Determination of cadmium in whole blood and scalp hair samples of Pakistani male lung cancer patients by electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometer

Assessment of occupational exposure to lead among workers engaged in a city bus garage in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia: a comparative cross-sectional study

BACKGROUND

Lead is one of the most nonessential toxic heavy metal agents found in automotive garages. The occupational exposure of garage workers to lead commonly poses acute and chronic health risks that can be prevented. In Ethiopia, there have been limited studies on lead exposure among garage workers, who overemphasize exposure to lead. This study aimed to assess occupational blood lead levels and associated factors in garage workers using a cross-sectional comparative design.

METHODS

A comparative cross-sectional study design was used to compare the occupational blood lead levels of 36 randomly selected garage workers and 34 office workers who were matched by age and sex. Blood specimens were collected by trained medical laboratory experts. The collected blood samples were tested in a certified laboratory using a microwave plasma atomic emission spectrometry (MP-AES) device at a wavelength of 405.78 nm. Excel and SPSS Version 26 were used for data management and analysis, respectively.

RESULTS

The mean (SD) age of the exposed group was 39.0 (7.5) years, whereas the mean age of the unexposed group was 38.0 (6.1) years. The occupational mean (SD) blood-lead-level in the exposed groups was 29.7 (12.2) µg/dl, compared to 14.8 (9.9) µg/dl among the unexposed groups. The mean blood-lead level among the exposed workers was significantly different from that among the unexposed workers (P < 0.01). Of all the study participants, only 22.2% of the exposed groups had blood lead levels higher than the World Health Organization's recommended limit of 40 µg/dl. The main significant predictors of occupational blood-lead-level exposure among workers were extra working hours, service years, and having a previous (prior) employment history in a garage. The occupations of the two groups did not significantly differ in terms of blood-lead levels (p > 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

The BLL of the Garage workers was significantly greater than that of the Non-Garage workers. Hence, it is advised that garage management should encourage workers to use exposure prevention methods, such as washing their hands before eating and taking showers after the completion of work, by providing regular occupational safety training.

Human biomonitoring of trace metals from different altitudinal settings of Pakistan

Human biomonitoring of toxic trace elements is of critical importance for public health protection. The current study aims to assess the levels of selected trace metals (Cd, Co, Cr, Cu, Mn, Ni, Pb, and Zn) into paired human nail and hair samples (n = 180 each) from different altitudinal setting along the Indus River, and which were measured by using inductively coupled plasma mass spectrometry (ICP-MS). The human samples (hair and nail) were collected from four different ecological zones of Pakistan which include frozen mountain zone (FMZ), wet mountain zone (WMZ), riverine delta zone (RDZ), and low-lying southern areas (LLZ). Our results showed the following occurrence trends into studied hair samples: higher values (ppm) of Zn (281), Co (0.136), and Mn (5.65) at FMZ; Cr (1.37), Mn (7.83), and Ni (1.22) at WMZ; Co (0.15), Mn (11.89), and Ni (0.99) at RDZ; and Mn (8.99) and Ni (0.90) at LLZ. While in the case of nails, the levels (ppm) of Mn (9.91) at FMZ and Mn (9.38, 24.1, and 12.5), Cr (1.84, 3.87, and 2.33), and Ni (10.69, 8.89, and 12.6) at WMZ, RDZ and LLZ, respectively, showed higher concentration. In general, among the studied trace elements, Mn and Ni in hair/nail samples were consistently higher and exceeded the WHO threshold/published reference values in most of the studied samples (> 50-60%) throughout the Indus basin. Similarly, hair/nail Pb values were also higher in few cases (2-10%) at all studied zones and exceeded the WHO threshold/published reference values. Our area-wise comparisons of studied metals exhibited altitudinal trends for Cd, Cr, Zn, and Mn (p < 0.05), and surprisingly, the values were increasing from south to north (at higher altitudes) and indicative of geogenic sources of the studied toxic elements, except Mn, which was higher at lower floodplain areas. Estimated daily intake (EDI) values showed that food and drinking water had the highest contribution towards Zn, Cu, Mn, and Ni and accumulation at all studied zones. Whereas, dust also acts as the main exposure route for Mn, Co, Cr, and Cd followed by the food, and water.

Selenium and mercury concentrations in biological samples from patients with COVID-19

BACKGROUND

Coronavirus disease 2019 (COVID-19) is a systemic disease affecting multiple organs. Furthermore, viral infection depletes several trace elements and promotes complex biochemical reactions in the body. Smoking has been linked to the incidence of COVID-19 and associated mortality, and it may impact clinical effects, viral and bacterial conversion, and treatment outcomes.

OBJECTIVES

To study the relationship between severe acute respiratory syndrome coronavirus type 2 and the elemental concentrations of selenium (Se) and mercury (Hg) in biological samples from smokers and nonsmokers infected with the virus and in healthy individuals.

METHOD

We evaluated changes in the concentrations of essential (Se) and toxic (Hg) elements in biological samples (blood, nasal fluid, saliva, sputum, serum, and scalp hair) collected from male smokers and nonsmokers (aged 29-59 years) infected with COVID-19 and from healthy men in the same age group. The patients lived in different cities in Sindh Province, Pakistan. The Se and Hg concentrations were determined using atomic absorption spectrophotometry.

RESULTS

Se concentrations in all types of biological samples from smokers and nonsmokers with COVID-19 were lower than those of healthy smokers and nonsmokers. Hg concentrations were elevated in both smokers and nonsmokers with COVID-19.

CONCLUSIONS

In the current study, persons infected with COVID-19 had higher concentrations of toxic Hg, which could cause physiological disorders, and low concentrations of essential Se, which can also cause weakness. COVID-19 infection showed positive correlations with levels of mercury and selenium. Thus, additional clinical and experimental investigations are essential.

Appraisal of chromium in chicken reared on maize irrigated with sewage water

In the present study, the outcome of sewage, canal, and ground water on the chromium (Cr) concentration in corn and ultimately in chicken body parts was reported. To evaluate Cr level, atomic absorption spectrophotometer (Flame Atomic Absorption Spectrophotometer AA 6300, Shimadzu Japan) was used. The highest level of Cr in grains (0.50 ± 0.05 mg/kg), shoots (0.90 ± 0.01 mg/kg), and roots (1.01 ± 0.02 mg/kg) were noticed in the Sadaf variety watered with canal water. The least concentration of Cr was recorded in grains (0.07 ± 0.01 mg/kg), shoots (0.59 ± 0.01 mg/kg), and roots (0.71 ± 0.01 mg/kg) of Pearl variety irrigated with ground water. The maximum concentration of chromium in the blood (1.68 ± 0.02 mg/kg) and bones (1.26 ± 0.24 mg/kg) was observed in chicks fed on Millet Research Institute (MMRI) grains reared with the sewage water. The lowest concentration was observed in the blood (1.60 ± 0.04 mg/kg) and in bone (0.80 ± 0.01 mg/kg) of the chicks fed Pearl variety grains reared with canal water. In the second experiment, the maximum content of Cr was determined in the blood (0.74 ± 0.04 mg/kg) and bones (1.76 ± 0.02 ppm) of chicks consuming Sadaf variety grains reared with canal water and the least concentration in the blood (0.26 ± 0.03 mg/kg) and bones (1.64 ± 0.01 mg/kg) was determined on the consumption of the Pearl variety grains reared with ground water. A similar trend was observed in other body organs. It was concluded that polluted water causes higher accumulation levels of Cr in plant parts and even in animals' body parts after the utilization of such plants.

Occupational exposure of lead and cadmium on adolescent and adult workers of battery recycling and welding workshops: Adverse impact on health

The occupational exposure of toxic metals is an important concern, because of its potential accumulation in living organisms, leading to long term toxic effects. The occupational and environmental contacts of toxic metals, cadmium (Cd) and lead (Pb) have been evaluated by determination of them in biological samples (blood and scalp hair) of adolescent and adults, workers of battery recycling and welding workshops. The age matched adolescent and adult residing in nonindustrial areas were also selected, termed as referent/control subjects. The blood and scalp hair samples of workers and controls were analyzed for Cd and Pb using graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry previously decomposed the matrices using acid mixture. The biochemical parameters of workers of both age groups were also evaluated. The average concentrations of Cd and Pb in blood and scalp hair samples of adolescent workers were three fold higher as compared with control subjects. The drinking water in containers of both workshops contained Pb and Cd in two to four and five to thirteen folds, respectively, higher than recommended permissible limits of WHO. The significant correlations between the blood lead levels and hemoglobin (%) in adolescent (r = -0.78). The positive correlation was observed among incidence of blood pressure with Pb and Cd concentrations in biological samples of workers (adults) (r = 0.65 to 0.83). These findings suggest that occupational exposure of toxic metals might be created adverse impacts on workers due to ill management of workshops.

Links between Cognitive Status and Trace Element Levels in Hair for an Environmentally Exposed Population: A Case Study in the Surroundings of the Estarreja Industrial Area

In the present study, trace elements (TE) levels were evaluated in scalp hair along the continuum from healthy subjects (HS) to patients suffering from subjective memory concerns (SMC), and/or mild cognitive impairment (MCI), and those with already installed dementia (DEM) in order to: (i) assess the effects of environmental and lifestyle factors on TE concentrations and (ii) evaluate the analyzed elements as possible diagnostic biomarkers for the disease. The study involved 79 mainly permanent residents, >55 years old, from the city of Estarreja (northern Portugal), a former industrial area. The health status of the participants was assessed by means of a complete socio-demographic questionnaire and through cognitive screening tests, namely the Mini-Mental State Examination (MMSE). The test scores were categorized and used in the statistical analysis. Hair samples were collected and analyzed by inductively coupled plasma-mass spectrometry (ICP-MS) ICP-MS for selected TE. Dementia appears to be associated with higher age, the female gender, lower education level, and longer residence time in the study area. In addition, most of the participants diagnosed with dementia frequently consume home-grown foodstuffs, some irrigated with contaminated well water. The calculation of the TE enrichment factors of soil samples collected in kitchen gardens/small farms in the vicinity of the Estarreja Chemical Complex (ECC) reinforces the degree of Hg soil contamination in the area, due to anthropogenic sources that can be a source for the population Hg exposure route among others. Mercury levels in hair differed significantly between the four individual groups (HS, SMC, MCI, and DEM), increasing from healthy to dementia participants. Improved diagnostic results can be obtained using hair TE signatures coupled with MMSE scores. This strategy may prove useful for predictive diagnosis in population screening for cognitive impairment.

Essential trace elemental levels (zinc, iron and copper) in the biological samples of smoker referent and pulmonary tuberculosis patients

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Smoking is linked with tuberculosis recurrence.

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Pakistan has not only high TB number of TB cases (fifth) but also high level of multidrug-resistant TB (fourth) in the world.

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Cu/Zn ratio was also considerably greater in all biological samples of TB patients as compared to the control group.

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The analysis the levels of the elements, {Fe, Cu, Zn and Cu/Zn ratio} may help the studies on the development of TB disease.

Tuberculosis is one of the major causes of illnesses and deaths throughout world particularly in Asia. Smoking is linked with tuberculosis recurrence and its mortality and may influence bacteriological conversion, clinical symptoms and treatment outcome. The aim of current study was to estimate association among essential trace elements {zinc (Zn), iron (Fe) and copper (Cu)} in human biological samples particularly blood, serum, scalp hair, saliva, sputum, and nasal fluid of smoking and nonsmoking pulmonary tuberculosis patients (n = 165, age ranged 16–35 years) residents of Hyderabad, Pakistan. The biological samples of age matched healthy controls were chosen as referents of both genders (n = 171) for the comparison purpose. The human biological samples were wet digested in microwave oven by 65 % HNO₃ and 30 % H₂O₂ with (2:1) ratio. The concentrations of elements in acid digested samples were determined by atomic absorption spectrometry. The average zinc and iron concentration was lower, while level of copper was higher in the biological samples of pulmonary Tuberculosis patients as compared to referent subjects (p < .001). It was also concluded as a result of Zn and Fe deficiency combined with high contact of copper due to smoking of tobacco can be synergistic with the risk factors related with pulmonary tuberculosis.

Blood Cadmium Level Is Associated with Short Progression-Free Survival in Nasopharyngeal Carcinoma

The prognosis of nasopharyngeal carcinoma (NPC) is poor with disease progression. Cadmium exposure is a risk factor for NPC. We aimed to investigate the effect of cadmium exposure, by measuring cadmium level, and clinicopathologic factors on NPC disease progression and prognosis. A total of 134 NPC cases were analyzed and venous blood samples were collected. Blood cadmium level was analyzed by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Clinical data were collected at baseline for patients and tumor characteristics from medical records. Progression-free survival (PFS) was analyzed during follow-up. The effect of cadmium exposure and clinical factors on PFS was analyzed by the Kaplan-Meier method and Cox regression models. Blood cadmium level was associated with history of disease and smoking history and pack-years. On Kaplan-Meier analysis, a high blood cadmium level, male sex, smoking history and increasing pack-years, as well as advanced clinical stage were all associated with short PFS. On multivariate analysis, blood cadmium level was an independent risk factor and predictor of NPC prognosis and disease progression. Cadmium exposure and related clinical factors can affect the prognosis of NPC, which merits further study to clarify.

Biomonitoring chronic lead exposure among battery manufacturing workers in Tunisia

The aim of the study was the biomonitoring of the chronic exposure to Pb by measuring its levels in blood, urine, and hair of battery workers. Blood lead (BPb), urinary lead (UPb), hair lead (HPb), and urinary δ-aminolevulinic acid (UALA) levels were determined for 52 workers in a battery plant and compared to those of 20 non-occupational exposed subjects (controls). BPb and UPb levels were determined by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry (GFAAS). HPb levels were measured by triple quadrupole ICP-MS and UALA levels were determined using cation exchanger column. The measured levels were significantly higher compared to the controls exceeding the OSHA cutoff values (p < 0.01). The GM mean levels of BPb, UPb, UALA, and HPb of workers were 715 μg L^-1, 331 μg L^-1, 16.3 mg g^-1, and 234 μg g^-1, respectively. The GM mean levels of BPb, UPb, UALA, and HPb of controls were 93.6 μg L^-1, 36.3 μg L^-1, 1.9 mg g^-1, and 1.8 μg g^-1, respectively. Significant correlations were observed between BPb and UALA (r = 0.630, p = 0.000), UPb and UALA (r = 0.566, p = 0.000), and between BPb and HPb (r = 0.466, p = 0.004). The significant correlation between BPb and HPb suggests the usefulness of hair for assessing occupational exposure particularly when the study area presents medium to high levels of Pb pollution. The association between Pb biomarkers and potential confounding factors revealed significant influence of the occupational factor over smoking and alcohol consumption. The results of this study urge for the reinforcement of the implemented engineering controls and safety measures in order to reduce exposure and to address the health issues related to Pb poisoning.

Evaluation of the status and the relationship between essential and toxic elements in the hair of occupationally exposed workers

Lead poisoning is a common disease in lead-acid battery manufacturing industries. Workers can be also exposed to various toxic elements present as contaminants or used as catalysts to enhance batteries' performances. In the present study, levels of essential and toxic elements and their relationship were assessed by analyzing scalp hair samples of 52 workers in a Pb battery manufacturing plant. The impact of some confounding factors on hair mineral contents was also investigated. For comparative purposes, nonoccupationally exposed subjects were selected as controls. All elements were determined by triple quadrupole ICP-MS. The results indicated significantly higher levels of Pb, Sb, As, and Cd in the hair of workers when compared to controls (p < 0.01). The Spearman correlation test revealed significant correlations between Pb/Cr, Pb/Mn, Pb/Ni, Pb/As, Pb/Se, Pb/Sb, Hg/As, Hg/Sn, Hg/Sb, Sb/Cr, Sb/As, Sb/Se, Sb/Cd, Sb/Sn, Sn/Cr, Sn/As, Sn/Cd, Cd/As, Se/Ni, As/Cr, Ni/Cr, Ni/Mn, and Mn/Cr in the hair of workers and Pb/Cr, Pb/Mn, Pb/Ni, Pb/Cd, Mn/Ni, Mn/Cd, Cd/Ni, As/Ni, Sn/Ni, Sb/Sn, and Hg/Sn in the hair of controls. Multiple linear regression analysis revealed linear dependence including Cr = f(Pb, Ni, Sb), Mn = f(Ni, Sb), Ni = f(Mn, Cr, -Cd) (Cd was negatively correlated, β < 0), As = f(Sn, Sb, Hg), Se = f(Ni); Sn = f(As), Sb = f(As, Mn, -Hg, Sn, Se, -Ni) (Hg and Ni were negatively correlated), Hg = f(As, -Sb, Sn) (Sb was negatively correlated), and Pb = f(Cr). The result of this study can be very useful to explain the interactions between elements or for comparison studies when establishing reference ranges or monitoring elements in workplaces.

Elevated heavy metals levels in cognitively impaired patients from Pakistan

The deficit in the visuospatial skills, thinking, learning and memory is termed as cognitive impairment. Human exposure to heavy metals is a potential risk factor for developing cognitive impairment. This study aimed to investigate the possible association between the concentration of heavy metals and the extent of cognitive impairment. Blood samples were subjected to microwave assisted acid digestion and evaluated for metals levels using atomic absorption spectrophotometry. We measured the levels of Cu, Pb, Al, Zn, Cd and Mn in 183 patients diagnosed with cognitive impairment; mild (n = 72), moderate (n = 86) and severe (n = 25) and compared them to age-matched healthy controls (n = 90). Results showed that all the aforementioned elements were significantly higher in cognitively impaired patients and increasing concentration was strongly correlated with increase in severity of the disease. The correlation study has shown that among the studied metals, Al and Cu are strongly associated with the cognitive impairment. This suggests the need for decrease in metal exposure to humans from environment, food and industries.

Toxic metals in cigarettes and human health risk assessment associated with inhalation exposure

This study evaluated the concentrations of cadmium (Cd), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), lead (Pb), and zinc (Zn) in 10 branded cigarettes commonly consumed in Nigeria. Chemical sequential extraction method and pseudo-total metal digestion procedure were used for extraction of metals from filler tobacco and filter samples. Samples were analyzed using flame atomic absorption spectrometry (FAAS). The filler tobacco of cigarettes had Cd, Cu, Fe, Mn, Pb, and Zn concentrations in the ranges of 5.90-7.94, 18.26-34.94, 192.61-3494.05, 44.67-297.69, 17.21-74.78, and 47.02-167.31 μg/cigarette, respectively. The minimum and maximum concentrations in the filter samples were 8.67-12.34 μg/g of Cd, 1.77-36.48 μg/g of Cu, 1.83-15.27 μg/g of Fe, 3.82-7.44 μg/g of Mn, 4.09-13.78 μg/g of Pb, and 30.07-46.70 μg/g of Zn. The results of this study showed that the concentrations of heavy metals in the filler tobacco samples were consistently higher than those obtained for the cigarette filters except for Cd. Toxic metals were largely found in the most labile chemical fractions. Moderate to very high risks are found associated with potential exposure to Cd and Pb. The carcinogenic risks posed by Cd and Pb ranged between 1.87E-02 and 2.52E-02, 1.05E-03 and 4.76E-03, respectively, while the non-carcinogenic risk estimates for Cd and Pb were greater than 1.0 (HI > 1). Toxic metals in cigarette may have significant carcinogenic and non-carcinogenic health effects associated with inhalation exposure. Continuous monitoring and regulations of the ingredients of imported and locally produced tobacco products are advocated.

Protective effects of synbiotic diets of Bacillus coagulans, Lactobacillus plantarum and inulin against acute cadmium toxicity in rats

BACKGROUND

Cadmium is a heavy metal that causes oxidative stress and has toxic effects in humans. The aim of this study was to investigate the influence of two probiotics along with a prebiotic in preventing the toxic effects of cadmium in rats.

METHODS

Twenty-four male Wistar rats were randomly divided into four groups namely control, cadmium only, cadmium along with Lactobacillus plantarum (1 × 109 CFU/day) and inulin (5% of feedstuff) and cadmium along with Bacillus coagulans (1 × 109 spore/day) and inulin (5% of feedstuff). Cadmium treated groups received 200 μg/rat/day CdCl2 administered by gavage. During the 42-day experimental period, they were weighed weekly. For evaluation of changes in oxidative stress, the levels of some biochemicals and enzymes of serum including SOD, GPX, MDA, AST, ALT, total bilirubin, BUN and creatinine, and also SOD level of livers were measured at day 21 and 42 of treatment. The cadmium content of kidney and liver was determined by using atomic absorption mass spectrophotometry. Data were analyzed using analysis of variance (ANOVA) followed by Duncan's post hoc test.

RESULTS

Treatment of cadmium induced rats with synbiotic diets significantly improved the liver enzymes and biochemical parameters that decreased AST, ALT, total bilirubin, BUN and metal accumulation in the liver and kidney and increased body weight, serum and liver SOD values in comparison with the cadmium-treated group. No significant differences were observed with MDA and GP_X values between all groups (p > 0.05).

CONCLUSIONS

This study showed that synbiotic diets containing probiotics (L. plantarum and B. coagulans) in combination with the prebiotic (inulin) can reduce the level of cadmium in the liver and kidney, preventing their damage and recover antioxidant enzymes in acute cadmium poisoning in rat.

The Association Between Urinary Cadmium Levels and Dietary Habits with Risk of Gastrointestinal Cancer in Tabriz, Northwest of Iran

Cadmium (Cd) is a widespread toxic heavy metal and has long biological half-life. It has potential carcinogenic effects on multiple organ systems of human. However, no studies have evaluated the adverse effects of cadmium on incidence of cancer in gastrointestinal tract. The aim of this study was to investigate the association between urine cadmium (U-Cd) levels and risk of gastrointestinal cancer. This descriptive study was accomplished on 111 GI cancer patients as cases and 111 healthy people as control subjects from January to October in Tabriz, northwest Iran, during 2013. Cadmium in urine samples was measured by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrophotometer (GFAAS). GI cancer patients had higher urine cadmium levels in comparison to healthy individuals (p < 0.05). The multivariate regression model manifested a significant association between the U-Cd concentrations and the risk of GI cancer (odds ratio (OR) = 1.70, 95 % CI = 1.35-2.20). Cases were 70 % more than controls at risk of cancer incidence. Our data indicates an association between U-Cd levels and GI cancer risk.

Genotoxic effects of cadmium in human head and neck cell line SQ20B

As cadmium may be involved in the etiology of head and neck cancers, we investigated in the present work, the cytotoxic and genotoxic effects of Cd on human larynx cells. SQ20B cells were exposed to 25 and 50 μM Cd for 48 and 72 h. Results showed a dose-dependent decrease in cell viability, especially after 48 h, associated with mitochondria alterations as showed by transmission electronic microscopy. Surprisingly, the flow cytometry shows that the cells treated with Cd have a normal proliferative cycle like the untreated cell especially in G1 or G2 phase of cell cycle. DNA damages were investigated by comet assay and immunofluorescence for gamma layer of the H2AX (g-H2AX) foci formation. Results show a strong induction of DNA double-strand breaks after Cd exposure. Overall, our results demonstrate the cytotoxicity and genotoxicity of Cd in human larynx cells and support the view that Cd could be an etiologic factor of head and neck cancers.

Spatial distribution of dust-bound trace elements in Pakistan and their implications for human exposure

This study aims to assess the spatial patterns of selected dust-borne trace elements alongside the river Indus Pakistan, their relation with anthropogenic and natural sources, and the potential risk posed to human health. The studied elements were found in descending concentrations: Mn, Zn, Pb, Cu, Ni, Cr, Co, and Cd. The Index of Geo-accumulation indicated that pollution of trace metals were higher in lower Indus plains than on mountain areas. In general, the toxic elements Cr, Mn, Co and Ni exhibited altitudinal trends (P < 0.05). The few exceptions to this trend were the higher values for all studied elements from the northern wet mountainous zone (low lying Himalaya). Spatial PCA/FA highlighted that the sources of different trace elements were zone specific, thus pointing to both geological influences and anthropogenic activities. The Hazard Index for Co and for Mn in children exceeded the value of 1 only in the riverine delta zone and in the southern low lying zone, whereas the Hazard Index for Pb was above the bench mark for both children and adults (with few exceptions) in all regions, thus indicating potential non-carcinogenic health risks. These results will contribute towards the environmental management of trace metal(s) with potential risk for human health throughout Pakistan.

Effect of Trace and Toxic Elements of Different Brands of Cigarettes on the Essential Elemental Status of Irish Referent and Diabetic Mellitus Consumers

Cigarette smoking interferes with the metal homeostasis of the human body, which plays a crucial role for maintaining the health. A significant flux of heavy metals, among other toxins, reaches the lungs through smoking. In the present study, the relationship between toxic element (TE) exposure via cigarette smoking and diabetic mellitus incidence in population living in Dublin, Ireland is investigated. The trace [zinc (Zn) and selenium (Se)] and toxic elements arsenic (As), aluminum (Al), cadmium (Cd), nickel (Ni), mercury (Hg), and lead (Pb) were determined in biological (scalp hair and blood) samples of patients diagnosed with diabetic mellitus, who are smokers living in Dublin, Ireland. These results were compared with age- and sex-matched healthy, nonsmokers controls. The different brands of cigarette (filler tobacco, filter, and ash) consumed by the studied population were also analyzed for As, Al, Cd, Ni, Hg, and Pb. The concentrations of TEs in biological samples and different components of cigarette were measured by inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrophotometer after microwave-assisted acid digestion. The validity and accuracy of the methodology were checked using certified reference materials (CRM). The recovery of all the studied elements was found to be in the range of 96.4-99.7% in certified reference materials. The filler tobacco of different branded cigarettes contains Hg, As, Al, Cd, Ni, and Pb concentrations in the ranges of 9.55-12.4 ng/cigarette, 0.432-0.727 μg/cigarette, 360-496 μg/cigarette, 1.70-2.12 μg/cigarette, 0.715-1.52 μg/cigarette, and 0.378-1.16 μg/cigarette, respectively. The results of this study showed that the mean values of Al, As, Cd, Hg, Ni, and Pb were significantly higher in scalp hair and blood samples of diabetic mellitus patients in relation to healthy controls, while the difference was significant in the case of smoker patients (p < 0.001). The levels of all six toxic elements were twofolds to threefolds higher in scalp hair and blood samples of nondiabetic mellitus smoker subjects as compared to nonsmoker controls. The high exposure of toxic metals as a result of cigarette smoking may be synergistic with risk factors associated with diabetic mellitus.

Cadmium status among pediatric cancer patients in Egypt

Cadmium (Cd) is a toxic, nonessential, and bio-accumulating heavy metal widely used in industry. Several studies have suggested a positive association between Cd exposure and risks of several cancers. However, data from general population, especially children are sparse.In the current cross-sectional case-control study, we aimed to assess the association between Cd exposure, as expressed by Cd body status (blood, urine, scalp hair, and nails) and cancer among Egyptian children. Three hundred and fifty pediatric cancer cases aged 3 to 14-years old were enrolled in our study. Their body Cd levels were evaluated using Atomic Absorption Spectrophometer and were compared with Cd levels of 350 healthy children.Significantly higher Cd levels (blood, urine, scalp hair, and nails) were documented in cancer cases when compared with control (P < 0.001). Such difference was still detected when comparing each malignant type separately, with controls. Tobacco smoke exposure, rural residence, and low socioeconomic status were reported more frequently among cases than comparisons.Positive association between Cd exposure and pediatric malignancy may be present.

Estimation of toxic elements in the samples of different cigarettes and their effect on the essential elemental status in the biological samples of Irish smoker rheumatoid arthritis consumers

Cigarette smoking interferes with the metal homeostasis of the human body, which plays a crucial role for maintaining the health. A significant flux of heavy metals, among other toxins, reaches the lungs through smoking. In the present study, the relationship between toxic element (TE) exposure via cigarette smoking and rheumatoid arthritis incidence in population living in Dublin, Ireland, is investigated. The trace {zinc (Zn), copper (Cu), manganese (Mn), and selenium (Se)} and toxic elements arsenic (As), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), and lead (Pb) were determined in biological (scalp hair and blood) samples of patients diagnosed with rheumatoid arthritis, who are smokers living in Dublin, Ireland. These results were compared with age- and sex-matched healthy, nonsmoker controls. The different brands of cigarette (filler tobacco, filter, and ash) consumed by the studied population were also analyzed for As, Cd, Hg, and Pb. The concentrations of trace and TEs in biological samples and different components of cigarette were measured by inductively coupled plasma mass spectrophotometer after microwave-assisted acid digestion. The validity and accuracy of the methodology were checked using certified reference materials. The recovery of all the studied elements was found to be in the range of 96.4-99.8% in certified reference materials. The filler tobacco of different branded cigarettes contains Hg, As, Cd, and Pb concentrations in the ranges of 9.55-12.4 ng, 0.432-0.727 μg, 1.70-2.12 μg, and 0.378-1.16 μg/cigarette, respectively. The results of this study showed that the mean values of As, Cd, Hg, and Pb were significantly higher in scalp hair and blood samples of rheumatoid arthritis patients as compare to healthy controls, while Zn, Cu, Mn, and Se concentrations were found to be lower in rheumatoid arthritis patients, the difference was significant in the case of smoker patients (p<0.001). The levels of four toxic elements were 2-3-folds higher in scalp hair and blood samples of nonrheumatoid arthritis smoker subjects as compared to nonsmoker controls. The high exposure of toxic metals as a result of cigarette smoking may be synergistic with risk factors associated with rheumatoid arthritis.

Assessment of toxic elements in the samples of different cigarettes and their effect on the essential elemental status in the biological samples of Irish hypertensive consumers

Cigarette smoking causes an acute increase in blood pressure and heart rate and has been found to be associated with malignant hypertension (HT). A significant flux of toxic metals among other toxins reaches the lungs through smoking. In the present study, the relationship between essential (zinc and selenium) and toxic element (TE; cadmium and mercury) and HT incidence in smoker and nonsmoker population living in Dublin, Ireland was investigated. The zinc (Zn), selenium (Se), cadmium (Cd) and mercury (Hg) were determined in biological (scalp hair and blood) samples of smoker and nonsmoker hypertensive patients. For comparison purposes, healthy age- and sex-matched subjects as referents residing in the same city were also selected. The different brands of cigarette consumed by the studied population were also analyzed for Cd and Hg. The concentrations of essential trace and TEs in all studied samples were measured by inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrophotometer after microwave-assisted acid digestion. The validity and accuracy of the methodology was checked using certified reference materials (CRMs). The recovery of all the studied elements was found to be in the range of 96.4-99.7% of certified values of CRMs. The filler tobacco of different branded cigarettes contains Hg and Cd concentrations in the range of 9.55-12.4 ng and 1.70-2.12 μg per cigarette, respectively. The results of this study showed that the mean values of Cd and Hg were significantly higher in scalp hair and blood samples of hypertensive patients as compared with healthy controls, whereas Zn and Se concentrations were found to be lower in hypertensive patients, the difference was significant in the case of smoker patients (P < 0.001). The levels of both TEs were 2-3-folds higher in scalp hair and blood samples of nonhypertensive smoker subjects as compared with nonsmoker controls. It was observed that exposure of TEs via cigarette smoking may be synergistic with other risk factors associated with HT.

Genome-wide association study of smoking behaviours among Bangladeshi adults

BACKGROUND

The high prevalence of tobacco use in some developing nations, including Bangladesh, poses several public health challenges for these populations. Smoking behaviour is determined by genetic and environmental factors; however, the genetic determinants of smoking behaviour have not been previously examined in a Bangladeshi or South Asian population. We performed a genome-wide association study (GWAS) of tobacco smoking behaviour among a population-based sample of 5354 (2035 ever smokers and 3319 never smokers) men and women in Bangladesh.

METHODS

Genome-wide association analyses were conducted for smoking initiation (ever vs never smokers), smoking quantity (cigarettes per day), age of smoking initiation, and smoking cessation (former vs current smokers). Sex-stratified associations were performed for smoking initiation.

RESULTS

We observed associations for smoking initiation in the SLC39A11 region at 17q21.31 (rs2567519, p=1.33×10⁻⁷) among men and in the SLCO3A1 region at 15q26 (rs12912184, p=9.32×10⁻⁸) among women.

CONCLUSIONS

These findings suggest possible underlying mechanisms related to solute carrier transporter genes, which transport neurotransmitters, nutrients, heavy metals and other substrates into cells, for smoking initiation in a South Asian population in a sex-specific pattern. Genetic markers could have potential translational implications for the prevention or treatment of tobacco use and addiction in South Asian populations and warrant further exploration.

Risk of laryngeal and nasopharyngeal cancer associated with arsenic and cadmium in the Tunisian population

Chronic exposure to heavy metals has long been recognized as being capable of increasing head and neck cancer (HNC) incidence, such as laryngeal (LC) and nasopharyngeal (NPC), among exposed human populations. The aim of the present study was to evaluate the concentrations of arsenic (As) and cadmium (Cd) in the blood of 145 patients (LC and NPC) and 351 controls in order to establish a potential relationship between these factors and the occurrence of LC and NPC. Mean blood levels of As and Cd in patients (5.67 and 3.51 μg/L, respectively) were significantly higher than those of controls (1.57 and 0.74 μg/L, respectively). The blood levels of As and Cd were mostly significantly higher than those of controls (p<0.05) after controlling the other risk factors of HNC including tobacco smoking and chewing, and alcohol drinking. Cd levels in blood increase significantly with the number of occupational exposure years for patients (p<0.05). However, seafood was not found to be contributing as an exposure source. Among these risk factors, smoking (>30 pack years) and occupational exposure (>20 years) presented the most significant association with HNC (OR=10.22 and 10.38, respectively, p<0.001). Cd level in blood sample of cases that are occupationally exposed/tobacco users (smokers and chewers) were higher than that of non-occupationally exposed/nontobacco users (p<0.001). The logistic regression model illustrated that HNC (LC+NPC) was significantly associated with blood levels of As (OR=2.41, p<0.001) and Cd (OR=4.95, p<0.001).

Estimation of toxic elements in the samples of different cigarettes and their impact on human health of Irish hypertensive consumers

BACKGROUND

Cigarette smoking interferes with the metal homeostasis of the human body, which plays a crucial role for maintaining the health. A significant flux of heavy metals, among other toxins, reaches the lungs through smoking. In the present study, the relationship between toxic element (TE) exposure via cigarette smoking and hypertension incidence in population living in Dublin, Ireland is investigated.

METHODS

The different brands of cigarette (filler tobacco, filter and ash) consumed by the studied population were analyzed for cadmium (Cd), nickel (Ni), and lead (Pb). The concentrations of TEs in biological samples and different components of cigarette were measured by inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrophotometer after microwave-assisted acid digestion. The validity and accuracy of the methodology were checked using certified reference materials.

RESULTS

The filler tobacco of different branded cigarettes contains Cd, Ni and Pb concentrations in the ranges of 1.73-2.02, 0.715-1.52 and 0.378-1.16 μg/cigarette, respectively. The results of this study showed that the mean values of Cd, Ni and Pb were significantly higher in scalp hair and blood samples of hypertensive patients in relation to healthy controls, while the difference was significant in the case of smoker patients (p<0.001). The levels of all the three TEs were 2-3 folds higher in scalp hair and blood samples of non-hypertensive smoker subjects as compared to nonsmoker controls.

CONCLUSION

The high exposure of toxic metals as a result of cigarette smoking may be synergistic with risk factors associated with hypertension.

Occupational and environmental lead exposure to adolescent workers in battery recycling workshops

Lead (Pb), as other environmental neurotoxicant substances, has the capability to interfere with many biochemical events present in cells throughout the body. In the present study, the environmental and occupational exposure to Pb has been assessed by analyzing the scalp hair samples of male adolescents aged 12-15 years, who have worked for the last 12-36 months in Pb battery recycling workshops (BRWs). For comparative purposes, gender and age-matched subjects living in the vicinity of recycling workshops as well as in areas without industrial activity were used as controls. The scalp hair samples were oxidized by acid in a microwave oven prior to determination of Pb by electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry. The results indicated that both workers and nonworking exposed subjects had higher levels of Pb than nonexposed controls. The contents of Pb in scalp hair of adolescent workers in the present study were compared with those reported in other studies.

Hair analysis in health assessment

BACKGROUND

Hair analysis is used for estimation of the nutritional status of individuals. In the present work, a systematic review on the relation between the mineral composition of hair and the physical or mental disorders is discussed. Detailed information of examined populations, methods of sample preparations and analytical techniques are presented.

METHODS

A systematic literature search in four electronic databases Scopus, PubMed, Web of Science and Medline (from 1997 to 2012/01/31) for English language articles was performed. In addition, a reference list and manual search was undertaken.

RESULTS

The following number of studies was included: 66. Most of the authors reported that there exists a correlation between deficiency or excess of some elements in hair and occurrence of some diseases, such as: autism, cancer, hypertension, myocardial infarction, kidney disease and diabetes mellitus. However, not all results were consistent.

CONCLUSIONS

Most of the authors concluded that the profile of hair mineral imbalance might be useful as a diagnostic tool for the early diagnosis of many diseases. However, it seems that there is a need to standardize sample preparation procedures, in particular washing and mineralization methods.

Arsenic in water, food and cigarettes: a cancer risk to Pakistani population

Inorganic arsenic (iAs) in drinking water and food items has been associated with lung and bladder cancers in several countries including Pakistan. In present study water, food items were collected from Arsenic (As) endemic areas (southern part of Pakistan) during 2008-2012, to evaluate its impact on the health of local population. Exposure of As was checked by analyzing biological samples (blood and scalp hairs) of male lung and bladder cancer patients (smokers and non-smokers). For comparative purpose the healthy subjects of same age group and residential area as exposed referents (EXR) and from non-contaminated area (Hyderabad, Pakistan) as non-exposed referents (NER) were also selected. As concentration in drinking water, food and biological samples were analyzed using electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry. The validation of technique was done by the analysis of certified reference material (CRM) of blood and hair samples. The As contents in drinking water and food were found 3-15-folds elevated than permissible limits, where as in biological samples; EXR have 2-3-folds higher than NER and cancer patients have 5-9-folds higher than NER. The significant difference was observed in smokers (P < 0.01). The outcomes of the study revealed that As levels were elevated in blood and scalp hair samples of both types of cancer subjects as compared to referents (P < 0.001). It was observed that the lung cancer patients (LCP) have 20-35% higher levels of As in both biological samples as compared to bladder cancer patients (BCP) due to smoking habit. This study has proved the correlation among As contaminated water, food and cigarette smoking between different types of cancer risks.

Exposures of lead to adolescent workers in battery recycling workshops and surrounding communities

In the present study, the environmental and occupational exposure of lead (Pb) has been assessed by analyzing the whole-blood samples of early adolescents (boys) aged 12-15 years working for the past 1-3 years in battery recycling workshops (BRW). For comparative purpose, boys of the same age group residing in the vicinity of BRW (exposed non-workers) and who lived in domestic areas devoid of any industrial activity (referents boys) were selected. The blood samples were analyzed for Pb, along with biochemical parameters of blood. Both biological samples were oxidized by acid in a microwave oven before determination of Pb by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry. The mean value of Pb concentration in blood samples of working boys was threefold higher as compared with referent boys. The significant negative correlations of blood Pb level with % Hb (r=-0.862) were observed in working boys.

Profiles of non-essential trace elements in ewe and goat milk and their yoghurt, Torba yoghurt and whey

The objectives of this study were to determine the profiles of non-essential trace elements in ewes' and goats' milk and manufactured products, such as yoghurt, torba yoghurt and whey, as well as changes in trace element content during Torba yoghurt-making processes. Concentrations of non-essential trace elements in ewe (Awassi) and goat (Damascus) milk and their yoghurt, torba yoghurt and whey were quantitatively determined by simultaneous inductively coupled plasma optical emission spectrometer (ICP-OES), after microwave digestion. Aluminium, antimony, arsenic, boron, beryllium, cadmium, nickel, lead, silver, titanium, thallium and vanadium were determined for both types of milk and their products. Barium was not detected in goats' milk or their products. Among all trace elements, boron was the most abundant and beryllium was least present in milk and the manufactured products. The results showed that goats' and ewes' milk and their manufactured products may be a source of 13 non-essential trace elements.

Case-control study of male cancer patients exposed to arsenic-contaminated drinking water and tobacco smoke with relation to non-exposed cancer patients

The investigated data indicated that inorganic arsenic in drinking water is associated with increased mortality from different types of cancers. In the present study, biological samples (blood and scalp hair) of male subjects having lung and bladder cancers and non-cancerous subjects belonging to arsenic (As)-exposed area of southern parts of Pakistan were analysed for As contents. The As levels in drinking water of understudy area showed that sections of understudy population are exposed to arsenic concentrations, which was 3-15-fold higher than the permissible level (<10 μg/L). For comparative purposes the biological samples of matched male cancer patient, as referent patients belonging to big city (Hyderabad) who had used municipal treated water with low arsenic levels <10 μg/L, were also collected. The exposed cancer patients have 2-3-fold higher level of As in both biological samples compared to non-exposed case-matched cancerous male subjects. This study is compelling evidence in support of positive associations between arsenic-contaminated water, food and cigarette with different types of risks of cancer.

Evaluation of essential trace and toxic elements in scalp hair samples of smokers and alcohol user hypertensive patients

The incidence of hypertension has been associated to cigarette smoking and consumption of alcohol. In the present study, trace and toxic elements were determined in scalp hair of patients diagnosed with hypertension who are smokers and habitual alcohol drinkers living in Dublin, Ireland. These results were compared with age- and sex-matched healthy, nonsmokers, nondrinking controls. The concentrations of trace and toxic elements were measured by inductively coupled plasma atomic emission spectrophotometer after microwave-assisted acid digestion. The validity and accuracy of the methodology were checked using certified reference material (NCS ZC 81002b) and by the conventional wet acid digestion method on the same certified reference material and on real samples. The recovery of all the studied elements was found to be in the range of 97.5%-99.7% in certified reference material. The results of this study showed that the mean values of cadmium, copper, iron, nickel and lead were significantly higher in scalp hair samples of both smoker and nonsmoker hypertensive patients than referents (P < 0.001); whereas, the concentration of zinc was lower in the scalp hair samples of hypertensive patients of both genders. The deficiency of zinc and the high exposure of trace and toxic metals as a result of cigarette smoking and alcohol consumption may be synergistic with risk factors associated with hypertension.

Comparative study on the efficacy of Allium sativum (garlic) in reducing some heavy metal accumulation in liver of wistar rats

SCOPE

Heavy metals are known to cause damage through indirect oxidative effects. This study was undertaken to compare the therapeutic efficacy and protective ability of garlic extracts on reducing toxicity induced by mercury, lead and cadmium in the liver.

METHODS AND RESULTS

Rats were fed with rat chow mixed with raw garlic (7% w/w) while mercury (10ppm), cadmium (200ppm) and lead (100ppm) were given in drinking water. Garlic was administered either at the same time with the metals (group 2), a week after exposure to heavy metals (group 3) or a week before heavy metal exposure (group 4) for 6weeks. The heavy metal accumulations in the liver were determined using AAS. The percentage protection showed a time-dependent effect and was significantly (P<0.01) higher for cadmium compared to mercury and lead-treated groups. Analysis between the groups showed that garlic treatment after exposure had a significantly (P<0.05) higher percentage protection when compared with other modes.

CONCLUSION

These results suggest that garlic offered more hepatoprotective effect to cadmium followed by mercury and least protection to lead at the selected dose of each metal in this study through the processes of uptake, assimilation and elimination of these metals.

Biomonitoring of lead and cadmium in the hair and fingernails of elderly Korean subjects

Lead and cadmium are toxic to humans at excessive levels, and monitoring the human body burden of these metals is important in preventing adverse health effects. In this study, we assessed the exposure to lead and cadmium among an elderly population 60 years of age or older. Based on data from 115 participants, we found that the geometric mean lead concentrations in hair and fingernails were 1.11 μg/g [95% confidence interval (CI) 0.78-1.58] and 1.11 μg/g (95% CI 0.81-1.51), respectively. The lead concentrations in hair and fingernails were significantly related to cigarette smoking. The geometric mean cadmium concentrations in hair and fingernails were 52.6 ng/g (95% CI 42.0-65.9) and 40.1 ng/g (95% CI 29.9-53.9), respectively. Cadmium concentrations in hair were significantly related to body mass index and cigarette smoking, whereas higher fingernail cadmium concentrations were related to alcohol drinking. Correlations between hair and fingernail concentrations of lead and of cadmium were slightly positive. Our findings suggest that the body burden of lead and cadmium varies according to demographic factors, and hair and fingernails could be used differentially as a biological medium for metal exposure.

Distribution of copper, iron, and zinc in biological samples (scalp hair, serum, blood, and urine) of Pakistani viral hepatitis (A-E) patients and controls

The aim of the present study was to compare the level of copper (Cu), iron (Fe) and zinc (Zn) in biological samples (serum, blood, urine, and scalp hair) of patients suffering from different viral hepatitis (A, B, C, D, and E; n = 521) of both gender age ranged 31-45 years. For comparative study, 255 age-matched control subjects, of both genders residing in the same city were selected as referents. The elements in the biological samples were analyzed by flame atomic absorption spectrophotometry, prior to microwave-assisted acid digestion. The validity and accuracy of the methodology was checked by using certified reference materials (CRMs) and with those values obtained by conventional wet acid digestion method on same CRMs. The results of this study showed that the mean values of Cu and Fe were higher in blood, sera, and scalp hair samples of hepatitis patients, while Zn level was found to be lower than age-matched control subjects. The urinary levels of these elements were found to be higher in the hepatitis patients than in the age-matched healthy controls (p < 0.05). These results are consistent with literature-reported data, confirming that the deficiency of zinc and hepatic iron and copper overload can directly cause lipid peroxidation and eventually hepatic damage.

Evaluation of status of trace and toxic metals in biological samples (scalp hair, blood, and urine) of normal and anemic children of two age groups

Anemia affects a substantial portion of the world's population, provoking severe health problems as well as important economic losses to the region in which this condition is found. This study was designed to compare the levels of essential trace and toxic elements in scalp hair, blood, and urine samples of anemic children (n = 132) with age range 1-5 and 6-10 years of both genders. For a comparative study, 134 non-anemic age- and sex-matched children as control subjects, residing in the same city, were selected. The metals in the biological samples were measured by flame atomic absorption spectrophotometry/electrothermal atomic absorption spectrometry prior to microwave-assisted acid digestion. The proposed method was validated using certified reference samples of hair, blood, and urine. The results indicated significantly lower levels of iron, copper, and zinc in the biological samples as compared to the control children of both genders (p = 0.01-0.008). The mean values of lead and cadmium were significantly high in all three biological samples of anemic children as compared to non-anemic children of both age groups (p = 0.005-0.001). The ratios of essential metal to toxic metals in the biological samples of anemic children of both age groups were significantly lower than that of controls. Deficiency of essential trace metals and high level of toxic metals may play a role in the development of anemia in the subjects under study.

The influence of environmental exposure on lead concentrations in scalp hair of children in Pakistan

In the present study the environmental and occupational exposure of Pb has been assessed by analyzing the scalp hair (SH) of children (both genders), residing in the vicinity of industrial area of Hyderabad, Pakistan. A total of 339 children attending primary schools situated in the industrial area, age ranged 5-10 years, while for comparative purpose children of the same age group from schools located in an area devoid of industries, were selected. The scalp hair was oxidized by acid mixture in a microwave oven prior to determination of Pb by graphite furnace atomic absorption spectrometry. The concentration profile of Pb in SH of children showed that the level changed significantly (44-64%) with changes of living habits or environmental exposure. The influence of age, sex, and family occupation on the children's hair Pb concentration was also evaluated. Significant differences in SH-Pb levels were observed between the exposed (EXC) and non-exposed (NEC) children (p<0.01). The concentration of Pb in boys of exposed (EX) and non-exposed (NEX) area was more than in girls of the corresponding localities. The boys and girls of NEX and EX areas have SH-Pb in the range of 3.97-5.4 and 6.06-13.7 μg g(-1) and 3.41-7.4 and 5.56-11.5 μg g(-1), respectively. The Pb levels increased with age in both study groups.

Hair analysis as a biomonitor for toxicology, disease and health status

Hair analysis receives a large amount of academic and commercial interest for wide-ranging applications. However, in many instances, especially for elemental or 'mineral' analysis, the degree of success of analytical interpretation has been quite minimal with respect to the extent of such endeavors. In this critical review we address the questions surrounding hair analysis with specific intent of discovering what hair concentrations can actually relate to in a biogenic sense. This is done from a chemistry perspective to explain why and how elements are incorporated into hair and their meaning. This includes an overview of variables attributed to altering hair concentrations, such as age, gender, melanin content, and other less reported factors. Hair elemental concentrations are reviewed with regard to morbidity, with specific examples of disease related effects summarized. The application of hair analysis for epidemiology and etiology studies is enforced. A section is dedicated specifically to the area of population studies with regards to mercury, which highlights how endogenous and exogenous incorporation relies on species dependant metabolism and metabolic products. Many of the considerations are relevant to other areas of interest in hair analysis, such as for drug and isotopic analysis. Inclusion of a table of elemental concentrations in hair should act as a valuable reference (298 references).

Interactions between cadmium and zinc in the biological samples of Pakistani smokers and nonsmokers cardiovascular disease patients

The pathogenesis of some cardiovascular diseases (CVDs) has been altered with changes in the balance of certain trace and toxic elements. The aim of the present study was to assess the role of zinc (Zn) and cadmium (Cd) in smoker and nonsmoker male CVD patients (n = 457) of two age groups (31-45) and (46-60). The both elements were determined in biological samples (scalp hair, blood, and urine) of CVD patients and healthy referents for comparison purpose. The concentrations of Zn and Cd were measured by atomic absorption spectrophotometer prior to microwave-assisted acid digestion. It was observed that the mean values of Cd were significantly higher in the biological samples of smokers CVD as compared to nonsmoker CVD patients, while the level of Zn was lower in both smoker and nonsmoker patients. The concentrations of Zn in whole blood and scalp hair samples were lower in CVD patients as compared to referents (p > 0.001). Results showed significant changes of levels of Cd and Zn in blood and scalp hair samples of CVD patients when compared with healthy referents, while reverse in the case of urine samples. It was observed that low Zn levels were associated with both smoker and nonsmoker CVD patients, while increased cadmium accumulation was observed in smoker patients as compared to nonsmoker patients (p > 0.025).

Determination of cadmium and lead in human biological samples by spectrometric techniques: a review

The analysis of human biological samples, such as blood, urine, nails, and hair, is generally used for the verification of human exposure to toxic metals. In this review, various spectrometric methods for the determination of cadmium and lead in biological samples are discussed and compared. Several spectrometric techniques are presented and discussed with respect to various characteristics such as sensitivity, selectivity, and cost. Special attention is drawn to the procedures for digestion prior to the determination of cadmium and lead in hair, nails, blood, and urine.

Evaluation of cadmium, lead, nickel and zinc status in biological samples of smokers and nonsmokers hypertensive patients

The objective of this study was to evaluate the association between trace and toxic elements zinc (Zn), cadmium (Cd), nickel (Ni) and lead (Pb) in biological samples (scalp hair, blood and urine) of smoker and nonsmoker hypertensive patients (n=457), residents of Hyderabad, Pakistan. For the purpose of comparison, the biological samples of age-matched healthy controls were selected as referents. The concentrations of trace and toxic elements were measured by atomic absorption spectrophotometer prior to microwave-assisted acid digestion. The validity and accuracy of the methodology were checked using certified reference materials and by the conventional wet acid digestion method on the same certified reference materials and real samples. The recovery of all the studied elements was found to be in the range of 97.8-99.3% in certified reference materials. The results of this study showed that the mean values of Cd, Ni and Pb were significantly higher in scalp hair, blood and urine samples of both smoker and nonsmoker patients than in referents (P<0.001), whereas the concentration of Zn was lower in the scalp hair and blood, but higher in the urine samples of hypertensive patients. The deficiency of Zn and the high exposure of toxic metals as a result of tobacco smoking may be synergistic with risk factors associated with hypertension.