Multi-component determination of atmospheric semi-volatile organic compounds in soils and vegetation from Tarragona County, Catalonia, Spain

Synthetic musks in the natural environment: Sources, occurrence, concentration, and fate-A review of recent developments (2010-2023)

Synthetic musks (SMs) have served as cost-effective substitutes for natural musk compounds in personal care and daily chemical products for decades. Their widespread use has led to their detection in various environmental matrices, raising concerns about potential risks. Despite numerous studies on SM levels in different natural environments, a systematic review of their contemporary presence is lacking. This review aims to address this gap by summarising recent research developments on SMs in diverse natural environments, including river water, lake water, seawater, estuarine water, groundwater, snow, meltwater, sediments, aquatic suspended matter, soils, sands, outdoor air, and atmospheric particulate matter. Covering the period from 2010 to 2023, the review focuses on four SM categories: nitro, polycyclic, macrocyclic, and alicyclic. It systematically examines their sources, occurrences, concentrations, spatial and temporal variations, and fate. The literature reveals widespread detection of SMs in the natural environment (freshwater and sediments in particular), with polycyclic musks being the most studied group. Both direct (e.g., wastewater discharges) and indirect (e.g., human recreational activities) sources contribute to SM presence. Levels of SMs vary greatly among studies with higher levels observed in certain regions, such as sediments in Southeast Asia. Spatial and temporal variations are also evident. The fate of SMs in the environment depends on their physicochemical properties and environmental processes, including bioaccumulation, biodegradation, photodegradation, adsorption, phase exchange, hydro-dilution effects. Biodegradation and photodegradation can decrease SM levels, but may produce more persistent and eco-toxic products. Modelling approaches have been employed to analyse SM fate, especially for indirect processes like photodegradation or long-distance atmospheric transport. Future studies should further investigate the complex fate if SMs and their environmental influence. This review enhances understanding of SM status in the natural environment and supports efforts to control environmental contamination.

Urinary concentrations of heavy metals in pregnant women living near a petrochemical area according to the industrial activity

BACKGROUND

The progressive industrialization has resulted in an increase in heavy metal pollution in the environment, which has a dangerous impact on human health. Prenatal exposure to heavy metals, even at very low concentrations, may be especially harmful to pregnant women and their children. Different industrial activities can contribute to heavy metal pollution in a specific area.

OBJECTIVE

1) To explore the concentrations of heavy metals in urine samples of pregnant women, and 2) to evaluate the potential effect of different industrial activities in Tarragona (Spain).

METHODS

Urinary levels of four heavy metals (nickel (Ni), cadmium (Cd), mercury (Hg), and lead (Pb)) from 368 pregnant women recruited in the ECLIPSES study were analyzed. Home addresses and all the industries potentially releasing heavy metals were geo-referenced. Buffer zones were established within a 1.5, 3, and 5 km radius at the center of each industry. Subsequently, the number of participants living in and out of each buffer zone was recorded.

RESULTS

Urinary levels of Ni and Cd, but not those of Hg and Pb, were obviously increased in pregnant women living near most of the industrial sites. After adjustment for potential co-variates, only Cd showed notable differences according to the industrial activity. Compared to women living outside the buffer, Cd levels were increased in those living within 1.5 and 3 km of chemical industries, within 5 km of energy industries, within 1.5, 3, and 5 km of mineral industries, and within 3 and 5 km of metal processing industries.

CONCLUSION

Among the analyzed heavy metals, Cd showed an increasing trend in urinary concentrations in women living near chemical, energy, mineral, and metal processing industries. This study highlights the need to develop legislative measures to minimize Cd exposure, especially by sensitive populations. Moreover, additive or synergistic effects of co-exposure to other air pollutants should not be disregarded.

A review of the factors affecting the emission of the ozone chemical precursors VOCs and NOx from the soil

The soil environment is one of the main places for the generation, emission, and absorption of various atmospheric pollutants, including nitrogen oxides (NO_x) and volatile organic compounds (VOCs), which are the main chemical precursors for the formation of ground-level ozone. Ground-level ozone pollution has become a concerning environmental problem because of the harm it poses to human health and the surrounding ecological environment. However, current studies on chemical precursors of ozone mainly focus on emissions from industrial sources, forest vegetation, and urban vehicle exhaust; by contrast, few studies have examined the role of the soil environment on NO_x and VOCs emissions. In addition, the soil environment is complex and heterogeneous. Agricultural activities (fertilization) and atmospheric deposition provide nutrients for the soil environment, with a significant effect on NO_x and VOCs emissions. There is thus a need to study the environmental factors related to the release of NO_x and VOCs in the soil to enhance our understanding of emission fluxes and the types of NO_x and VOCs in the soil environment and aid efforts to control ground-level ozone pollution through appropriate measures such as management of agricultural activities. This paper reviews the generation of NO_x and VOCs in the soil environment and the effects of various environmental factors on this process. Some suggestions are provided for future research on the regulation of NO_x and VOCs emissions in the soil environment and the ability of the soil environment to contribute to ground-level ozone pollution.

Accumulations and temporal trends of polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) in olive tree components

In this study, ambient air samples, olive tree branches (1- and 2-year-old) and their leaves (particulate and dissolved phase) were collected simultaneously between January and December months at a suburban site of Bursa-Turkey. Total polychlorinated biphenyl (PCB) concentrations, sampled by employing passive air samplers, ranged from 0.03 to 0.08 ng/m³ in the atmosphere. The average annual total PCB concentrations belonging to the tree components were 1.14 ± 0.32 ng/g DM in dissolved phase in leaves, 0.71 ± 0.32 ng/g DM in particle phase on leaves, 1.06 ± 0.25 ng/g DM in 1-year-old branches, and 0.93 ± 0.23 ng/g DM in 2-year-old branches. It was determined that the correlation between PCB concentrations in olive tree components and the air was low. This result indicated that besides the tree-air exchange, other possible factors (such as soil-to-tree transitions, wind effect, etc.) affect the levels of PCB concentrations in the tree components. Total PCB concentrations decreased from summer to winter in all samples. The percentage ratio of PCB in the dissolved phase in the leaves was generally higher than other tree components in seasons. PCB homologous distributions indicated 5-CBs were dominant in the tree components and 3-CBs were dominant in the air samples. Highly chlorinated PCB congeners (8-CBs and 9-CBs) were found at low concentrations in both air and tree components samples. The samples indicated that the ratio of PCBs in tree components to the total (tree component+ambient air) PCBs slightly increased with increasing the chlorine number.

Emerging and legacy flame retardants in indoor air and dust samples of Tarragona Province (Catalonia, Spain)

Flame retardants (FRs) are widely used in consumer products including furniture foam and electronic equipment such as computers, monitors and TVs. Over time, FRs can easily migrate into the surrounding environments. Since brominated FRs (BFRs) has been determined of high concern due to their environmental persistence, bioaccumulation and potential toxicity, novel FRs have emerged. The present study was aimed at identifying and quantifying the indoor levels of 41 legacy and novel FRs, which include 20 OPFRs and 21 HFRs (8 PBDEs, 3 HBCDDs, 5 NBFRs and 5 DECs) in Tarragona Province (Catalonia, Spain). The results have confirmed the presence of both legacy and novel FRs in air and dust of homes, schools and offices. To the best of our knowledge, this is the first European study measuring OPFRs at office environments and also confirming the presence of the following OPFRs: TEP, TCIPP, T2IPPP, TPPO, DCP, TMCP and B4IPPPP in indoor air, even some of them at high levels. OPFRs in general and TCIPP in particular showed high concentrations in air (94,599 pg/m³ and 72,281 pg/m³, respectively) and dust (32,084 ng/g and 13,496 ng/g, respectively) samples collected in indoor environments. HBCDDs were found at high levels in dust (32,185 ng/g), whereas the presence of PBDEs and DECs were low in both matrices (<160 pg/m³ in air and <832 ng/g in dust). NBFRs showed higher levels than the two legacy FRs groups, which is supported by the current restrictions of these FRs (640 pg/m³ in air and 1291 ng/g in dust). Samples of schools had significantly lower levels of NBFRs, but significantly higher concentrations of HFRs in air than in home samples, while dust levels of HFRs were significantly lower than those in samples of offices. Regarding human health risks, the current assessment suggests that those derived from exposure to FRs were lower -although close- to assumable risks, evidencing the potential of FRs for non-carcinogenic and carcinogenic risks, mainly due to the exposure to TCIPP, which was the main contributor together with ΣHBCDDs and also EHDPP.

Environmental impact and human health risks of air pollutants near a large chemical/petrochemical complex: Case study in Tarragona, Spain

Chemical industries and oil refineries are known emission sources of environmental contaminants, such as metals/metalloids, polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs), volatile organic compounds (VOCs) and polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs), among others. Based on the toxicological potential of these pollutants, harmful health effects can be expected for the population living near these facilities. One of the largest chemical/petrochemical complexes in Europe is located in Tarragona County (Catalonia, Spain). In the last two decades, a number of investigations aimed at assessing the environmental impact of air pollutants potentially emitted by this industrial complex have been carried out. The present paper is a review of the available scientific information on the levels of air pollutants related with the activities of this chemical/petrochemical complex. Although there are currently some data on the environmental burdens of metals/metalloids, PAHs, VOCs and PCDD/Fs, there is an evident lack of specific biological monitoring studies on human health. Taking into account the amount of chemicals released to air and their toxicity, it is essential to perform an in-depth analysis of the current health status of the population living in Tarragona County.

Modified dispersive solid-phase extraction and cleanup followed by GC-MS/MS analysis to quantify ultraviolet filters and synthetic musk compounds in soil samples

A simple method for the analysis of 13 synthetic musk compounds and six ultraviolet filters in soil samples was developed using a modified dispersive solid-phase methodology known as "Quick, Easy, Cheap, Effective, Rugged and Safe," followed by gas chromatography-triple quadrupole mass spectrometry. The methodology was validated by assessing linearity ranges, detection limits, precision, and accuracy. The method detection limit ranged between 0.01 and 10.00 ng/g dry weight and accuracy from 81 to 122%. A good precision was achieved, with relative standard deviation <10%. The applicability of the methodology was tested using different types of soils. Both synthetic musks and ultraviolet filters were detected in all soil samples. The most frequently detected compounds were benzophenone, octocrylene, 2-ethylhexyl 4-dimethylaminobenzoate, 2-ethylhexyl 4-methoxycinnamate, and galaxolide. Higher levels were detected for benzophenone (maximum value of 158 ng/g dry weight) and octocrylene (137 ng/g dry weight). In comparison with conventional techniques, this method uses lower amounts of solvents and sorbents, producing less waste ("greener" technique) and comparable performances. In addition, it presents as main advantages the simplicity, speed (short extraction/cleaning time), low cost, and minimum handling of extracts, which can minimize the possibility of samples cross-contamination.

Synthetic Musk Compounds in Human Biological Matrices: Analytical Methods and Occurrence-A Review

Extensive use of synthetic musk compounds (SMs) in numerous consumer and personal care products has resulted in direct human exposures via dermal absorption, inhalation of contaminated dust and volatilized fragrances, and oral ingestion of contaminated foods and liquids. SMs and their metabolites are lipophilic, hence commonly detected in various biological matrices such as blood, breast milk, and adipose tissue. Appropriate analytical techniques are needed to detect and quantify SMs in biological matrices to assess their potential effects on human health. Different methods to process and analyze SMs in biological matrices, including sample-pretreatment, solvent extraction, cleanup, and instrumental analysis, are presented in this review. The concentration levels of selected musk compounds in biological samples from different countries/regions are summarized. Finally, research gaps and questions pertaining to the analysis of SMs are identified and suggestions made for future research studies.

Trends of Polychlorinated Compounds in the Surroundings of a Municipal Solid Waste Incinerator in Mataró (Catalonia, Spain): Assessing Health Risks

Since 2008, the environmental levels of polychlorinated compounds near a municipal solid waste incinerator in Mataró (Catalonia, Spain) have been periodically monitored. The present study aimed at updating the data regarding the temporal changes occurred between 2015 and 2017, when air and soil samples were collected again, and the concentrations of the same chemical pollutants (i.e., polychlorinated dibenzo-p-dioxins and dibenzofurans (PCDD/Fs), and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs)) were analysed. Furthermore, the health risks associated with their human exposure were also evaluated. The levels of all the contaminants in soil were far below the threshold established by regional and national legislations, also being lower than those observed in previous surveys. A similar trend was also noted for PCDD/Fs in air samples, while airborne PCBs were the only group of chemicals whose levels significantly increased. In any case, the global assessment of the data regarding the different pollutants and matrices indicates that there has not been a general increase in the environmental pollution around the facility. In addition, the environmental exposure to PCDD/Fs and PCBs by the population living nearby is still clearly lower than the dietary intake of these same chemical pollutants.

Health risks for the population living near petrochemical industrial complexes. 1. Cancer risks: A review of the scientific literature

Petrochemical complexes and oil refineries are well known sources of a wide range of environmental pollutants. Consequently, the potential harmful health effects of living near these facilities is a topic of concern among the population living in the neighborhood. Anyhow, the number of studies carried out on this issue is rather limited and, in some cases, results are even slightly contradictory. The present Review was aimed at assessing whether living in the vicinity of petrochemical industries and oil refineries is associated with a higher incidence of cancer and cancer mortality. In this sense, up to 23 investigations were found in PubMed and Scopus databases. According to the type of cancer, leukemia and other hematological malignancies were reported as the main types of cancer for populations living in the neighborhood of petrochemical industries. This was concluded based on studies performed in Taiwan, Spain, United Kingdom, Italy and Nigeria. In contrast, no association was found in 4 different investigations conducted in Sweden, Finland and USA with the same purpose. Other scientific studies reported a high incidence of lung and bladder cancer in Taiwan, Italy and USA, as well as an excess mortality of bone, brain, liver, pleural, larynx and pancreas cancers in individuals living near petrochemical complexes from Taiwan, Spain, Italy, United Kingdom and USA. Thus, human exposure to certain carcinogenic pollutants emitted from petrochemical industries might increase the incidence of some cancers and cancer mortality. Anyway, since the limited number of investigations conducted until now, further studies are required in order to corroborate -in a more generalized way-this conclusion.

Occurrence, risk and influencing factors of polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbons in surface soils from a large-scale coal mine, Huainan, China

Coal is one of the most important fossil fuels for energy, but it can cause serious polycyclic aromatic hydrocarbon (PAH) pollution to the environment. In this work, the distribution, sources, influencing factors, and risk assessment of PAHs were studied in a soil of typical coal resource city, Huainan, China. The total concentration of 16 PAHs classified by USEPA in 47 soils ranged from 109.94 to 1105.30 ng/g with a mean concentration of 528.06 ng/g. The PAH concentration was higher in soil of this area than most of the agricultural, urban and industrial soils and lower than some coal mine and coal-fired power plant areas in the world. The principal component analysis (PCA) and diagnostic ratios demonstrated that PAHs in soils were mainly from the coal combustion and refined petroleum products. The total organic carbon (TOC, p < 0.01) and black carbon (BC, p < 0.01) can significantly influence PAH inventories in soils, particularly for PAHs with high molecular weight. In addition, the significantly positive correlations between PAHs in feed coal (p < 0.05), fly ash (p < 0.01), particulate matter (PM_1-2.5 and PM_2.5-10, p < 0.01) and PAHs in soils revealed that the emission sources and deposition processes were also the main factors affecting PAH contents in soils. The estimated values of incremental lifetime cancer risk (ILCR) for children and adults were higher than 10^-4 at all sampling sites, suggesting high carcinogenic risks for local residents, and the most important exposure route for PAHs was dermal absorption. These findings are valuable for assessing the health risk of PAHs in soils around typical coal mine and coal-fired power plants and highlight the urgency of taking actions to control and reduce the carcinogenic risks for local residents.

Integrated exposure assessment of northern goshawk (Accipiter gentilis) nestlings to legacy and emerging organic pollutants using non-destructive samples

In the present study, concentrations of legacy and emerging contaminants were determined in three non-destructive matrices (plasma, preen oil and body feathers) of northern goshawk (Accipiter gentilis) nestlings. Persistent organic pollutants (POPs), including polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs), organochlorine pesticides (OCPs) and polybrominated diphenyl ethers (PBDEs), together with emerging pollutants, including per- and polyfluorinated alkyl substances (PFASs), novel brominated flame retardants (NBFRs), phosphorus flame retardants (PFRs) and Dechlorane Plus isomers (DPs) were targeted. Plasma, preen oil and feather samples were collected from 61 goshawk nestlings in Norway (Trøndelag and Troms) in 2015 and 2016, and pollutant concentrations were compared between the three matrices. In plasma, PFASs were detected in the highest concentrations, ranging between 1.37 and 36.0 ng/mL, which suggests that the nestlings were recently and continuously exposed to these emerging contaminants, likely through dietary input. In preen oil, OCPs (169-3560 ng/g) showed the highest concentrations among the investigated compounds, consistent with their high lipophilicity. PFRs (2.60-314 ng/g) were the dominant compounds in feathers and are thought to originate mainly from external deposition, as they were not detected in the other two matrices. NBFRs and DPs were generally not detected in the nestlings, suggesting low presence of these emerging contaminants in their environment and/or low absorption. Strong and significant correlations between matrices were found for all POPs (r_s = 0.46-0.95, p < 0.001), except for hexachlorobenzene (HCB, r_s = 0.20, p = 0.13). Correlations for PFASs were less conclusive: linear perfluorooctane sulfonate (PFOS), perfluoroundecanoate (PFUnA), perfluorododecanoate (PFDoA) and perfluorotetradecanoate (PFTeA) showed strong and significant correlations between plasma and feathers (r_s = 0.42-0.72, p < 0.02), however no correlation was found for perfluorohexane sulfonate (PFHxS), perfluorononanoate (PFNA) and perfluorotridecanoate (PFTriA) (r_s = 0.05-0.33, p = 0.09-0.85). A lack of consistency between the PFAS compounds (contrary to POPs), and between studies, prevents concluding on the suitability of the investigated matrices for PFAS biomonitoring.

Combining monitoring and modelling approaches for BaP characterization over a petrochemical area

In this study, air concentrations of BaP in two different seasons (winter 2015 and summer 2016) and BaP levels in ground vegetation from Tarragona County were used as control simulations performed with the WRF-CHIMERE air quality modelling system, in order to reproduce the incidence of that hazardous chemical in air and soils. The CTM was validated for the present climatology, showing a good ability to represent air and soil concentrations of BaP over the target domain (petrochemical, chemical, urban and background sites), particularly in the winter. Then, the variation of the BaP concentrations in air and soils were simulated for the time series 1996-2015 and for the climate change scenario RCP8.5 (2031-2050). While an increase is projected for the levels in air, particularly in chemical and remote sites where the variation can go up to 10%, in terms of soil deposition the findings are the opposite, with an evident decrease in soil BaP concentrations, particularly for background sites. Finally, a potential health effect of BaP for the local population (lung cancer) was assessed. Although according to the projections the EU threshold for BaP atmospheric incidence (1 ng m^-3) will not be reached by 2050, there will be an increase in the life-time risk of lung cancer, particularly in the most populated areas within the simulation domain.