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Kemp KC, Sperry SH, Hernández L, Barrantes-Vidal N, Kwapil TR. Association of Positive, Negative, and Disorganized Schizotypy With the Temporal Dynamics of Schizotypic Experiences in Daily Life. Schizophr Bull 2024:sbae112. [PMID: 38962937 DOI: 10.1093/schbul/sbae112] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 07/05/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND AND HYPOTHESIS Schizotypy is a useful and unifying construct for examining the etiology, development, and expression of schizophrenia-spectrum psychopathology. The positive, negative, and disorganized schizotypy dimensions are associated with distinct patterns of schizophrenia-spectrum symptoms and impairment. Furthermore, they are differentiated by mean levels of psychotic-like, suspicious, negative, and disorganized schizotypic experiences in daily life, and by temporal dynamics of affect. The schizotypy dimensions were thus hypothesized to be differentiated by the temporal dynamics of schizotypic experiences in daily life. STUDY DESIGN The present study employed experience sampling methodology in a large nonclinically ascertained sample (n = 693) to examine the associations of multidimensional schizotypy with psychotic-like, suspicious, negative, and disorganized schizotypic experiences in daily life, as well as with their temporal dynamics (variability, reactivity, inertia, and instability). STUDY RESULTS We replicated the mean-level associations between multidimensional schizotypy and schizotypic experiences in daily life. Furthermore, positive, negative, and disorganized schizotypy demonstrated hypothesized, differential patterns of temporal dynamics of schizotypic experiences. Disorganized schizotypy demonstrated the most robust associations, including intensity, variability, and inertia of disorganized schizotypic experiences. Disorganized schizotypy also moderated reactivity of psychotic-like and disorganized schizotypic experiences following previously reported stress. Positive schizotypy was associated with intensity and variability of psychotic-like experiences. Negative schizotypy was associated with intensity and variability of negative schizotypic experiences. CONCLUSIONS The findings indicate that schizotypy dimensions can be differentiated by both mean levels and temporal patterns of psychotic-like, suspicious, negative, and disorganized schizotypic experiences in daily life, with disorganized schizotypy uniquely characterized by stress reactivity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kathryn C Kemp
- University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Department of Psychology, Champaign, IL, USA
- The Ohio State University Wexner Medical Center, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Health, Columbus, OH, USA
| | - Sarah H Sperry
- University of Michigan, Department of Psychiatry, Ann Arbor, MI, USA
| | - Laura Hernández
- University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Department of Psychology, Champaign, IL, USA
| | - Neus Barrantes-Vidal
- Universitat Autònoma de Barcelona, Departament de Psicologia Clinica i de la Salut, Barcelona, Spain
| | - Thomas R Kwapil
- University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign, Department of Psychology, Champaign, IL, USA
- University of North Carolina at Greensboro, Department of Psychology, Greensboro, NC, USA
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Li X, Zhang YT, Li XH, Wang Y, Peng M, Myin-Germeys I. Abnormalities in emotion regulation are associated with negative, but not positive or disorganized schizotypy: An experience sampling study. Schizophr Res 2024; 270:165-171. [PMID: 38917553 DOI: 10.1016/j.schres.2024.06.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/14/2024] [Revised: 05/24/2024] [Accepted: 06/15/2024] [Indexed: 06/27/2024]
Abstract
BACKGROUND Schizotypy, a multidimensional construct with positive, negative, and disorganized dimensions, represents a vulnerability marker for the development of schizophrenia. Although there has been increasing evidence linking schizotypy to emotion regulation (ER) deficits, the specific association between different schizotypal dimensions and alterations in ER strategy use in daily life remains poorly understood. METHODS Using the experience sampling method (ESM), the present study examined the associations between positive, negative, and disorganized schizotypy and ER strategy use in daily life in a nonclinical young adult sample (N = 258). Participants were instructed to report their ER strategy use 5 times a day for 14 days. Four adaptive ER strategies (reflection, reappraisal, social sharing, and distraction) and two maladaptive ER strategies (suppression and rumination) were included. RESULTS Multilevel modeling analyses showed that positive schizotypal traits predicted greater use of adaptive ER strategies, while negative schizotypal traits predicted less use of adaptive ER strategies and more frequent use of emotional suppression in daily life. No associations between disorganized schizotypal traits and any ER strategy use were found. CONCLUSION Schizotypy dimensions are differentiated by preferences for different ER strategies in daily life. The findings suggest a strong association between negative schizotypy and notable dysfunctions in ER, emphasizing the significance of negative schizotypy as a vulnerability factor for psychosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Xu Li
- Key Laboratory of Adolescent Cyberpsychology and Behavior (CCNU), Ministry of Education, Wuhan, China; Key Laboratory of Human Development and Mental Health of Hubei Province, School of Psychology, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, China; Center for Contextual Psychiatry, Psychiatry Research Group, Department of Neurosciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
| | - Yu-Ting Zhang
- Key Laboratory of Adolescent Cyberpsychology and Behavior (CCNU), Ministry of Education, Wuhan, China; Key Laboratory of Human Development and Mental Health of Hubei Province, School of Psychology, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, China
| | - Xu-Hua Li
- Key Laboratory of Adolescent Cyberpsychology and Behavior (CCNU), Ministry of Education, Wuhan, China; Key Laboratory of Human Development and Mental Health of Hubei Province, School of Psychology, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, China
| | - Yi Wang
- Neuropsychology and Applied Cognitive Neuroscience Laboratory, CAS Key Laboratory of Mental Health, Institute of Psychology, Beijing, China
| | - Ming Peng
- Key Laboratory of Adolescent Cyberpsychology and Behavior (CCNU), Ministry of Education, Wuhan, China; Key Laboratory of Human Development and Mental Health of Hubei Province, School of Psychology, Central China Normal University, Wuhan, China.
| | - Inez Myin-Germeys
- Center for Contextual Psychiatry, Psychiatry Research Group, Department of Neurosciences, KU Leuven, Leuven, Belgium
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Beals K, Torregrossa LJ, Smith R, Lane RD, Sheffield JM. Impaired emotional awareness is associated with childhood maltreatment exposure and positive symptoms in schizophrenia. Front Psychiatry 2024; 14:1325617. [PMID: 38283891 PMCID: PMC10811959 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2023.1325617] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/21/2023] [Accepted: 12/14/2023] [Indexed: 01/30/2024] Open
Abstract
Objectives Evidence suggests that emotional awareness-the ability to identify and label emotions-may be impaired in schizophrenia and related to positive symptom severity. Exposure to childhood maltreatment is a risk factor for both low emotional awareness and positive symptoms. Methods The current investigation examines associations between a performance-based measure of emotional awareness, positive symptom severity, and childhood maltreatment exposure in 44 individuals with a schizophrenia-spectrum disorder and 48 healthy comparison participants using the electronic Levels of Emotional Awareness Scale (eLEAS), Positive and Negative Syndrome Scale (PANSS) and Childhood Trauma Questionnaire (CTQ). Results Patients demonstrated significant deficits in emotional awareness overall, which was true for both self and others. In patients, lower emotional awareness was significantly associated with more severe positive symptoms. Emotional awareness was significantly impaired in patients with schizophrenia with self-reported maltreatment exposure, relative to other groups. Severity of maltreatment was not significantly associated with emotional awareness or positive symptoms when looking continuously, and there was no significant indirect effect. Conclusion These data suggest that emotional awareness impairments observed in schizophrenia may be exacerbated by exposure to childhood maltreatment, possibly putting individuals at greater risk for experiencing positive symptoms of psychosis.
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Affiliation(s)
- Kendall Beals
- Sheffield Lab, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, United States
- Social Cognition and Recovery in Schizophrenia Lab, Department of Psychology, The University of Southern Mississippi, Hattiesburg, MS, United States
| | - Lénie J. Torregrossa
- Sheffield Lab, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, United States
| | - Ryan Smith
- Laureate Institute for Brain Research, Tulsa, OK, United States
| | - Richard David Lane
- Department of Psychiatry, University of Arizona, Tucson, AZ, United States
| | - Julia M. Sheffield
- Sheffield Lab, Department of Psychiatry and Behavioral Sciences, Vanderbilt University Medical Center, Nashville, TN, United States
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So SHW, Chau AKC, Chung LKH, Leung CM, Chong GH, Chang WC, Mak AD, Chan SS, Lee S, Sommer IE. Moment-to-moment affective dynamics in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder. Eur Psychiatry 2023; 66:e67. [PMID: 37544924 PMCID: PMC10594258 DOI: 10.1192/j.eurpsy.2023.2438] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/01/2023] [Revised: 06/20/2023] [Accepted: 07/03/2023] [Indexed: 08/08/2023] Open
Abstract
BACKGROUND Affective disturbances in schizophrenia and bipolar disorder may represent a transdiagnostic etiological process as well as a target of intervention. Hypotheses on similarities and differences in various parameters of affective dynamics (intensity, successive/acute changes, variability, and reactivity to stress) between the two disorders were tested. METHODS Experience sampling method was used to assess dynamics of positive and negative affect, 10 times a day over 6 consecutive days. Patients with schizophrenia (n = 46) and patients with bipolar disorder (n = 46) were compared against age-matched healthy controls (n = 46). RESULTS Compared to controls, the schizophrenia group had significantly more intense momentary negative affect, a lower likelihood of acute changes in positive affect, and reduced within-person variability of positive affect. The bipolar disorder group was not significantly different from either the schizophrenia group or the healthy control group on any affect indexes. Within the schizophrenia group, level of depression was associated with weaker reactivity to stress for negative affect. Within the bipolar disorder group, level of depression was associated with lower positive affect. CONCLUSIONS Patients with schizophrenia endured a more stable and negative affective state than healthy individuals, and were less likely to be uplifted in response to happenings in daily life. There is little evidence that these affective constructs characterize the psychopathology of bipolar disorder; such investigation may have been limited by the heterogeneity within group. Our findings supported the clinical importance of assessing multiple facets of affective dynamics beyond the mean levels of intensity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Suzanne Ho-wai So
- Department of Psychology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Anson Kai Chun Chau
- Department of Psychology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
- Institute of Health Equity, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | | | - Chung-ming Leung
- Department of Psychology, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - George H.C. Chong
- Department of Clinical Psychology, Kwai Chung Hospital, Hong Kong, China
| | - Wing Chung Chang
- Department of Psychiatry, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
- State Key Laboratory of Brain and Cognitive Sciences, The University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Arthur D.P. Mak
- Department of Psychiatry, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Sandra S.M. Chan
- Department of Psychiatry, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Sing Lee
- Department of Psychiatry, The Chinese University of Hong Kong, Hong Kong, China
| | - Iris E. Sommer
- Department of Psychiatry, University Medical Centre Groningen, The Netherlands
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Cohen AS, Cox CR, Cowan T, Masucci MD, Le TP, Docherty AR, Bedwell JS. High Predictive Accuracy of Negative Schizotypy With Acoustic Measures. Clin Psychol Sci 2022; 10:310-323. [PMID: 38031625 PMCID: PMC10686546 DOI: 10.1177/21677026211017835] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 12/01/2023]
Abstract
Negative schizotypal traits potentially can be digitally phenotyped using objective vocal analysis. Prior attempts have shown mixed success in this regard, potentially because acoustic analysis has relied on small, constrained feature sets. We employed machine learning to (a) optimize and cross-validate predictive models of self-reported negative schizotypy using a large acoustic feature set, (b) evaluate model performance as a function of sex and speaking task, (c) understand potential mechanisms underlying negative schizotypal traits by evaluating the key acoustic features within these models, and (d) examine model performance in its convergence with clinical symptoms and cognitive functioning. Accuracy was good (> 80%) and was improved by considering speaking task and sex. However, the features identified as most predictive of negative schizotypal traits were generally not considered critical to their conceptual definitions. Implications for validating and implementing digital phenotyping to understand and quantify negative schizotypy are discussed.
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Affiliation(s)
- Alex S. Cohen
- Department of Psychology, Louisiana State University
- Center for Computation and Technology, Louisiana State University
| | - Christopher R. Cox
- Department of Psychology, Louisiana State University
- Center for Computation and Technology, Louisiana State University
| | - Tovah Cowan
- Department of Psychology, Louisiana State University
- Center for Computation and Technology, Louisiana State University
| | - Michael D. Masucci
- Department of Psychology, Louisiana State University
- Center for Computation and Technology, Louisiana State University
| | - Thanh P. Le
- Department of Psychology, Louisiana State University
- Center for Computation and Technology, Louisiana State University
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Alvarez EE, Pujji SD, Dinzeo TJ. Cognitive Failures and the Role of Emotion in Dimensional Schizotypy: A Replication and Extension. Psychopathology 2021; 54:325-334. [PMID: 34407538 PMCID: PMC9066366 DOI: 10.1159/000517795] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/01/2020] [Accepted: 06/10/2021] [Indexed: 11/19/2022]
Abstract
INTRODUCTION Cognitive failures are commonplace within the general population but may be particularly heightened in those with higher levels of schizotypy. This is especially salient in the context of enduring trait and momentary state negative emotion which often contributes to increases in daily impairments, leading to a more debilitating and distracted life. Particularly, individuals with elevated levels of schizotypy may be more likely to experience cognitive failures, especially in the presence of negative trait emotion such as depression, anxiety, and stress. However, little is known about the influence of state emotion and the distinct roles that state and trait emotion may have with cognitive failures and schizotypy. METHODS To replicate and extend previous findings, 306 (58% males) undergraduate students aged 18-50 years (M = 19.343; SD = 2.493) completed self-report measures of cognitive failures, trait and state emotion, and schizotypy. Mediation and moderation analyses were performed in SPSS to examine the potential effects of trait and state emotion on the relationship between schizotypy and cognitive failures. RESULTS Consistent with previous findings, mood symptomology, in addition to negative affect, mediated cognitive failures in those with higher levels of schizotypy. However, in our sample, positive affect did not appear to buffer against cognitive failures. CONCLUSION The findings of the present study suggest there may be a nuanced relationship between both negative trait and state emotions on the relationships between cognitive failures and schizotypy. Understanding the interaction of enduring versus momentary emotion on cognition as they relate to an elevated risk for developing schizophrenia-spectrum phenomena may be a point for earlier and more targeted interventions.
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Affiliation(s)
- Emmanuel E Alvarez
- Department of Neuroscience and Cell Biology, Rutgers Robert Wood Johnson Medical School, Piscataway, New Jersey, USA,
| | - Sherry D Pujji
- Department of Psychology, Rowan University, Glassboro, New Jersey, USA
| | - Thomas J Dinzeo
- Department of Psychology, Rowan University, Glassboro, New Jersey, USA
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Dawes C, Danielmeier C, Haselgrove M, Moran PM. High Schizotypy Predicts Emotion Recognition Independently of Negative Affect. Front Psychiatry 2021; 12:738344. [PMID: 34630186 PMCID: PMC8495418 DOI: 10.3389/fpsyt.2021.738344] [Citation(s) in RCA: 2] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Submit a Manuscript] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/08/2021] [Accepted: 08/20/2021] [Indexed: 11/13/2022] Open
Abstract
Introduction: Deficits in Emotion Recognition (ER) contribute significantly to poorer functional outcomes in people with schizophrenia. However, rather than reflecting a core symptom of schizophrenia, reduced ER has been suggested to reflect increased mood disorder co-morbidity and confounds of patient status such as medication. We investigated whether ER deficits are replicable in psychometrically defined schizotypy, and whether this putative association is mediated by increased negative affect. Methods: Two hundred and nine participants between the ages of 18 and 69 (66% female) were recruited from online platforms: 80% held an undergraduate qualification or higher, 44% were current students, and 46% were in current employment. Participants were assessed on psychometric schizotypy using the O-LIFE which maps onto the same symptoms structure (positive, negative, and disorganised) as schizophrenia. Negative affect was assessed using the Depression Anxiety and Stress Scale (DASS-21). Emotion Recognition of both positive and negative emotions was assessed using the short version of the Geneva Emotion Recognition Task (GERT-S). Results: Negative schizotypy traits predicted poorer ER accuracy to negative emotions (β = -0.192, p = 0.002) as predicted. Unexpectedly, disorganised schizotypy traits predicted improved performance to negative emotions (β = 0.256, p = 0.007) (primarily disgust). Negative affect was found to be unrelated to ER performance of either valence (both p > 0.591). No measure predicted ER accuracy of positive emotions. Positive schizotypy traits were not found to predict either positive or negative ER accuracy. However, positive schizotypy predicted increased confidence in decisions and disorganised schizotypy predicted reduced confidence in decisions. Discussion: The replication of ER deficits in non-clinical negative schizotypy suggests that the association between negative symptoms and ER deficits in clinical samples may be independent of confounds of patient status (i.e., anti-psychotic medication). The finding that this association was independent of negative affect further suggests ER deficits in patients may also be independent of mood disorder co-morbidity. This association was not demonstrated for the positive symptom dimension of the O-LIFE, which may be due to low levels of this trait in the current sample.
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Giakoumaki SG, Karamaouna P, Karagiannopoulou L, Zouraraki C. Self-perceived cognitive lapses and psychological well-being in schizotypy: Generalized and domain-specific associations. Scand J Psychol 2020; 62:134-140. [PMID: 33373062 DOI: 10.1111/sjop.12704] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/25/2020] [Revised: 11/01/2020] [Accepted: 11/07/2020] [Indexed: 01/22/2023]
Abstract
A critical link between schizotypy and schizophrenia is impoverished cognitive functioning. In the majority of studies, though: (1) cognition is examined with standard neuropsychological tasks; and (2) high-schizotypal individuals are defined according to criteria applied in the respective study sample. Taking these considerations into account, the aims of the present study were to examine: (1) differences between four pre-defined, according to normative criteria, schizotypal (paranoid, negative, disorganized and cognitive-perceptual) and one control groups in self-perceived cognitive lapses; and (2) associations between schizotypal dimensions, self-perceived cognitive lapses and psychological well-being. Two hundred and sixty-one participants were administered the Schizotypal Personality Questionnaire, the Cognitive Failures Questionnaire (CFQ) and the Flourishing Scale, which assesses psychological well-being. Negative schizotypals reported higher scores in almost all CFQ measures compared with the control group (all p values < 0.01) along with poorer psychological well-being compared with the control and the cognitive-perceptual groups (both p values < 0.001). The disorganized group had higher scores in distractibility, blunders and total CFQ scores compared with the control group (all p values < 0.001). High psychological well-being was significantly associated with low negative schizotypy and CFQ blunders along with high cognitive-perceptual schizotypy (all p values < 0.05). To summarize, negative schizotypy is associated with a profile of "generalized" self-perceived cognitive lapses while disorganized schizotypy is characterized by self-perceived cognitive slips that have previously been shown to be mediated by a fronto-parietal network. Although psychological well-being is negatively associated with social-context specific cognitive failures and negative schizotypy, it is positively associated with cognitive-perceptual schizotypy.
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Affiliation(s)
- Stella G Giakoumaki
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Crete, Gallos University campus, Rethymno 74100, Crete, Greece
| | - Penny Karamaouna
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Crete, Gallos University campus, Rethymno 74100, Crete, Greece
| | - Leda Karagiannopoulou
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Crete, Gallos University campus, Rethymno 74100, Crete, Greece
| | - Chrysoula Zouraraki
- Department of Psychology, Faculty of Social Sciences, University of Crete, Gallos University campus, Rethymno 74100, Crete, Greece
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Pan DN, Hoid D, Wang ZH, Wang Y, Li X. Using questionnaires and task-related EEG signals to reveal hindered reappraisal and biased suppression in individuals with high schizotypal traits. Sci Rep 2020; 10:5529. [PMID: 32218454 PMCID: PMC7099017 DOI: 10.1038/s41598-020-62283-6] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 09/05/2019] [Accepted: 03/10/2020] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Although impaired ability to regulate emotion is commonly reported in schizophrenic patients, the exact pattern of regulation of negative emotions in high-risk individuals remains unclear. In the current study, 26 high-schizotypy individuals paired with 26 controls completed an emotion regulation questionnaire (ERQ) and a laboratory emotion regulation task with electroencephalogram (EEG) recording. Two emotion regulation strategies, namely, reappraisal and expression suppression, were concurrently examined. The late positive potential (LPP) and frontal alpha asymmetry (FAA) were selected as two independent neural indicators of the emotion regulation effect. In the ERQ questionnaire, individuals in the high schizotypy group reported higher habitual use of suppression than the controls. During the emotion regulation task, the high schizotypy group showed no early LPP reduction in reappraisal compared with the control group and exhibited a general negative FAA pattern (left-biased alpha). In conclusion, we found that individuals with high schizotypy exhibited maladaptive regulation of negative emotions, manifested in hindered reappraisal and biased suppression; this may exacerbate the negative affect of such emotions and further serve as a risk factor for psychosis conversion. Early interventions targeting the regulation of negative emotions may be beneficial for individuals with high schizotypal traits.
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Affiliation(s)
- Dong-Ni Pan
- Key laboratory of Mental Health, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
- Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 10049, China
| | - Delhii Hoid
- Key laboratory of Mental Health, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
- Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 10049, China
| | - Zhen-Hao Wang
- Key laboratory of Mental Health, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
- Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 10049, China
| | - Yi Wang
- Key laboratory of Mental Health, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China
- Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 10049, China
| | - Xuebing Li
- Key laboratory of Mental Health, Institute of Psychology, Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 100101, China.
- Department of Psychology, University of Chinese Academy of Sciences, Beijing, 10049, China.
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