly lower levels of autonomous motivation for sports and lower levels of global self-worth than children in the low-high and high-high group. These findings emphasize that fostering children's perceived motor competence might be crucial to improve their motivation for sports and their global self-worth. Teachers and instructors involved in physical education and youth sports should thus focus on both actual and perceived motor competence.

Development and validation of a model of motor competence in children and adolescents

OBJECTIVES

This study was aimed at developing a quantitative model to evaluate motor competence (MC) in children and adolescents, to be applicable in research, education, and clinical contexts.

DESIGN

Cross-sectional.

METHODS

A total of 584 children (boys n=300) with ages between 6 and 14 years were assessed using nine well known quantitative motor tasks, divided into three major components (stability, locomotor and manipulative). Structural equation modelling through EQS 6.1 was used to find the best model for representing the structural and measurement validity of MC.

RESULTS

The final MC model was composed by three latent factors closely related with each other. Each factor was best represented by two of the initial three motor tasks chosen. The model was shown to give a very good overall fit (χ(2)=12.04, p=.061; NFI=.982; CFI=.991; RMSEA=.059).

CONCLUSIONS

MC can be parsimoniously represented by six quantitative motor tasks, grouped into three interrelated factors. The developed model was shown to be robust when applied to different samples, demonstrating a good structural and measurement reliability. The use of a quantitative protocol with few, simple to administer and well known, motor tasks, is an important advantage of this model, since it can be used in several contexts with different objectives. We find it especially beneficial for physical educations teachers who have to regularly assess their students.

A review of five tests to identify motor coordination difficulties in young adults

Difficulties with low motor competence in childhood and adolescence, such as that seen in Developmental Coordination Disorder (DCD), often persist into adulthood. Identification of DCD at all ages is particularly challenging and problematic because of the diversity of motor symptoms. Many tests of motor proficiency and impairment have been developed for children up to 12 years of age. Whilst identification of DCD is important during childhood, it is of equal importance to identify and monitor the impact of this impairment as an individual grows and develops. Currently there is no test specifically designed to support diagnosis and monitor change in the age range 16-30 years. In this article we review five tests that have been used to assess motor competence among young adults (Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency-2, McCarron Assessment of Neuromuscular Development, Movement Assessment Battery for Children-2, Tufts Assessment of Motor Performance and the Zurich Neuromotor Assessment). Key issues relevant to testing motor skills in older populations, such as the inclusion of age appropriate skills, are explored. While the BOT-2 provided the most evidence for valid and reliable measurement of Criterion A of the diagnostic criteria for DCD among this age group, no test adequately evaluated Criterion B. Further evaluation of motor skill assessment among the young adult population is needed.

Multidisciplinary residential treatment can improve perceptual-motor function in obese children

AIM

This study evaluated the effects of a 10-month multidisciplinary residential treatment programme on the perceptual-motor function of obese children and compared them to children with a healthy weight.

METHODS

We studied 26 obese Belgian children (10 girls and 16 boys) with a mean age of 10.1 years (±1.4 years), who followed a residential treatment programme consisting of moderate dietary restriction, psychological support and physical activity. The results were compared with 26 healthy weight children matched for age and gender. The anthropometrics and performance of both groups were assessed on two occasions, 10 months apart, based on simple and choice reaction time tasks and a tracking task using a stylus and tablet. Time by body mass index group interactions were investigated using repeated measure ANCOVAs, with age included as a covariate.

RESULTS

No significant interaction effect occurred in either task. In contrast, the obese participants showed a significant improvement in tracking performance over time during the stylus and tablet tests, demonstrating mean deviation from the ideal curve. No difference in performance between baseline and follow-up was observed in the healthy weight controls.

CONCLUSION

Taking part in a multidisciplinary residential treatment programme improved the perceptual-motor function of obese children.

Developmental pathways of change in fitness and motor competence are related to overweight and obesity status at the end of primary school

OBJECTIVES

To test how different developmental pathways of health-related physical fitness and motor competence tests relate to weight status (overweight and obesity) at the end of primary school.

DESIGN

Longitudinal study on growth, health-related physical fitness, and motor competence of 472 primary school children assessed yearly throughout 1st to 4th grade, with an average age of 6.3±0.7 years of age at 1st grade.

METHODS

Children's pathways of change on each of the fitness and motor competence tests were determined along the four years of the study. Participants were divided into three groups according to their rate of change in each test over time: Low Rate of Change, Average Rate of Change, and High Rate of Change. A logistic regression was used to predict the odds ratio of becoming overweight or obese, depending on the developmental pathway of change in fitness and motor competence across childhood.

RESULTS

Children with a low or average rate of change in their developmental pathways of fitness and motor competence were several times more prone to become overweight or obese at the end of primary school (OR 2.0 to 6.3), independent of sex and body mass index at baseline. Specifically, a negative developmental pathway (Low Rate of Change) in cardiorespiratory fitness demonstrated over a six-fold elevated risk of being overweight or obese, compared to peers with a positive pathway.

CONCLUSIONS

Not all children improve their motor competence and fitness levels over time and many actually regress over time. Developing positive fitness and motor competence pathways during childhood protects from obesity and overweight.

Exercise can improve physical self perceptions in adolescents with low motor competence

Adolescents with low motor competence have diminished perceptions of their physical self and tend to avoid physical activities. This study examined the outcomes of an exercise intervention that focused on improving aerobic fitness, strength, and self-perceptions in the physical domain in adolescents with poor motor coordination. The sample included 35 adolescents with low motor competence, comprising boys (n = 25) and girls (n = 10) ranging in age from 13 to 17 years, who attended two sessions per week in the 13 week exercise intervention study (AMP it up). Physical self-perceptions were measured before and after the intervention using the Physical Self Perception Profile and Perceived Importance Profile. Significant improvements in perceived Physical Condition, Attractive Body and Physical Strength sub domain scores were identified between pre and post-test. Adjusting for age, gender, BMI and attendance, regression analyses revealed that Attractive Body was the strongest predictor of Physical Self Worth at pre-test, joined by Physical Condition at post-test. This exercise intervention had a positive impact on adolescent physical self-perceptions, in particular males, with improvements in those sub domains specifically related to the exercise program. Changes in specific aspects of Physical Self Worth can be facilitated by exercise interventions, after a relatively short period of time, in adolescents with poor motor coordination.

Motor competence assessment in children: convergent and discriminant validity between the BOT-2 Short Form and KTK testing batteries

This study investigated convergent and discriminant validity between two motor competence assessment instruments in 2485 Flemish children: the Bruininks-Oseretsky Test of Motor Proficiency 2 Short Form (BOT-2 Short Form) and the KörperKoördinationsTest für Kinder (KTK). A Pearson correlation assessed the relationship between BOT-2 Short Form total, gross and fine motor composite scores and KTK Motor Quotient in three age cohorts (6-7, 8-9, 10-11 years). Crosstabs were used to measure agreement in classification in children scoring below percentile 5 and 15 and above percentile 85 and 95. Moderately strong positive (r=0.44-0.64) associations between BOT-2 total and gross motor composite scores and KTK Motor Quotient and weak positive correlations between BOT-2 Short Form fine motor composite and KTK Motor Quotient scores (r=0.25-0.37) were found. Levels of agreement were fair to moderate. Therefore, some proof of convergent and discriminant validity between BOT-2 Short Form and KTK was established in this study, underlining the notion that the evaluation of motor competence should not be based upon a single assessment instrument.

Motor impairment and its relationship to fitness in children

OBJECTIVES

The aim of this work was to explore the physiological and perceptual limits to exercise in children with varying degrees of motor impairment, and the relationships to measures of health.

DESIGN AND METHODS

In a group comparison design, 35 boys aged 12-15 years completed the Movement ABC test for the assessment of motor impairment, followed by an incremental cycle ergometer test to exhaustion for the assessment of maximal oxygen uptake (VO2peak), respiratory exchange ratio (RER), heart rate (HR) and rating of perceived exertion (RPE). Ten participants classified as having either high or no motor impairment also performed a maximal voluntary isometric contraction (MVIC) for the assessment of lower limb extensor strength.

RESULTS

18 boys were classified as having high motor impairment. There was a significant difference in peak (34.9 vs 48.5 mL kg/min), workload (12.5 vs 10.0 mL W), maximal HR (176 vs 188 bpm), maximal oxygen pulse (12.1 vs 15.9 mL beat) and MVIC (5.7 vs 9.1 Nm kg) between the high and non-motor impaired participants, respectively, (p<0.05). There was no significant difference in the RER or RPE between groups.

CONCLUSIONS

When performing cycling ergometry, perceived exertion was not a limiting factor in children with high motor impairment. The lower maximal HR, coupled with reduced movement efficiency and muscle strength reported in this group, suggests that exercise is limited by impairment at the muscular level. This finding was supported by high RER values despite low maximal HR values attained at exercise cessation and reduced maximal strength. Perception of effort is not heightened in children with high motor impairment and future-exercise interventions should be focused on improving muscular condition in these participants to enable them to be better prepared to engage in physical activity for health.