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Katzner TE, Pain DJ, McTee M, Brown L, Cuadros S, Pokras M, Slabe VA, Watson RT, Wiemeyer G, Bedrosian B, Hampton JO, Parish CN, Pay JM, Saito K, Schulz JH. Lead poisoning of raptors: state of the science and cross-discipline mitigation options for a global problem. Biol Rev Camb Philos Soc 2024; 99:1672-1699. [PMID: 38693847 DOI: 10.1111/brv.13087] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Grants] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2023] [Revised: 04/08/2024] [Accepted: 04/11/2024] [Indexed: 05/03/2024]
Abstract
Lead poisoning is an important global conservation problem for many species of wildlife, especially raptors. Despite the increasing number of individual studies and regional reviews of lead poisoning of raptors, it has been over a decade since this information has been compiled into a comprehensive global review. Here, we summarize the state of knowledge of lead poisoning of raptors, we review developments in manufacturing of non-lead ammunition, the use of which can reduce the most pervasive source of lead these birds encounter, and we compile data on voluntary and regulatory mitigation options and their associated sociological context. We support our literature review with case studies of mitigation actions, largely provided by the conservation practitioners who study or manage these efforts. Our review illustrates the growing awareness and understanding of lead exposure of raptors, and it shows that the science underpinning this understanding has expanded considerably in recent years. We also show that the political and social appetite for managing lead ammunition appears to vary substantially across administrative regions, countries, and continents. Improved understanding of the drivers of this variation could support more effective mitigation of lead exposure of wildlife. This review also shows that mitigation strategies are likely to be most effective when they are outcome driven, consider behavioural theory, local cultures, and environmental conditions, effectively monitor participation, compliance, and levels of raptor exposure, and support both environmental and human health.
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Affiliation(s)
- Todd E Katzner
- U.S. Geological Survey, Forest and Rangeland Ecosystem Science Center, 230 North Collins Road, Boise, ID, 83702, USA
| | - Deborah J Pain
- School of Biological Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich, Norfolk, NR4 7TJ, UK
- Zoology Department, University of Cambridge, Downing St, Cambridge, CB2 3EJ, UK
| | - Michael McTee
- MPG Ranch, 19400 Lower Woodchuck Road, Florence, MT, 59833, USA
| | - Leland Brown
- Oregon Zoo, North American Non-lead Partnership, 4001 SW Canyon Rd, Portland, OR, 97221, USA
| | - Sandra Cuadros
- Hawk Mountain Sanctuary, 410 Summer Valley Rd, Orwigsburg, PA, 17961, USA
- Department of Biology, University of British Columbia, 1177 Research Road, Kelowna, British Columbia, V1V 1V7, Canada
| | - Mark Pokras
- Cummings School of Veterinary Medicine, Tufts University, 200 Westboro Rd, North Grafton, MA, 01536, USA
| | - Vincent A Slabe
- Conservation Science Global, Bozeman, MT, USA
- The Peregrine Fund, 5668 West Flying Hawk Lane, Boise, ID, 83709, USA
| | - Richard T Watson
- The Peregrine Fund, 5668 West Flying Hawk Lane, Boise, ID, 83709, USA
| | - Guillermo Wiemeyer
- CONICET- Facultad de Ciencias Veterinarias, Universidad Nacional de La Pampa, Calle 5 esq. 116 MO L6360, Gral. Pico, La Pampa, Argentina
| | | | - Jordan O Hampton
- Faculty of Science, University of Melbourne, Grattan Street, Parkville, Victoria, 3010, Australia
- Harry Butler Institute, Murdoch University, Murdoch, Western Australia, 6150, Australia
| | | | - James M Pay
- School of Natural Sciences, University of Tasmania, Churchill Ave, Hobart, Tasmania, 7005, Australia
| | - Keisuke Saito
- Institute for Raptor Biomedicine Japan 2-2101 Hokuto, Kushiro, Hokkaido, 084-0922, Japan
| | - John H Schulz
- School of Natural Resources, University of Missouri, 1111 Rollins St, Columbia, MO, 65203, USA
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Green RE, Taggart MA, Guiu M, Waller H, Pap S, Sheldon R, Pain DJ. Difference in concentration of lead (Pb) in meat from pheasants killed using lead and iron (Fe) shotgun ammunition. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2024; 916:170356. [PMID: 38272095 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2024.170356] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/13/2023] [Revised: 12/30/2023] [Accepted: 01/20/2024] [Indexed: 01/27/2024]
Abstract
The use of lead shotgun ammunition for hunting has been banned in a few jurisdictions and habitats, principally to protect wild birds from poisoning by ingestion of spent lead shot. The EU and UK REACH processes have recently considered bans on lead ammunition throughout the European Union and United Kingdom, including assessments of possible health benefits from reduced human dietary exposure to lead from game meat. Comparisons of the mean lead concentrations in meat from gamebirds killed using lead and non‑lead shotgun ammunition have not been published. We compared lead concentrations in meat from wild-shot pheasants from which lead shotgun pellets were recovered (n = 27) with those from which iron pellets were recovered (n = 20), having removed all pellets from the meat before analysis. The mean concentration of lead in meat from pheasants killed using lead shot was 2.10 mg/kg w.w., which is >20 times the European Union's maximum permitted level for the lead concentration in meat from domesticated animals. For pheasants killed using iron shot the mean was 0.07 mg/kg w.w., which is below the maximum permitted level.
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Affiliation(s)
- Rhys E Green
- Conservation Science Group, Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EJ, UK; RSPB Centre for Conservation Science, The Lodge, Sandy, Bedfordshire SG19 2DL, UK.
| | - Mark A Taggart
- Environmental Research Institute, University of the Highlands and Islands, Castle Street, Thurso KW14 7JD, UK
| | - Maider Guiu
- Environmental Research Institute, University of the Highlands and Islands, Castle Street, Thurso KW14 7JD, UK
| | - Hayley Waller
- Environmental Research Institute, University of the Highlands and Islands, Castle Street, Thurso KW14 7JD, UK
| | - Sabolc Pap
- Environmental Research Institute, University of the Highlands and Islands, Castle Street, Thurso KW14 7JD, UK
| | - Rob Sheldon
- 78 Riverdene Road, Ilford, Essex IG1 2EA, UK
| | - Deborah J Pain
- Conservation Science Group, Department of Zoology, University of Cambridge, Downing Street, Cambridge CB2 3EJ, UK; School of Biological Sciences, University of East Anglia, Norwich Research Park, Norwich NR4 7TJ, UK
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van den Heever L, Elburg MA, Iaccheri L, Naidoo V, Ueckermann H, Bybee G, Smit-Robinson HA, Whitecross MA, McKechnie AE. Identifying the origin of lead poisoning in white-backed vulture (Gyps africanus) chicks at an important South African breeding colony: a stable lead isotope approach. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE AND POLLUTION RESEARCH INTERNATIONAL 2023; 30:15059-15069. [PMID: 36166116 DOI: 10.1007/s11356-022-23209-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 3.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/10/2022] [Accepted: 09/19/2022] [Indexed: 06/16/2023]
Abstract
Elevated lead levels in scavenging raptors can originate from a variety of environmental and anthropogenic sources, including soil, water, mining activities and legacy lead from leaded fuel, but has mostly been attributed to fragments of lead-based ammunition embedded in the tissues of carcasses. To identify the origins of lead in the tissues of white-backed vulture (Gyps africanus) chicks at Dronfield Nature Reserve, South Africa, we used MC-ICP-MS to compare the isotopic composition of lead in blood samples to those of soil in the chicks' immediate environment, different mining activities in South Africa and lead ammunition commonly used in hunting and game management practices. The isotopic ratios in vulture blood samples ranged widely (207Pb/206Pb: 0.827-0.911), but fell within those measured for ammunition (0.761-0.938). Dronfield water can be excluded as a significant source, as the lead concentration for water was below detection limits. Uranium, coal, atmospheric Pb, legacy Pb from fuel and Pb mining can also be excluded as significant sources, based on the limited overlap with Pb isotopic ratios measured in vulture blood. Whereas 55% of chicks we sampled displayed isotopic ratios consistent with Dronfield soil, the low local Pb concentration and the low extractable Pb levels in South African soil in general, imply that soil Pb is unlikely the major source of Pb in WBV chicks, especially in birds with elevated blood Pb levels, i.e. > 20 µg/dL. Our results, when considered in the context of vulture feeding ecology and low Pb levels in non-scavenging birds in South Africa, imply the major source of elevated Pb levels in WBV chicks to be fragments of lead-based ammunition embedded in the carrion fed to them by their parents.
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Affiliation(s)
- Linda van den Heever
- Conservation Division, BirdLife South Africa, Johannesburg, South Africa.
- Department of Zoology and Entomology, DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence at the FitzPatrick Institute, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa.
| | - Marlina A Elburg
- Department of Geology, University of Johannesburg, Auckland Park, South Africa
| | - Linda Iaccheri
- Wits Isotope Geosciences Laboratory, School of Geosciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Vinny Naidoo
- Department of Paraclinical Sciences, Faculty of Veterinary Science, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
| | | | - Grant Bybee
- School of Geosciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Hanneline A Smit-Robinson
- Conservation Division, BirdLife South Africa, Johannesburg, South Africa
- Applied Behavioural Ecological & Ecosystem Research Unit (ABEERU), UNISA, Florida, South Africa
| | - Melissa A Whitecross
- Conservation Division, BirdLife South Africa, Johannesburg, South Africa
- School of Animal, Plant and Environmental Sciences, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, South Africa
| | - Andrew E McKechnie
- Department of Zoology and Entomology, DSI-NRF Centre of Excellence at the FitzPatrick Institute, University of Pretoria, Pretoria, South Africa
- South African Research Chair in Conservation Physiology, South African National Biodiversity Institute, Pretoria, South Africa
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Gorski PR, Scott SR, Lemley EM. Application of Stable Isotopic Ratio Analysis to Identify the Cause of Acute Versus Chronic Lead Poisoning of a Tundra Swan (Cygnus columbianus): A Case Study. BULLETIN OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY 2021; 106:250-256. [PMID: 33388832 DOI: 10.1007/s00128-020-03064-9] [Citation(s) in RCA: 0] [Impact Index Per Article: 0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/13/2020] [Accepted: 11/24/2020] [Indexed: 06/12/2023]
Abstract
We utilized lead (Pb) stable isotopes to identify the source of acute Pb poisoning in a Tundra Swan (Cygnus columbianus) and evaluated overall Pb exposure. Upon necropsy, we obtained samples of blood, liver, kidney, heart, thigh, breast, femur, and metallic objects (i.e., fishing sinker, spring and swivels) from the gizzard for Pb isotopic analysis. Pb isotope ratios of blood and soft tissues were essentially identical to the Pb ratios of the sinker, the likely source of acute poisoning. The spring and swivels had lower Pb content and ratios distinct from tissue, suggesting no significant contribution to poisoning. Femur Pb isotopic composition was the most distinct biological sample and indicative of a combination of sources. These results demonstrate isotopic analysis as a viable method for determining the source of acute Pb poisoning, and that Pb isotope ratios in bone most likely record a lifetime-averaged metric of Pb exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Patrick R Gorski
- Wisconsin State Laboratory of Hygiene, 2601 Agriculture Dr., Madison, WI, 53718, USA.
- WI Department of Natural Resources, 101 S. Webster St., Madison, WI, 53703, USA.
| | - Sean R Scott
- Wisconsin State Laboratory of Hygiene, 2601 Agriculture Dr., Madison, WI, 53718, USA
| | - Erin M Lemley
- Dane County Humane Society, Wildlife Center, 5132 Voges Rd., Madison, WI, 53718, USA
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French AD, Conway WC, Cañas-Carrell JE, Klein DM. Exposure, Effects and Absorption of Lead in American Woodcock (Scolopax minor): A Review. BULLETIN OF ENVIRONMENTAL CONTAMINATION AND TOXICOLOGY 2017; 99:287-296. [PMID: 28710526 DOI: 10.1007/s00128-017-2137-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/22/2017] [Accepted: 07/01/2017] [Indexed: 06/07/2023]
Abstract
Due to long term declines of American Woodcock (Scolopax minor) and widespread distribution of environmentally available lead (Pb) throughout their geographic range, it is important to assess if Pb exposure is a potential contributor to these declines. Woodcock are exposed to Pb through various environmental sources and are known to exhibit relatively high bone-Pb concentrations. Absorption of Pb by birds, and woodcock specifically, is not well understood. Some studies show that interactions among calcium, phosphorus, iron, zinc, and vitamin D levels may play an important role in Pb absorption. Therefore, when future Pb studies are performed for woodcock, and other birds, interactions among these elements should be considered. For example, these interactions are relevant in the acquisition and mobilization of calcium in female birds during egg development and shell calcification. These factors should be considered to understand potential mechanisms of Pb exposure, Pb absorption, and subsequent Pb toxicity to birds in general, and woodcock specifically. This review discusses Pb exposure routes, effects of Pb toxicity, and the distribution of Pb in American woodcock and identifies areas for future research in woodcock and other avian species.
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Affiliation(s)
- Amanda D French
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, The Institute of Environmental and Human Health, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, 79416, USA
| | - Warren C Conway
- Department of Natural Resources Management, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, 79409, USA
| | - Jaclyn E Cañas-Carrell
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, The Institute of Environmental and Human Health, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, 79416, USA
| | - David M Klein
- Department of Environmental Toxicology, The Institute of Environmental and Human Health, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, TX, 79416, USA.
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Buenz EJ, Parry GJ, Bauer BA, Matheny LM, Breukel K. A prospective observational study assessing the feasibility of measuring blood lead levels in New Zealand hunters eating meat harvested with lead projectiles. Contemp Clin Trials Commun 2017; 5:137-143. [PMID: 29740629 PMCID: PMC5936706 DOI: 10.1016/j.conctc.2017.02.002] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 07/04/2016] [Revised: 01/17/2017] [Accepted: 02/06/2017] [Indexed: 10/24/2022] Open
Abstract
There is no safe level of lead exposure. Correlations suggest that hunters harvesting wild game with lead bullets may be at risk of lead exposure through eating minute lead particles from shrapnel in their wild game. This feasibility study will determine if it is possible to conduct an interventional controlled, blinded study to evaluate if there is a causal relationship between meat harvested with lead bullets and elevated blood lead levels in those who consume the meat. This is an observational case crossover study and the primary outcome is blood lead levels. Individuals will have blood lead levels measured 2-4 days after eating one serving of meat harvested with lead bullets. At three potential washout periods these same individuals will have a subsequent blood lead level analysis. This observational study will provide the data necessary to determine the washout period and sample size for a prospective interventional study to evaluate if meat harvested with lead bullets raises blood-lead levels in those who consume the meat. This study has been approved by the Health and Disabilities Ethics Committees of New Zealand. Trial registration NCT02775890.
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Affiliation(s)
- Eric J Buenz
- Nelson Marlborough Institute of Technology, Nelson, New Zealand
| | - Gareth J Parry
- Nelson Marlborough Institute of Technology, Nelson, New Zealand.,University of Minnesota, Minneapolis, MN, United States
| | | | - Lauren M Matheny
- LR Clinical and Statistical Consulting, Denver, CO, United States
| | - Klaasz Breukel
- Nelson Marlborough Institute of Technology, Nelson, New Zealand
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Binkowski ŁJ, Meissner W, Trzeciak M, Izevbekhai K, Barker J. Lead isotope ratio measurements as indicators for the source of lead poisoning in Mute swans (Cygnus olor) wintering in Puck Bay (northern Poland). CHEMOSPHERE 2016; 164:436-442. [PMID: 27599010 DOI: 10.1016/j.chemosphere.2016.08.120] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 06/10/2016] [Revised: 08/09/2016] [Accepted: 08/25/2016] [Indexed: 05/27/2023]
Abstract
Lead (Pb) poisoning is most commonly linked amongst anthropogenically-caused deaths in waterfowl and this is often associated with hunting and fishing activities. However, the exact identification of the source may be difficult with commonly-used techniques. We have studied isotope ratios using Inductively-Coupled Plasma Mass Spectrometry (ICP-MS) to investigate the source of Pb in the blood of Mute swans (n = 49) wintering in northern Poland. We compared the values of isotopic ratios from blood and ammunition pellets available on the Polish market. The mean Pb concentrations found was 0.241 μg/g (w/w) and nearly half of the blood specimens had elevated Pb levels (higher than the cited 0.23 μg/g w/w threshold of poisoning). Only the mean 208/206 Pb isotope ratio was similar in blood and pellet samples. Mean ratios of isotopes 206/204, 206/207 and 208/207 in swans' blood and in pellets differed significantly. Moreover, coefficients of variation were higher in blood samples than in pellets. These discrepancies and significant differences in abundance of 204Pb and 207Pb isotopes in both materials indicated that pellets available today on the Polish market were not the source of Pb in the blood of Mute swans wintering in northern Poland.
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Affiliation(s)
- Łukasz J Binkowski
- Institute of Biology, Pedagogical University of Cracow, Podbrzezie 3, 31-054 Krakow, Poland.
| | - Włodzimierz Meissner
- Avian Ecophysiology Unit, Department of Vertebrate Ecology and Zoology, University of Gdansk, Wita Stwosza 59, 80-308 Gdansk, Poland.
| | - Marta Trzeciak
- Avian Ecophysiology Unit, Department of Vertebrate Ecology and Zoology, University of Gdansk, Wita Stwosza 59, 80-308 Gdansk, Poland.
| | - Kelvin Izevbekhai
- School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Kingston University, Penrhyn Road, KT1 2EE Kingston-upon-Thames, Surrey, UK.
| | - James Barker
- School of Life Sciences, Pharmacy and Chemistry, Kingston University, Penrhyn Road, KT1 2EE Kingston-upon-Thames, Surrey, UK.
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Buenz EJ, Parry GJ, Peacey M. Consumption of wild-harvested meat from New Zealand feral animals provides a unique opportunity to study the health effects of lead exposure in hunters. AMBIO 2016; 45:629-631. [PMID: 27344321 PMCID: PMC4980321 DOI: 10.1007/s13280-016-0798-1] [Citation(s) in RCA: 4] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/04/2016] [Revised: 05/30/2016] [Accepted: 06/01/2016] [Indexed: 06/06/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Eric J. Buenz
- Nelson Marlborough Institute of Technology, 322 Hardy Street, Nelson, 7010 New Zealand
| | - Gareth J. Parry
- Nelson Marlborough Institute of Technology, 322 Hardy Street, Nelson, 7010 New Zealand
| | - Matthew Peacey
- Nelson Marlborough Institute of Technology, 322 Hardy Street, Nelson, 7010 New Zealand
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Meyer CB, Meyer JS, Francisco AB, Holder J, Verdonck F. Can Ingestion of Lead Shot and Poisons Change Population Trends of Three European Birds: Grey Partridge, Common Buzzard, and Red Kite? PLoS One 2016; 11:e0147189. [PMID: 26799815 PMCID: PMC4723309 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0147189] [Citation(s) in RCA: 12] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.5] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 02/14/2015] [Accepted: 12/30/2015] [Indexed: 11/30/2022] Open
Abstract
Little is known about the magnitude of the effects of lead shot ingestion alone or combined with poisons (e.g., in bait or seeds/granules containing pesticides) on population size, growth, and extinction of non-waterbird avian species that ingest these substances. We used population models to create example scenarios demonstrating how changes in these parameters might affect three susceptible species: grey partridge (Perdix perdix), common buzzard (Buteo buteo), and red kite (Milvus milvus). We added or subtracted estimates of mortality due to lead shot ingestion (4–16% of mortality, depending on species) and poisons (4–46% of mortality) reported in the UK or France to observed mortality of studied populations after models were calibrated to observed population trends. Observed trends were decreasing for partridge (in continental Europe), stable for buzzard (in Germany), and increasing for red kite (in Wales). Although lead shot ingestion and poison at modeled levels did not change the trend direction for the three species, they reduced population size and slowed population growth. Lead shot ingestion at modeled rates reduced population size of partridges by 10%, and when combined with bait and pesticide poisons, by 18%. For buzzards, decrease in mean population size by lead shot and poisons combined was much smaller (≤ 1%). The red kite population has been recovering; however, modeled lead shot ingestion reduced its annual growth rate from 6.5% to 4%, slowing recovery. If mortality from poisoned baits could be removed, the kite population could potentially increase at a rapid annual rate of 12%. The effects are somewhat higher if ingestion of these substances additionally causes sublethal reproductive impairment. These results have uncertainty but suggest that declining or recovering populations are most sensitive to lead shot or poison ingestion, and removal of poisoned baits can have a positive impact on recovering raptor populations that frequently feed on carrion.
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Affiliation(s)
| | - Joseph S. Meyer
- Arcadis, Lakewood, Colorado, United States of America
- Department of Chemistry and Geochemistry, Colorado School of Mines, Golden, Colorado, United States of America
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Berny P, Vilagines L, Cugnasse JM, Mastain O, Chollet JY, Joncour G, Razin M. VIGILANCE POISON: Illegal poisoning and lead intoxication are the main factors affecting avian scavenger survival in the Pyrenees (France). ECOTOXICOLOGY AND ENVIRONMENTAL SAFETY 2015; 118:71-82. [PMID: 25913360 DOI: 10.1016/j.ecoenv.2015.04.003] [Citation(s) in RCA: 15] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.7] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 11/07/2014] [Revised: 04/03/2015] [Accepted: 04/06/2015] [Indexed: 05/10/2023]
Abstract
A specific surveillance program has been set up to monitor avian scavenger populations in the French Pyrenean Mountains, hosting a high proportion of the French populations. The two main purposes of the study were to identify all causes of death and to investigate poisoning cases. All 170 birds found dead during the 7-year program were submitted to full necropsy, X-Ray, parasitological investigations and consistent analytical toxicology screenings (Cholinesterase inhibitors, anticoagulant rodenticides, organochlorine insecticides, Pb, Cd). Over the study period, 8 Bearded Vultures, 120 Griffon Vultures, 8 Egyptian Vultures and 34 Red kites were eventually collected. Mortality events were often multifactorial, but poisoning was by far the most common cause of death (24.1%), followed by trauma/fall (12%), bacterial diseases and starvation (8%) and electrocution (6%). Illicit use of banned pesticides was identified as a common cause of poisoning (53% of all poisoning cases) and lead poisoning was also identified as a significant toxicant issue (17% of all poisoning cases). Lead isotopic signature could be associated primarily with ammunition. Last, a positive association between trauma and lead contamination was detected, indicating that lead could be a significant contributor to different causes of death. These results urge for severe restrictions on the use of lead ammunition to prevent scavengers from detrimental exposure.
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Affiliation(s)
- Philippe Berny
- Vetagro Sup, USC-1233-INRA, Campus vétérinaire, 1 av Bourgelat, F-69280 Marcy l'étoile, France.
| | | | - Jean-Marc Cugnasse
- ONCFS Direction des Etudes et de la Recherche 18 rue Jean Perrin Actisud, Bâtiment 12, F-31110 Toulouse, France.
| | - Olivier Mastain
- ONCFS Unité sanitaire de la faune - DER, BP 20, F-78612 Le Perray en Yvelines Cedex, France; Ministère de l'Ecologie Grande Arche, Tour Pascal A et B, F-92055 Paris La Défense Cedex, France.
| | - Jean-Yves Chollet
- ONCFS Unité sanitaire de la faune - DER, BP 20, F-78612 Le Perray en Yvelines Cedex, France.
| | - Guy Joncour
- Clinique vétérinaire de Callac, 26, rue de Cleumeur, F-22610 Callac de Bretagne, France.
| | - Martine Razin
- Ligue pour la Protection des Oiseaux (Bird Life) - Fonderies Royales 8/10 rue du Dr Pujos, F-17305 Rochefort Cedex, France.
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11
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Baxter CE, Pappas S, Abel MT, Kendall RJ. Organochlorine pesticides, lead, and mercury in northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) and scaled quail (Callipepla squamata) from the Rolling Plains ecoregion of Texas and Oklahoma. ENVIRONMENTAL TOXICOLOGY AND CHEMISTRY 2015; 34:1505-1510. [PMID: 25663380 DOI: 10.1002/etc.2917] [Citation(s) in RCA: 3] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Key Words] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/15/2014] [Revised: 11/16/2015] [Accepted: 01/31/2015] [Indexed: 06/04/2023]
Abstract
Northern bobwhite (Colinus virginianus) and scaled quail (Callipepla squamata) from the Rolling Plains ecoregion in Texas and Oklahoma were evaluated for organochlorine pesticides, Pb, and Hg. Of all organochlorine pesticides analyzed, only p,p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethylene (p,p'-DDE) and p,p'-dichlorodiphenyldichloroethane (p,p'-DDD) were found in a few composite liver samples. Similarly, a small fraction of tissue samples had detectable levels of Hg (liver and breast) or Pb exceeding background concentrations (femur). Lead concentrations in a few individuals fell within the range associated with moderate toxicity.
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Affiliation(s)
- Catherine E Baxter
- Wildlife Toxicology Laboratory, The Institute of Environmental and Human Health, Department of Environmental Toxicology, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas, USA
| | - Sara Pappas
- Wildlife Toxicology Laboratory, The Institute of Environmental and Human Health, Department of Environmental Toxicology, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas, USA
| | | | - Ronald J Kendall
- Wildlife Toxicology Laboratory, The Institute of Environmental and Human Health, Department of Environmental Toxicology, Texas Tech University, Lubbock, Texas, USA
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Pierce BL, Roster TA, Frisbie MC, Mason CD, Roberson JA. A comparison of lead and steel shot loads for harvesting mourning doves. WILDLIFE SOC B 2014. [DOI: 10.1002/wsb.504] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.3] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/04/2023]
Affiliation(s)
- Brian L. Pierce
- Institute of Renewable Natural ResourcesTexas A & M UniversityCollege StationTX77843‐2258USA
| | | | - Michael C. Frisbie
- Texas Parks and Wildlife Department4200 Smith School RoadAustinTX78744USA
| | - Corey D. Mason
- Texas Parks and Wildlife Department4200 Smith School RoadAustinTX78744USA
| | - Jay A. Roberson
- Texas Parks and Wildlife Department4200 Smith School RoadAustinTX78744USA
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13
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Legagneux P, Suffice P, Messier JS, Lelievre F, Tremblay JA, Maisonneuve C, Saint-Louis R, Bêty J. High risk of lead contamination for scavengers in an area with high moose hunting success. PLoS One 2014; 9:e111546. [PMID: 25389754 PMCID: PMC4229082 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0111546] [Citation(s) in RCA: 40] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 03/21/2014] [Accepted: 08/25/2014] [Indexed: 01/20/2023] Open
Abstract
Top predators and scavengers are vulnerable to pollutants, particularly those accumulated along the food chain. Lead accumulation can induce severe disorders and alter survival both in mammals (including humans) and in birds. A potential source of lead poisoning in wild animals, and especially in scavengers, results from the consumption of ammunition residues in the tissues of big game killed by hunters. For two consecutive years we quantified the level lead exposure in individuals of a sentinel scavenger species, the common raven (Corvus corax), captured during the moose (Alces alces) hunting season in eastern Quebec, Canada. The source of the lead contamination was also determined using stable isotope analyses. Finally, we identified the different scavenger species that could potentially be exposed to lead by installing automatic cameras targeting moose gut piles. Blood lead concentration in ravens increased over time, indicating lead accumulation over the moose-hunting season. Using a contamination threshold of 100 µg.L−1, more than 50% of individuals were lead-contaminated during the moose hunting period. Lead concentration was twice as high in one year compared to the other, matching the number of rifle-shot moose in the area. Non-contaminated birds exhibited no ammunition isotope signatures. The isotope signature of the lead detected in contaminated ravens tended towards the signature from lead ammunition. We also found that black bears (Ursus americanus), golden eagles and bald eagles (Aquila chrysaetos and Haliaeetus leucocephalus, two species of conservation concern) scavenged heavily on moose viscera left by hunters. Our unequivocal results agree with other studies and further motivate the use of non-toxic ammunition for big game hunting.
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Affiliation(s)
- Pierre Legagneux
- Département de biologie, chimie et géographie & Centre d'études nordiques, Université du Quebec à Rimouski, Rimouski, Quebec, Canada
- * E-mail:
| | - Pauline Suffice
- Département de biologie, chimie et géographie & Centre d'études nordiques, Université du Quebec à Rimouski, Rimouski, Quebec, Canada
| | - Jean-Sébastien Messier
- Département de biologie, chimie et géographie & Centre d'études nordiques, Université du Quebec à Rimouski, Rimouski, Quebec, Canada
| | - Frédérick Lelievre
- Ministère du Développement durable, de l'Environnement, de la Faune et des Parcs, Quebec, Quebec, Canada
| | - Junior A. Tremblay
- Sciences and Technology Branch, Environment Canada, Quebec, Quebec, Canada
| | - Charles Maisonneuve
- Ministère du Développement durable, de l'Environnement, de la Faune et des Parcs, Quebec, Quebec, Canada
| | - Richard Saint-Louis
- Département de biologie, chimie et géographie & Centre d'études nordiques, Université du Quebec à Rimouski, Rimouski, Quebec, Canada
| | - Joël Bêty
- Département de biologie, chimie et géographie & Centre d'études nordiques, Université du Quebec à Rimouski, Rimouski, Quebec, Canada
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Andreotti A, Borghesi F. Embedded lead shot in European starlings Sturnus vulgaris: an underestimated hazard for humans and birds of prey. EUR J WILDLIFE RES 2013. [DOI: 10.1007/s10344-013-0725-8] [Citation(s) in RCA: 10] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 11/29/2022]
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15
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Jerez S, Motas M, Benzal J, Diaz J, Barbosa A. Monitoring trace elements in Antarctic penguin chicks from South Shetland Islands, Antarctica. MARINE POLLUTION BULLETIN 2013; 69:67-75. [PMID: 23465574 DOI: 10.1016/j.marpolbul.2013.01.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 24] [Impact Index Per Article: 2.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 05/18/2012] [Revised: 01/04/2013] [Accepted: 01/08/2013] [Indexed: 06/01/2023]
Abstract
UNLABELLED The concentration of human activities in the near-shore ecosystems from the northern Antarctic Peninsula area can cause an increasing bioavailability of pollutants for the vulnerable Antarctic biota. Penguin chicks can reflect this potential impact in the rookeries during the breeding season. They also can reflect biomagnification phenomena since they are on the top of the Antarctic food chain. The concentrations of Al, Cr, Mn, Fe, Ni, Cu, Zn, As, Se, Cd and Pb were measured by ICP-MS in samples of liver, kidney, muscle, bone, feather and stomach content of gentoo, chinstrap and Adélie penguin chicks (n=15 individuals) collected opportunistically in the Islands of King George and Deception (South Shetland Islands, Antarctica). The detected levels of some trace elements were not as low as it could be expected in the isolated Antarctic region. Penguin chicks can be useful indicators of trace elements abundance in the study areas. CAPSULE Carcasses of Antarctic penguin chicks were used to evaluate the bioavailability of trace elements in the Islands of King George and Deception.
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Affiliation(s)
- Silvia Jerez
- Área de Toxicología, Facultad de Veterinaria, Universidad de Murcia, Campus de Espinardo, 30100 Murcia, Spain.
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16
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Chenery SR, Izquierdo M, Marzouk E, Klinck B, Palumbo-Roe B, Tye AM. Soil-plant interactions and the uptake of Pb at abandoned mining sites in the Rookhope catchment of the N. Pennines, UK--a Pb isotope study. THE SCIENCE OF THE TOTAL ENVIRONMENT 2012; 433:547-560. [PMID: 22464962 DOI: 10.1016/j.scitotenv.2012.03.004] [Citation(s) in RCA: 14] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.2] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 12/08/2011] [Revised: 03/03/2012] [Accepted: 03/03/2012] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
This paper examines Pb concentrations and sources in soil, grass and heather from the Rookhope catchment in the North Pennines, UK, an area of historical Pb and Zn mining and smelting. Currently, the area has extensive livestock and sports shooting industries. Risk assessment, using the source-pathway-receptor paradigm, requires the quantification of source terms and an understanding of the many factors determining the concentration of Pb in plants. A paired soil and vegetation (grass and heather) geochemical survey was undertaken. Results showed no direct correlation between soil (total or EDTA extractable Pb) and vegetation Pb concentration. However, regression modelling based on the Free-Ion Activity Model (FIAM) suggested that the underlying mechanism determining grass Pb concentration across the catchment was largely through root uptake. Spatial patterns of (206/207)Pb isotopes suggested greater aerosol deposition of Pb on high moorland and prevailing wind facing slopes. This was evident in the isotopic ratios of the heather plants. Pb isotope analysis showed that new growth heather tips typically had (206/207)Pb values of ~1.14, whilst grass shoots typically had values ~1.16 and bulk soil and peat ~1.18. However, the (206/207)Pb ratio in the top few cm of peat was ~1.16 suggesting that grass was accessing Pb from a historical/recent pool of Pb in soil/peat profiles and consisting of both Pennine ore Pb and long-range Pb deposition. Isotope Dilution assays on the peat showed a lability of between 40 and 60%. A simple source apportionment model applied to samples where the isotope ratios was not within the range of the local Pennine Pb, suggested that grass samples contained up to 31% of non-Pennine Pb. This suggests that the historical/recent reservoir of non-Pennine Pb accessed by roots continues to be a persistent contaminant source despite the principal petrol Pb source being phased out over a decade ago.
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Affiliation(s)
- S R Chenery
- British Geological Survey, Keyworth Nottingham, NG12 5GG, UK
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17
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Gulson B, Korsch M, Winchester W, Devenish M, Hobbs T, Main C, Smith G, Rosman K, Howearth L, Burn-Nunes L, Seow J, Oxford C, Yun G, Gillam L, Crisp M. Successful application of lead isotopes in source apportionment, legal proceedings, remediation and monitoring. ENVIRONMENTAL RESEARCH 2012; 112:100-110. [PMID: 21925655 DOI: 10.1016/j.envres.2011.08.007] [Citation(s) in RCA: 5] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.4] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 04/23/2011] [Revised: 08/03/2011] [Accepted: 08/08/2011] [Indexed: 05/31/2023]
Abstract
In late 2006, the seaside community in Esperance Western Australia was alerted to thousands of native bird species dying. The source of the lead (Pb) was determined by Pb isotopes to derive from the handling of Pb carbonate concentrate through the Port, which began in July 2005. Concern was expressed for the impact of this on the community. Our objectives were to employ Pb isotope ratios to evaluate the source of Pb in environmental samples for use in legal proceedings, and for use in remediation and monitoring. Isotope measurements were undertaken of bird livers, plants, drinking water, soil, harbour sediments, air, bulk ceiling dust, gutter sludge, surface swabs and blood. The unique lead isotopic signature of the contaminating Pb carbonate enabled diagnostic apportionment of lead in samples. Apart from some soil and water samples, the proportion of contaminating Pb was >95% in the environmental samples. Lead isotopes were critical in resolving legal proceedings, are being used in the remediation of premises, were used in monitoring of workers involved in the decontamination of the storage facility, and monitoring transport of the concentrate through another port facility. Air samples show the continued presence of contaminant Pb, more than one year after shipping of concentrate ceased, probably arising from dust resuspension. Brief details of the comprehensive testing and cleanup of the Esperance community are provided along with the role of the Community. Lead isotopic analyses can provide significant benefits to regulatory agencies, interested parties, and the community where the signature is able to be characterised with a high degree of certainty.
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Affiliation(s)
- Brian Gulson
- Graduate School of the Environment, Faculty of Science, Macquarie University, Sydney, NSW 2109, Australia.
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18
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Martinez-Haro M, Taggart MA, Martín-Doimeadiøs RRC, Green AJ, Mateo R. Identifying sources of Pb exposure in waterbirds and effects on porphyrin metabolism using noninvasive fecal sampling. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2011; 45:6153-6159. [PMID: 21682282 DOI: 10.1021/es2009242] [Citation(s) in RCA: 13] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.0] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/30/2023]
Abstract
Waterbird feces (mainly mallard Anas platyrhynchos and coot Fulica atra) were collected from four wetlands in Southern Spain in the field or during capture (n = 558 and n = 59, respectively) to study lead (Pb) shot ingestion. Lead and aluminum (Al) concentrations along with Pb isotope signatures were used to identify sources of Pb exposure. The profile and concentrations of porphyrins and biliverdin in feces were used as biomarkers of toxicological effects. Feces with Pb concentrations ≥ 34 μg/g d.w. showed higher Pb/Al ratios, together with lower (206)Pb/(207)Pb and (208)Pb/(207)Pb ratios, and higher (208)Pb/(206)Pb ratios, than feces with <34 μg/g d.w. Isotope signatures and Pb/Al ratios together indicated that Pb shot ingestion was the likely cause of the high Pb levels in some samples, whereas sediment ingestion was linked to lower/background levels. Coproporphyrin I and protoporphyrin IX were also higher in feces with Pb ≥ 34 μg/g d.w., indicating measurable disruption in heme synthesis. Noninvasive fecal sampling permits study of the degree and source of Pb exposure and physiological effects, with low-effort and minimal disturbance to waterbirds.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monica Martinez-Haro
- Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos, IREC (CSIC-UCLM-JCCM), 13071 Ciudad Real, Spain.
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Eliminating Lead from Recreational Shooting and Angling: Relating Wildlife Science to Environmental Policy and Regulation in North America. ACTA ACUST UNITED AC 2011. [DOI: 10.1007/978-0-387-89432-4_12] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register]
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20
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Use of grit supplements by waterbirds: an experimental assessment of strategies to reduce lead poisoning. EUR J WILDLIFE RES 2010. [DOI: 10.1007/s10344-010-0456-z] [Citation(s) in RCA: 1] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.1] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Track Full Text] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 01/28/2023]
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Martínez-Haro M, Taggart MA, Mateo R. Pb-Al relationships in waterfowl feces discriminate between sources of Pb exposure. ENVIRONMENTAL POLLUTION (BARKING, ESSEX : 1987) 2010; 158:2485-2489. [PMID: 20398987 DOI: 10.1016/j.envpol.2010.03.018] [Citation(s) in RCA: 8] [Impact Index Per Article: 0.6] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 10/29/2009] [Revised: 03/05/2010] [Accepted: 03/16/2010] [Indexed: 05/29/2023]
Abstract
Hunted mallards (n = 56) were collected in the Ebro Delta (Spain) in 2007-08 to evaluate the use of feces as a non-invasive monitoring method to study lead shot ingestion. The prevalence of Pb shot ingestion in these birds was 28.6%, and similar to that reported before a ban on Pb shot use in 2003. Lead concentrations in terminal intestinal contents were higher in mallards with Pb shot in their gizzard. Feces Pb concentrations >34 microg/g d.w were indicative of Pb shot ingestion, and background Pb levels were <12.5 microg/g d.w. To discriminate between birds ingesting soil Pb, and those ingesting Pb shot, we correlated Al and Pb levels and showed that mallards with ingested Pb shot in the gizzard stood out as outliers within the regression. Feces Pb-Al relationships can be used as a simple non-invasive tool in monitoring programs regarding Pb shot ingestion in birds.
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Affiliation(s)
- M Martínez-Haro
- Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinegéticos, IREC, CSIC-UCLM-JCCM, Ronda de Toledo, 13071 Ciudad Real, Spain
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Potential hazard to human health from exposure to fragments of lead bullets and shot in the tissues of game animals. PLoS One 2010; 5:e10315. [PMID: 20436670 PMCID: PMC2859935 DOI: 10.1371/journal.pone.0010315] [Citation(s) in RCA: 68] [Impact Index Per Article: 4.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [Track Full Text] [Download PDF] [Figures] [Journal Information] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Received: 01/25/2010] [Accepted: 03/25/2010] [Indexed: 12/01/2022] Open
Abstract
Background Lead is highly toxic to animals. Humans eating game killed using lead ammunition generally avoid swallowing shot or bullets and dietary lead exposure from this source has been considered low. Recent evidence illustrates that lead bullets fragment on impact, leaving small lead particles widely distributed in game tissues. Our paper asks whether lead gunshot pellets also fragment upon impact, and whether lead derived from spent gunshot and bullets in the tissues of game animals could pose a threat to human health. Methodology/Principal Findings Wild-shot gamebirds (6 species) obtained in the UK were X-rayed to determine the number of shot and shot fragments present, and cooked using typical methods. Shot were then removed to simulate realistic practice before consumption, and lead concentrations determined. Data from the Veterinary Medicines Directorate Statutory Surveillance Programme documenting lead levels in raw tissues of wild gamebirds and deer, without shot being removed, are also presented. Gamebirds containing ≥5 shot had high tissue lead concentrations, but some with fewer or no shot also had high lead concentrations, confirming X-ray results indicating that small lead fragments remain in the flesh of birds even when the shot exits the body. A high proportion of samples from both surveys had lead concentrations exceeding the European Union Maximum Level of 100 ppb w.w. (0.1 mg kg−1 w.w.) for meat from bovine animals, sheep, pigs and poultry (no level is set for game meat), some by several orders of magnitude. High, but feasible, levels of consumption of some species could result in the current FAO/WHO Provisional Weekly Tolerable Intake of lead being exceeded. Conclusions/Significance The potential health hazard from lead ingested in the meat of game animals may be larger than previous risk assessments indicated, especially for vulnerable groups, such as children, and those consuming large amounts of game.
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Martinez-Haro M, Taggart MA, Green AJ, Mateo R. Avian digestive tract simulation to study the effect of grit geochemistry and food on Pb shot bioaccessibility. ENVIRONMENTAL SCIENCE & TECHNOLOGY 2009; 43:9480-9486. [PMID: 20000544 DOI: 10.1021/es901960e] [Citation(s) in RCA: 28] [Impact Index Per Article: 1.9] [Reference Citation Analysis] [Abstract] [MESH Headings] [Track Full Text] [Subscribe] [Scholar Register] [Indexed: 05/28/2023]
Abstract
Lead shot dissolution was investigated in a dynamic in vitro simulated avian gizzard-intestine system. The method allows simulated digestive fluid to pass (at intervals) from a gizzardlike environment to an intestine-based one, and then considers the dissolution of Pb shot (0-3 pellets) in the presence of differing grit geochemistries (siliceous and calcareous) and variable amounts of food (0-4 g of partially milled wheat seed). Dissolved Pb levels in simulated gizzards were consistently higher in the presence of siliceous, than with calcareous, grit. This was also seen in simulated intestines, except when less food was used (0-1 g), when Pb levels in solution were higher in calcareous systems. The Pb concentrations in gizzard and intestine solutions increased directly with the number of Pb shot used. In all treatments Pb levels in intestine liquids were lower than in gizzard liquids. Calcareous grit simulations maintained 2.5-34 times more Ca in solution than those that used siliceous grit. Dietary supplementation with calcareous grit may reduce Pb bioaccessibility of ingested Pb shot in birds by reducing gizzard acidity, by enhancing Pb precipitation (as Pb-carbonate), and by promoting higher dissolved Ca levels in the intestine, which may then compete with Pb for intestinal absorption.
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Affiliation(s)
- Monica Martinez-Haro
- Instituto de Investigación en Recursos Cinégeticos, IREC (CSIC-UCLM-JCCM), 13071 Ciudad Real, Spain
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